LESSON 1

PSYCHOLOGY: UNDERSTANDING SELF AND OTHER

SUMMARY The twin goals of psychologists
are-
We are very curious to know the
things happening around us. We  understanding and
try to make sense of the available explaining the complexities
information and form our opinions. of behaviour (academic
psychologists), and
Need for the study of
Psychology  Contributing to the
improvement of the quality
Psychology is the subject that of human life (applied
provides insights into various psychologists).
aspects of human behaviour. It
Psychologists are now seen
aims to provide reliable and
working at different institutions
relatively accurate understanding
like - research and teaching
of the principles describing the
institutions, hospitals, schools,
working of the human mind and
industries, sports-complexes,
behaviour. Through psychology, we
military establishments,
can develop a better understanding
community centres and so on.
of ourselves and others.
The scope of psychology is broad. Development of Psychology
It is used in multiple fields, for e.g. as a Discipline
– development, teaching and The Indian thought systems like
learning, socialization, motivation Vedas, Samkhya, Yoga, Buddhism,
and emotions, assessment and Jainism, Sufism, etc. have
training. generated voluminous literature
Nature of Psychology relevant to psychological
processes. But there is a need to
Psychology tries to understand the understand the concept in Indian
laws and principles characterizing context because social and
the linkages across them in a cultural settings have their own
scientific manner. Thus, influence on the development of
Psychology is defined as the Psychology.
scientific study of mind, brain
and behaviour. In western world, towards the end
of the 19th century, Wilhelm
What Psychologists do? Wundt established the first
A psychologist uses certain Psychology laboratory in Germany,
procedures and tools to collect 1879. From there on, various
information and tries to draw schools of thought began. The
inferences and conclusions about main schools are as follows:
the probable causes of behaviour.

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 Biological: It is primarily
Structuralism (Edward
Titchener) concerned with the relationship
between psychological processes
Functionalism (William James) and the underlying physiological
Behaviourism (J.B. Watson) events.
Gestalt (Wolfgang Kohler, Kurt Behavioural: This perspective
Koffka, Max Wertheimer) stresses on the role of
Psychoanalysis (Sigmund environmental stimuli in
Freud) determining the way people act. It
argues that what we are is largely
In modern India, Psychology the result of past learning.
started at Calcutta University in
Psychodynamic: Focusing on
1916. Dr.N.N Sengupta. Gradually
motivational questions about
psychology departments were
behaviour, this perspective
opened in various universities like
examines the role of internal
Patna, Lucknow and Mysore.
processes.
Major Psychological Cognitive: According to this view,
Perspectives our behaviour involves mental or
As psychology studies human cognitive processes such as
behaviour and human behaviour is perceiving, remembering and
easily influenced by various thinking. As active organisms, we
factors. So, it is necessary to keep process information and act upon
certain things in mind while it.
studying human behaviour: Humanistic: Often termed as a
Observed changes can be due to third force, this view talks about
maturation, learning and ageing. “choice” and “free will” in human
behaviour.
Human behaviour is an interaction
between personal traits and Indian: In this view, human beings
environment. are embedded in relationship with
environment and divinity; and
The measurement of psychological
harmony of mind, body and soul is
attributes (e.g., personality,
emphasized.
intelligence, interest, and attitude)
is usually indirect and based on Relationship of Psychology
inferences. with other disciplines
Many aspects of social behaviour Now we will focus upon the
are norm-based and culture relationship of psychology with
specific. other subjects;
Human behaviour is usually Sociology: Society (sociology) is
determined by multiple factors. composed of individuals
Let’s understand the different (psychology) and i.e., both the
perspectives of psychology: subjects are interrelated. Under
this relation, influences of social

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context on human behaviour, behaviour. Comparative
phenomena such as leadership, psychology focuses on the
socialization etc. can be studied. behaviour among animals like rats,
pigeons and monkeys and
Anthropology: It focuses on the
compares those across species.
cultural context of human
evolution. In recent years the Developmental psychology: The
relationship between culture and focus is on the changes that occur
psychology has become closer as throughout the lifespan of an
psychology seeks to understand individual. These changes take
how the influences of culture, place in physical, motor, cognitive,
mind, and personality interact. personality, emotional, social and
linguistic domains.
Education: The theory and
practice of education is based on Social Psychology: Social
the principles and findings about psychology tries to understand the
various psychological processes influence of other individuals and
like learning, memory, motivation, groups on our behaviour.
personality and intelligence. Educational and School
Biology and Neuroscience: this psychology: It helps in solving the
perspective focuses on the problems of teaching and learning.
understanding of localization of The major focus is on curriculum
brain functions, biological factors planning, teacher-training and
in arousal and motivation, and the instruction-design.
role of various parts of the brain in
Counselling psychology: A
determining psychological counselling psychologist deals with
functioning. people who have milder emotional
Fields of Psychology and personal problems such as
marital discord, school
In the following segment, we shall
maladjustment, dispute in work
look at different fields of
setting, etc.
psychology;
Clinical psychology: Its aim is to
Experimental and cognitive
identify the negative or problematic
psychology: Cognitive psychology
aspects in development and their
is a modern perspective in
alleviation, for e.g., - phobia,
psychology that focuses on
anxiety, depression etc.
memory, intelligence, perception,
problem solving, and learning. The I/O psychology: its focus is on the
goal is to understand the process of personnel selection,
principles underlying sensation, training, solving problems related
memory etc., processes with the to communication, productivity,
help of experimental methods. and interpersonal and intergroup
relations in
Physiological and comparative
industries/organizations.
psychology: Physiological
psychology focuses on the analysis Environmental psychology: this
of biological foundations of field specializes in understanding

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the relationship between human
beings and the environment.
Evaluate yourself –
Engineering psychology: it tries
1. Explain the nature of
to specify the capacities and
psychology. Write the
limitations of human-machine-
different schools of thought
environment systems so that the
in psychology.
system can be operated safely and
2. Shed light upon the Indian
efficiently.
psychological perspective
Health psychology: It is an and how it has advanced
emerging branch of psychology through ages.
which focuses on understanding 3. What are the different
the factors that promote the status approaches of psychology?
of health. Explain.
Current Trends: The 4. Briefly describe at least eight
fields of psychology.
changing face of Psychology
Some of the current trends that
are prominent in shaping this
discipline are as follows:

1. Emphasis on Cultural
Context
2. Breakthrough in
Neurosciences
3. Multidisciplinary
Concerns

Do you know?
1879 - Wilhelm Wundt established
the first psychological laboratory at
Leipzig University in Germany.
1916 – Dr.N.N Sengupta (HOD)
started the first department of
Psychology in India at Calcutta
University.
1924 - Indian Psychological
Association was founded.
1925 - Indian Journal of
Psychology was started.
1940 - Lumbini Park Mental
Hospital at Calcutta was founded.

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 LESSON 2
HOW PSYCHOLOGISTS STUDY?
SUMMARY Basic and Applied Research
Psychology is the scientific study of To get in-depth study of research,
brain, mind and behaviour, and Psychology has considered mainly
psychologists conduct their studies basic and applied research.
using scientific methods.
Basic research deals with
Goals of Psychological developing understanding, theory
Studies and Research building and testing of a theory
and applied research deals with
As a science, psychologists try to solving real life problems.
understand the nature and
functioning of behaviour and In practice, applied research
experience. It is important for involves development of technology
scientific studies to be objective to solve specific problems that are
and follow a standard procedure faced in personal, familial, health,
which leads to the same outcome organizational and environmental
by each and everyone who follows areas.
the given method. The four main Experimental Method
goals of psychological research are
An experiment can be defined as
–
the setting where the researchers
Description: It involves observing have control over manipulation of
any behaviour and noting certain variables. It is preferred
everything about it. It determines over other methods, as it gives a
the range and boundary of the chance to study cause-and-effect
phenomena. relationships. Following are certain
Explanation: It means a statement steps involved in experimental
of the factors which determine the method;
phenomenon under study.
I. Forming a hypothesis
Prediction: Determining what will II. Identifying independent
happen in the future is a and dependent variables
prediction. III. Sampling of participants
Control: The ability to predict IV. Controlling extraneous
variables
provides the knowledge necessary
V. Planning/designing the
to bring the change that is
experiment
desirable.
VI. Verifying hypothesis

The limitations of this method are

- findings obtained from this may

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not apply to natural settings, to understand a person’s
sometimes an experiment might behaviour.
prove unethical or dangerous and
Correlation research: It is used to
in some situations, experiment
find out the relationships between
may interfere with behaviour that
two sets of factors/variables. The
is measured.
strength of relationship can be
Non-Experimental Methods represented by a correlation
coefficient, which ranges from –
Some aspects of behaviour are
1.00 to + 1.00.
difficult to study in a laboratory
and much more accurate Psychological Tools
observations can be made in
Psychologists use a variety of tools
natural settings, for e.g. behaviour
to collect data such as- EEG, ECG,
on a crowded street. For such MRI, memory drum, etc. Apart
situations, following methods are
from these, Paper-pencil tests are
more feasible; also used to measure various
Observation - In psychological attributes. Some of the basic tools
studies we use naturalistic as well are:
as controlled observation. Also, Questionnaires and Interview
there is another kind of Schedules: questionnaires are
observation which is called mailed or interview schedules are
participant observation in which presented by the researcher in
the observer observes by being a person. The questions may be
part of the group. open-ended or close-ended.
Introspection: it means to look Psychometric Tests: A
within. The attention is directed psychometric test is a standardized
inwards to find out what is measure of a sample of behaviours
happening at the experiential level. and attributes. These tests are
Survey: Psychologists go into the used to determine the status of the
field with a prepared list of person being assessed on an
questions and interview schedules attribute, relative to the
to a group of people. . A carefully community of people on which the
conducted survey provides test has been standardized.
information about the trend in a Projective Tests/Techniques:
particular area of concern. these tests provide indirect
Case history: it is a detailed assessment of the psychological
compilation of data about a single property and the investigator
individual. A psychologist may interprets the obvious behavioural
gather complete history, from expression or performance.
infancy to present period in order
Ethical Consideration in
Psychological studies
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Psychological studies are done ● Comparative studies are
with human beings and therefore it made possible.
becomes necessary to follow ● Relationships between two or
certain ethical standards, such as; more variables can be
investigated.
Informed consent ● Predictions about behaviours
Confidentiality can be made.
Debriefing Some basic statistical
Right to withdraw concepts
Responsibility Frequency distribution: When a
Today it is a common practice to large set of data is collected, it is
have Ethics Committees which usually presented in a frequency
examine ethical aspects of distribution table which is more
research before it is undertaken by comprehendible. For e.g. Raman
the researcher. made chapattis for seven days and
following data was recorded –
Need of Statistics in 2,3,3,2,4,3,3.
Psychology
No. of chapattis made Tally
Statistics deals with collection,
classification, description and 2 II
interpretation of quantitative data.
In psychology it used to – describe 3 IIII
and predict behaviour.
4 I
Types of Statistics –
Central tendency: Methods which
1. Descriptive – used for are used to summarize the
describing behaviour. E.g. characteristics of the data are
mean, median, mode, variance,
called measures of central
correlation.
tendency. E.g. Mean, Median,
2. Inferential – used for
Mode.
explaining behaviour. E.g. t-
test, ANOVA. a) Mean (X̅) - The mean is the
weighted average of all the
Some of the basic functions of raw scores.
statistics are as follows:
● Data and information can be Mean (X̅) = ∑𝑋/𝑁
presented briefly and
∑X = sum of all observations
precisely
● Results obtained are more N = no. of total observations
accurate and objective. b) Median: The median is the
● General conclusions can be value that divides a group of
arrived at.
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 scores into two equal parts, 1935 – Thematic Apperception
one part consisting of all Test (TAT) –first published by
values greater and the other Henry Murray.
consisting of values less
Evaluate yourself
than the median. E.g. – 2,
2,3,4,6, median is 3. 1. Explain the characteristic
c) Mode: The mode is that difference between
score which occurs the experimental and non-
maximum number of times experimental methods.
in a given series of scores. 2. Describe the ethical
E.g. – 2,3,3,2,4,3,3, mode is considerations of
3. psychological studies.
d) Correlation: it is a method,
showing how closely related
are any two sets of variables
numerically. The score
through which the
relationship between two
variables is expressed is
called the coefficient of
correlation. Magnitude of
correlation ranges between
– 1.00 to + 1.00.
Mean is responsive to the exact
position of each score in the
distribution and is therefore more
sensitive to extreme scores than
median and mode.
Do you know?
206 BC – Psychological testing was
used by the Han dynasty in China
to select their officials.
1888 – Sir Francis Galton invented
the correlation. He is called “the
father of mental testing”.
1921 – Rorschach Inkblot Test
was developed by Herman
Rorschach.

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 LESSON 6
LEARNING PROCESSES AND ACQUIRING SKILLS
SUMMARY response of a muscle or a gland to
the stimulation of a sense organ.
It is through the process of
These are innate tendencies and
learning that we become
are not acquired through practice.
competent, skilled, perform various
However, instinctive behaviour can
activities and excel in life.
be modified by learning.
Nature of Learning
Basic Experiments in
Learning is a process by which a Learning
certain change or modification in
behaviour occurs. ‘Behaviour’ (a) Learning predictable signals:
refers to any action which may be Classical conditioning
muscular, social, and mental or a It is a form of associative learning
combination of these. as a connection or association
Learning – it refers to a process by between a stimulus and a response
which any relatively permanent is established.
change in behaviour occurs as a It was discovered by a Russian
result of practice and /or scientist Ivan P. Pavlov in 1968.
experience. It is also called Pavlovian /
respondent conditioning.
Important elements of learning
Pavlov presented to the dog a
series of trials in which a tone was
•Learning is a change in behaviour
paired with food. The steps of
•It is a change that takes place through
practice or experience conditioning process are:
•The change must be relatively permanent Procedure Response
or enduring Before Conditioning
Food (UCS) Salivation
It is a thoughtful reaction to a (UCR)
given stimulus and it is different Buzzer (CS) Orienting
from maturation, reflex and response
During conditioning (Acquisition
instinctive behaviour. phase)
Maturation is the development Food + Buzzer Salivation
(UCS) (CS) (CR)
brought about by growth of the
(Repeated pairing of the UCS and CS)
neural and muscular system, while After Conditioning
learning is an outcome of Buzzer (CS) Salivation
stimulating situations. (CR)
UCS- Unconditioned Stimulus;
Instincts are complex patterns of CS- Conditioned Stimulus;
behaviour. Reflex-action is a UCR- Unconditioned Response;
CR- Conditioned Response
direct automatic and immediate

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The essential requirement for the reinforcement, it is also known
conditioning to take place is that as instrumental conditioning.
the two stimuli shall occur
Behaviour which is reinforced is
together.
likely to be repeated.
Generalization- If the same
Pigeon experiment - A hungry
response occurs to two different
pigeon is placed in a box which
stimuli which are somewhat
has a lighted button on the wall. It
similar it is a generalized response.
will peck at the button accidentally
Differentiation- By further and immediately it will get a little
practice, individual can be trained grain. The pigeon eats and then
to differentiate between stimuli. continues its movement in the box.
Extinction- it is used One to make Once again it accidentally pecks
the organism forget a conditioned the button and is reinforced with
response by repeating new food. Finally, the pigeon will stop
substitute stimulus without the random behaviour and will
reinforcement. Like forgetting, simply peck the button to get food
extinction seems to be temporary. as required. The pigeon has
An extinct response is much more learned to peck the button to
quickly relearned when the obtain food.
reinforcement is given than an Applications of Operant
altogether new response. Conditioning
Spontaneous recovery – It is a I. Teaching new material in
tendency of responses to recover schools by means of
spontaneously. It is a kind of programmed learning - a
forgetting in reverse, a tendency to method by which in each
forget the extinction that has correct step the learner is
occurred. Basically, relearning reinforced by response.
occurs very fast, faster than the II. Behaviour modification
initial time to learn. This is techniques for treating
spontaneous recovery. behaviourally disturbed
(b) Learning by consequences: children and adults.
Operant Conditioning Other Forms of Learning
B.F. Skinner speaks of operant Skill Learning - Skill learning
behaviour as voluntary behaviour takes place in three stages –
of an organism.
1. Cognitive stage
In this type of learning, 2. Association stage
reinforcement is dependent on the 3. Automatic execution of the
response of the organism. Since skill
response is instrumental in getting Verbal Learning – The process of
learning language is called verbal

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learning. it involves learning to process no direct reinforcement is
respond to words or with words. It involved.
is acquired through memorising,
Learning Curve
by repeating, recalling and
recognising the material. Methods Learning can be measured by
for Verbal learning- assessing the performance of an
individual on a given task. The rate
a. Serial learning - the learner is
of learning, as normally measured
asked to recall in the way the
by performance, can be
words were presented to him.
represented graphically by placing
b. Free recall – it requires the
the ‘units of practice’ on the X-axis
learner to recall the words
(horizontal axis) and ‘degree of
without regard to their order of
learning’ on the Y-axis (Vertical
presentation.
axis). The degree of learning is
c. Paired associates - the verbal
measured through markers such
material is presented in pairs
as percentage of correct responses,
such as CRAT-BOOK.
amount of time to achieve a goal.
Concept Learning – It involves
both generalization and
differentiation. An individual
learns to distinguish between two
or more stimuli which differ in
some detail. Various words which
are normally used to denote an
object such as house, car, school,
animal, doll and so on are
examples of concepts. Curve A- indicates slow learning
Social learning - learning that is initially, followed by rapid learning
facilitated through social Curve B- illustrating irregular
interactions with other individuals. learning
Certain social responses are
Curve C- Indicating slow learning
reinforced by the society if they are
initially, followed by rapid learning.
acceptable as per the norms of the
society. Factors Influencing
In addition to other mechanisms Learning
social learning involves ‘imitation’ a) Reinforcement – it is anything
of the role models which is a that strengthens a response and
process by which individuals learn increases the probability of its
new behaviour by observing occurrence.
others, also called modelling or
observational learning. In this

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 Types of Reinforcemnet Phenomena related to
Primary - natural or unlearned source of learning
reinforcement, e.g. - food
Preparedness for Learning -
Secondary - learnt or an acquired source of
reinforcement, e.g. – money Every organism is not equally
ready or prepared to learn a given
b) Feedback or knowledge of
response. Organisms are
results- It is another motivational
differentially endowed with
variable. If you are provided with
capability to respond. So, the
knowledge of results or feedback,
possibility and ease of learning is
the efficiency of your learning is
determined by the degree of
increased.
preparedness on the part of
c) Distribution of Practice - In organisms for a given learning
this method, the practice periods task. All organisms are not equally
for a particular task are separated prepared for all responses or
by lengthy rest periods or lengthy associations. This becomes one of
periods of practicing different the key determinants of learning.
activities or studying other
Learning disability - It is a
material, rather than occurring
disorder which leads to difficulties
close together in time.
in reading, writing, speaking, and
d) Whole and Part Learning - doing mathematical exercises.
Whole learning is often considered These problems are found because
as an efficient method to learn the of some problem in the central
task particularly for fast learners nervous system. It may be related
and for short or meaningful to sensory impairment or some
material which is easily memorized kind of mental/physical handicap.
as a whole. But if the content is They may occur in children with
very long it may first be learnt in average or superior intelligence.
parts and then as a whole.
Transfer of Learning
e) Meaningfulness - The more
meaningful the material; the fewer Transfer of learning is the process
the trials or practice sessions are of applying or carrying over the
required to learn it. knowledge, skills, habits, attitudes
or other responses from one
f) Interest and attitudes - a learning situation, in which they
favourable attitude towards the were initially acquired, to a
learning material and sincere effort different learning situation.
to learn and remember it will
enhance learning. If one feels that Types of Transfer of Learning
nothing worthwhile will result from Positive – What one has learnt in
learning something, one’s rate or one subject or a task may facilitate
progress of learning will be poor. learning in another subject or task.
In positive transfer, the carry-over

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of knowledge or skill is beneficial
to future learning.
Negative – There are cases in
which the previous learning
interferes with subsequent
learning. In such cases, the
carryover knowledge or experience
in one task interfere with further
learning. As a result of negative
transfer, performance on one task
may block performance on the
subsequent task.
Zero – In zero transfer, the
performance in the new situation
is neither aided nor hindered by
the past learning.

Do you know?
B.F. Skinner developed an
experimental chamber (called
Skinner box) to study learning
process in rats.
Ivan Pavlov was given Nobel Prize
in 1904 in recognition of his work
on the physiology of digestion.
The concept of Social Learning was
given by Albert Bandura.

Evaluate yourself
1. Describe different types of
learning.
2. What is reinforcement and
how does it influence the
process of learning?
Extend Your Horizon
To learn more about learning
experiments in detail visit:
https://online.king.edu/news/psycho
logy-experiments/

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 LESSON 7
REMEMBERING AND FORGETTING
SUMMARY deal of selectivity in receiving the
information.
It is only through the capacity of
memory that we are able to relate It can retain extremely large
to different events, experiences, amounts of information.
conditions, people and objects. It is an active system. It works on
Also, we use the understanding the information received.
thus developed in different
contexts and on different Key Aspects of Memory
occasions. Thus, memory makes it Memory is a perceptually active
possible to operate beyond the mental system. It receives,
constraints of time and place. encodes, modifies, retains and
Memory establishes links across retrieves information.
diverse experiences.
Encoding refers to the translation
Significance of Memory of incoming stimulus into a
unique neural code
Memory is a mental process and
system which receives information Storage is the retention of the
material encoded over a period
from - external or internal - of time
stimuli, retains it and makes it
Retrieval is the recovery of the
available on future occasions.
stored or retained information at
a later occasion
Features of human memory
It provides continuity to our
experiences across different time
The general Model of human
points.
memory system
It can retain verbal information,
visual experiences, tactile
impressions, feelings of pain and
joy, motor skills, events, activities
and so on. What we are able to memorize
Retrieval of information can be depends to a large extent on what
exactly in the same way or in a happens to the information once it
different form. reaches the sensory memory. We
are exposed to a lot of stimulation.
The reception of new information The process of attention limits the
depends upon our previous input of information which we
memories and experiences. receive from the environment.
It does not retain all information
presented because there is great

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Short-term memory (STM) memory for their own personal
and Long-term memory experiences. The studies indicate
that autobiographical memory is
(LTM)
organized at three different levels –
The three subsystems – Sensory lifetime period, general events
memory, STM and LTM are and event-specific knowledge.
interrelated.
Measurement of retention – two
The nature and functioning of STM types of measures:
and LTM are different. The
i) Explicit measures – it
distinction may be made in terms
requires that a person
of capacity, duration, type of
must remember some
information retained, and the
given information that is
causes of forgetting.
stored in memory. E.g. –
•Duration - Iconic about Recall and Recognition.
1/2 sec, Echoic about 2
sec ii) Implicit measures - in
Sensory •Capacity - Large this a person has to
•Forgetting - Trace decay
Memory •Encoding - Sensory perform some tasks in
(Visual) (auditory)
•Retrieval - Parllel search which no deliberate or
intentional effort is made
•Duration -20 Seconds
•Capacity - 7±2
to retrieve from memory.
Short- •Forgetting - Decay E.g. – word completion,
Interference and
term displacement priming tasks.
•Encoding - Phonological
Memory or visual - semantic
Causes of Forgetting
•Retrieval - Serial
exhaustive search
(i) Decay of memory traces - It is
•Duration - lifetime a common experience that
•Capacity - unlimited
Long- •Forgetting - interference, memories of many events and
term decay, lack of cues
experiences become “dim” over
•Encoding - semantic and
Memory sensory memory time.
•Retrieval - Parllel
distributed search
(ii) Interference - the blocking of
learning or of memory retrieval by
Eyewitness Memory - It has been
the learning or remembering of
found that we always actively
other conflicting material. It is of
process our memories and try to fit
two types:
them in the schemata and beliefs
that we hold about the situation. It
Retroactive Proactive
is only when we look at the overall
meaning and context of a memory •occurs, when the •earlier information
current information in the memory
that we can really judge about the interferes with interferes with the
accuracy of accounts. what has been current information
retained earlier
Autobiographical memory - This
kind of memory refers to people’s

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(iii) Motivation - We may exclude 1. Organization - While preparing
memories or push them out of for learning a learner needs to
consciousness if we do not like organize the material in some
them. Freud called this process form. Such an organization
repression. Also, there is a strong may help by creating a natural
tendency to remember incomplete context and provide relevant
tasks more than completed tasks. cues while retrieving the
This has been termed as Zeigarnik learned material.
effect. 2. Concentration - focusing
attention on the material while
(iv) Retrieval failure - Absence or
processing we can increase the
non-availability of retrieval cues at
probability of storage and
the time of recall. The changes in
recall.
context associated with physical
3. Method of Loci - this
and mental states from the
technique uses associations
occasion of learning (encoding) to
with place or task. The
recall (retrieval) often result in poor
visualization of the same
retention scores.
provides cues for recalling the
Memory as a Constructive task.
Process 4. Recoding - While dealing with
The reproduction of memories is non-meaningful material one
found to be constructive in nature. may recode the items to be
The constructive nature of memory remembered in a more
is evident when we recall some meaningful manner. Recoding
event. If you compare recollections may take many forms. For
of the story of a movie which you example, people may use the
and your friends have seen, you first letter of all the items and
will notice how differently people make a sentence. This kind of
have constructed the same story. It narrative structure works as a
seems that recall is always a cue.
combination of retrieval and
Do you know?
reconstruction. The three main
tendencies are sharpening, The stage model of memory
levelling and assimilation. (Sensory memory, STM, LTM) was
given by Richard Atkinson and
Ways of Enhancing Memory Richard Shiffrin in 1968.
The study of memory aids and Hermann Ebbinghaus pioneered
related techniques is called the experimental study of memory
mnemonics. Some of the and gave the Forgetting curve also.
techniques used in improving
memory are listed below:

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Evaluate yourself
1. What are the factors that
cause forgetting?
2. What methods can be used
to measure memory?
3. What are mnemonics? Give
at least three examples.

Extend Your Horizon

To learn more about memory in
detail, visit:
https://www.researchgate.net/public
ation/333701129_History_of_Cognitiv
e_Psychological_Memory_Research

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Psychology (328)
 LESSON 9
MOTIVATION
SUMMARY organism finds it necessary to
satisfy the needs.
The basic question of the ‘why of
behaviour’ or factors which compel The needs may be broadly
us to do certain activities make us categorised as given below;
study the psychological process
called motivation. It refers to the Primary Needs Secondary Needs
factors which move or activate the
•physiological •Socio-
organism. needs psychogenic
•Needs for food, needs
Meaning of Motivation water, sex, sleep •Needs for
and rest, and achievement,
All human behaviour appears to elimination affiliation, power
arise in response to some form of
internal (physiological) or external
The term ‘motive’ refers to goal
(environmental) stimulation.
directed behaviour and energising
Motivation can be defined as the conditions within the organism
process of activating, maintaining that drive behaviour.
and directing behaviour towards a
Goals - Thinking about the goal
particular goal. The process is
motivates a person to organize his
usually terminated once the
or her action. If hunger is a need,
desired goal is attained by the
eating food is a goal. Thus, goal is
person.
related to the need state. However,
Features of motivation s behaviour does not always need
 It is not always directly external goal. It may be satisfying
observable. It is inferred and and enjoyable in itself.
used to explain behaviour. Incentives - Incentives refers to
 Behaviour can be governed by the goal objects which satisfy the
unconscious motives too. needs. Incentives vary in quality
 Motives also help us make and quantity which make them
predictions about behaviour. less or more satisfying and
attractive. Thus, one can put in
Key concepts of Motivation
greater amount of effort to attain a
Needs and Motives more attractive incentive.
A need is a condition of lack or Instincts - It is defined as an
deficit of something required by innate biological force that
the organism. In order to maintain predisposes the organism to act in
homeostasis or balance the a certain way. E.g. - fight,
repulsion, curiosity, self-

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abasement, acquisition etc. It was Physiological needs - Needs of
thought that instincts were hunger, thirst, sex, temperature
inherited and compelling sources regulation and rest occupy the
of conduct, but can be modified by lowest step in the ladder.
learning and experience. According to Maslow, when these
physiological needs are deprived
Types of Needs
for a long period, all other needs
As earlier mentioned, needs are fail to appear.
broadly of two types;
Safety needs – these needs are
Primary needs mainly concerned with maintaining
•Physiological needs order and security, to feel secure,
•rooted in the physiological state of the
body safe and out of danger.
•innate and recurring in nature Love and Belongingness needs -
•E.g. - hunger, thirst, sex, temperature
regulation, sleep and pain People want to become an accepted
member of an organised group,
Secondary needs
•Socio-psychogenic needs need a familiar environment such
•learned and they drive the individual as family, to build intimate
toward special kinds of behaviours relations with other members of
•Unique to human beings
•their strength differs greatly from one
society.
individual to another
Esteem needs- these needs are
•E.g. - needs are power, affiliation,
achievement and approval. divided into two categories;
(a) Needs related to respect from
Hierarchy of Needs
others like reputation,
Abraham Maslow argued that status, social success and
needs are arranged in a ladder-like fame.
steps. He proposed a rising order (b) Self-esteem, self-respect and
of needs from the level of basic self-regard.
survival or lower order needs to
Self-actualization - refers to the
higher order needs. As one level of
desire to utilise one’s personal
need is satisfied another higher
capacities, to develop one’s
order need will emerge and assume
potentialities to the fullest and to
importance in life.
engage in activities for which one
is well suited.
Self-transcedence
Self-transcendence - This is the
Self-actualization
highest level of need where a
Esteem needs
person becomes conscious of
Love and Belongingness
needs broader reality. S/he transcends
Safety needs the boundaries of self and attends
Physiological needs to the needs of society. At this level
one becomes aware of the entire

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humanity and spiritual concerns Extrinsic motivation – When a
become very important. task is instrumental in receiving or
gaining access to the external
9.5 Achievement Motivation
reward. In all such situations the
The “need for achievement” or the locus of control is external to the
need to attain excellence and person who is asked to undertake
higher level of performance is the activity. Such situations
present in all of us. People with characterize the kind of motivation
strong need for achievement – which is extrinsic.
 Seek difficult work and It has been found that intrinsic
improve their task motivation leads to high quality of
performance. work, meeting challenges, and
 They are future oriented, pursuit of excellence. Indian
aspire for higher goals and thinkers realized the significance of
persist on the task chosen. nonattachment (Anasakti).
 They are task oriented and
prefer to work on tasks that
Self-Efficacy
are challenging and on  The self-efficacy beliefs are the
which their performance can subjective standards held by
be evaluated in some way. the people that inform
The degree of achievement-oriented judgements about choosing
behaviour depends on many specific goals.
factors. One of these is “fear of  Bandura gave the concept of
failure”. It inhibits the expression self-efficacy. It has been used
of achievement behaviour. to motivate people in a variety
of settings.
Intrinsic motivation and  By learning appropriate or
extrinsic motivation realistic self-efficacy beliefs one
While thinking about motivation can plan behaviours and
we often try to locate its source perform at a higher level.
whether it is internal to the person  Self-efficacy beliefs are found to
or external to him or her. play significant role in
adjustment and physical
Intrinsic motivation – When the
health.
task is not instrumental in
obtaining any external reward. The Values
locus of control is inside the Values work as important
person. Person’s involvement in motivators. Some of the values are-
the task is spontaneous and the
task itself acts as its own reward. Power: it includes social status
This situation represents intrinsic and prestige, control and
motivation. dominance over people and
resources.

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Achievement: it includes personal Frustration and Conflict
success by demonstrating
Frustration is the feeling within an
competence according to social
individual of being blocked in the
standards.
attempts to satisfy needs which
Self-direction: it includes one considers significant. An
independent thought and action, individual displays some sort of
choosing, creating, and exploring. disturbed behaviour when he or
Universalism: it includes she is prevented from fulfilling the
understanding, appreciation, desired goals. If motives are
tolerance and protection for the frustrated or blocked, the person
welfare of all people. may feel anxious, depressed or
angry. The three main sources of
Benevolence: This includes
frustration are as follows:
preservation and enhancement of
the welfare of people with whom  Environmental forces - The
one is in frequent personal environmental factors can
contact. frustrate the satisfaction of
motives. The obstacle may be
Tradition: it includes respect,
physical or social.
commitment and acceptance of
 Personal factors - The
other cultures and the ideas that
personal inadequacy either
are given importance in the
physical or psychological may
traditional cultures or religions.
result in frustration.
Conformity: it includes restraint  Conflict - A conflict is a
of action, inclination, and impulses situation in which an
likely to upset or harm others and individual is required to act in
violate social expectations or two or more incompatible ways
norms. to achieve two or more
Security: This includes safety, exclusive goals.
harmony and stability of society, of
relationships and of self. Types of Conflict
In Indian context, Dharma
provides certain values. These are Avoidance-
Approach- Approach-
Avoidance
– approach
conflict -
Avoidance
conflict - conflict -
occurs when
Satya (truth), Asteya (non- situation when
we have to
It arises when
one has to there are both
stealing), Driti (tolerance),dhi choose
decide
desirable and
(intellect),Vidya (knowledge), between two
between two undesirable
equally
Akrodh (non-anger), kshama positive and feelings
undesirable
equally associated with
(forgiveness), saucha (purity), and negative
attractive goals a single goal
goals
indriya nigraha (control of sense
organs), dam (self-control).

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Evaluate yourself
1. What do you understand by
the term values? Describe
some important values.
2. What are the types of needs?
Give the differences between
two types of need.
3. Discuss the hierarchy of
needs.

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 LESSON 15
UNDERSTANDING INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES: THE
CASE OF INTELLIGENCE
SUMMARY generate a carefully selected
sample of behaviour.
In our everyday experience we find
that people differ in their In order to be useful for the
motivation, approach to problems, purpose of drawing inferences
interest and ability to learn. The about the person being tested or
study of these individual examined it is necessary that the
differences forms an important test should be reliable, valid and
field of psychology. Assessing standardized.
intelligence, personality, interest,
creativity and other attributes with Reliability
the help of psychological tests has
become an established practice. In •The degree to which a test or other measurement
instrument is free of random error, yielding the
selecting people for jobs, same results across multiple applications to the
same sample.
diagnosing of mental handicap and •A test is reliable if it measures something
monitoring psychological consistently.

development have provided

impetus to develop a variety of Validity
tests to suit different groups of
•The validity of a test is the degree to which it
people (e.g., children, adults, measures what it intends to measure.
educated, illiterate). The term IQ
has now become a common word
Standardization
and people often want to know
their IQ and personality. •It involves establishing the procedure of
administration, norms of a test to all persons in the
same way under the same condition.
Nature of Psychological •Norms involve comparison of a score of a person
with those of others in a defined group.
assessment •Standardization ensures uniformity and objectivity.

Psychological assessment refers to

the use of specific procedures Psychologists have developed a
employed in evaluating the variety of tests to measure different
personal qualities, behaviours and human characteristics.
abilities of individuals. Scientific Psychologists frequently use tests
psychology tries to systematize the of ability and personality. The tests
procedure of judgement so that of ability to tell what an individual
assessment can be made with a can do when they are at his/her
minimum error and maximum best. These tests measure capacity
accuracy. A psychological test is as potential rather than
a structured technique used to achievement. Tests of intelligence
and aptitude come under this

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category. Aptitude refers to the test and compared their scores
ability of a person to learn a with the average score obtained by
particular kind of skill required in normal children at each age level.
a specific situation. Personality Children who were two mental-age
tests measure the characteristic years behind their chronological
ways of thinking, feeling and age were considered as
behaving. “retarded.”Most researchers relate
intelligence to the following broad
The Concept of Intelligence
classes of abilities:
There are very few things which
adapting to new situations and changing
are so obvious and illusive as task demands
‘intelligence.’ The differences in
intellectual achievement are learning or profiting optimally from
experience or training
expressed in performance. If we
collect information about people’s thinking abstractly using symbols and
concepts
intelligence from a large sample
and examine the pattern of
distribution, a large majority of the The various view points about
people fall in the middle range intelligence may be put into two
while a small proportion lies in broad categories namely
extreme categories. Observe the psychometric or factor theories
graph given below. Similarly, very and process-oriented views. Factor
few people have extraordinary level theories try to identify the factor (s)
of intelligence. Similarly, very few constituting intelligence, and
people come in the categories of process theories describe
profound and severe retardation. intelligence in terms of the specific
tasks, processes or operations
involved in intellectual functioning.
Thurstone proposed that
intelligence consists of 7 factors
namely, verbal comprehension,
word fluency, number, space,
associative memory, perceptual
Intelligence is abstract in nature.
speed and induction (or general
Binet and Simon in 1905 were
reasoning).
asked by the French Minister of
Public Instruction to help in Factorial Viewpoint in
teaching mentally retarded Intelligence
children. These psychologists
Here Factor analysis is used to
considered it necessary to measure
uncover the structure of
intelligence for identifying these
Intelligence. Thurstone developed a
mentally retarded children. They
test of perceptual speed and
tested children with the help of a

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induction (or general reasoning). intelligence consists of “that
He developed a test of Primary combination of cognitive skills and
Mental Abilities (PMA) to measure knowledge demanded, fostered,
these factors. and rewarded by the experiential
context within which the individual
functions.”

Intelligence as a process

Triarchic Theory
Intelligence as a Multiple factors of
general factor (g) - Intelligence -
Spearman Thurstone proposed 7
factors - verbal Robert Sternberg analysed intelligence in
proposed that we comprehension, word
possess one 'g' three aspects i.e. componential, experiential
fluency, number,
factor which runs space, associative and contextual.
across abilities and memory, perceptual
various specific 's' speed and induction.
componential includes - meta component
factors. or higher order control processes,
performance component, acquisition
component and transfer component
The Structure of Intellect experiential one refers to the way people’s
mental world and the outer or external
Guilford gave the structure of
world are related to each other
Intellect (SI) model. This model
contextual (practical intelligence) refers to
classifies intellectual traits along the way individuals share their
main three dimensions. The traits environments, adapt to them and try to get
are briefly described in the maximum from the available resources.
diagram below:

•include cognition, memory,

divergent production
Operations (creativity), convergent Theory of Multiple intelligence
production, and evaluation.
Haward gardner says that intelligence is not a
•refers to the nature of the
single entity, rather there are multiple
materials or information on
which operations are intelligences each distinct from others. He has so
Contents performed. These include far identified eight types of intelligence:
visual, auditory, symbolic, linguistic, logical, mathematical, spatial, musical,
semantic and behavioural and bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal
Figural. and natural .

•refers to the form in which

information is processed by a
Products person. Products are classified into Intelligence in the non-
units, classes, relations, system
transformations and implications. cognitive domains
Wisdom - It comprises a unique
The factorial viewpoint presents a
blend of cognitive, interpersonal,
view of intelligence in terms of trait
social and personality attributes. It
organisation.
is achieved as a result of
Using factor analysis, Anastasi has successfully negotiating the
rightly concluded that human conflict between integrity and

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despair or as a result of
transcendence of preoccupation Standford-Binet
with one’s self. It is knowledge that Intelligence Test
effectively integrates emotional and • In 1916, Terman and his associates
cognitive components. revised the Binet-Simon Test at
Standford University.
Practical wisdom - It emphasizes
• Currently it is in it 4th Edition - S-B IV.
on the practical achievement of
• 15 tests selected to represent four
personal goals, plans and major cognitive areas: verbal
intentions. It is characterized by a reasoning, abstract/visual reasoning,
flexible and applied concern for the quantitative reasoning, and short-term
practical contingencies, especially memory.
• The age range covered is 2 Years to
in the face of uncertainty.
18+.
Social Intelligence - It represents • The basal age and ceiling age are
the efforts of an individual to solve calculated.
the problems of daily life and work • Currently, Standard Age scores (SAS)
are given for all 15 tests.
toward the desired goals.
Emotional Intelligence - It is
defined as the ability to monitor The Wechsler Scales
one’s own and other’s feelings and Developed by David Wechsler for adult
emotions, to discriminate among and children.
them and to use this information used as measures of general intelligence
to guide one’s thinking and action. as well as a possible aid in psychiatric
People high on emotional diagnosis.
intelligence show greater degree of Current version for adult WAIS-R covers
emotional self-awareness, manage age 16 to 74 years
emotions well, harness emotions Current version for children WISC-III
productively, have empathy and covers age 6 to 16 years 11 months
handle relationships effectively. Wechsler Pre-school and Primary Scale
of Intelligence-Revised (WPPSI) which
Intelligence test covers the range of 3 years to 7 years
and 3 months
Intelligence test can be classified
into verbal and non-verbal
(performance) and individual and Draw-A-Man Test
group tests. The performance tests Developed initially by Goodenough, this
are used for the assessment in nonverbal test requires the the test taker to
draw or make a picture of a man. Credit is given
case of illiterates and people with for the inclusion of individual body parts,
certain types of physical handicap. clothing details, proportion, perspective, and
similar features, Moderate reliability and validity
Individual tests are those which have been reported for this test. In India Pramila
can be administered on one person Phatak has developed norms for this test.
at a time and group tests can be
administered simultaneously on
several persons.

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 Raven's Progressive Matrices Guidance and counselling, and
research in the area of
•It measures general intelligence or 'g' factor.
•It consist of a set of matrices, or arrangement
intellectual development - Career
of design elements into rows and columns of vocational guidance is assuming
from each of which a part has been removed.
an important role in the context of
•The easier items require accuracy of
discrimination; the more difficult items involve education. In this context,
analogies, permutations and alternations of psychologists use intelligence tests
patterns, and other logical relations.
•It is available in three forms differing in the to assess the capability of the
level of difficulty – people and use this information in
•Standard Progressive Matrices (SPM) for age 6 deciding about the choice of career
and 80 years
•The Coloured Progressive Matrices (CPM) for options.
younger children and for special groups
•The Advanced Progressive Matrices (APM) is Explaining differences in
for adolescents and adults, human
Uses of Intelligence Test Studies indicate that the scores of
more closely related people are
Intelligence tests are used in many quite similar. In particular the
settings to help in a number of evidence from the studies of
activities such as- adopted children and of identical
Selection of people for various twins separated early in life and
jobs - in most of the procedures of raised in different homes show this
personnel selection assessment of trend. The studies of
intelligence constitutes an environmental deprivation and
important component. With the enrichment have indicated the
help of intelligence tests effects of environmental factors on
applicants’ intelligence level is IQ. Interestingly females are found
assessed and the results are used to score higher than males with
by the employer in the process of respect to verbal abilities while
decision making about the males tend to score higher in
applicants. visual-spatial abilities. Such
differences may reflect the
Diagnosis of mental handicap -
evolutionary history of human
in most of the procedures of
species.
personnel selection assessment of
intelligence constitutes an Another issue about the
important component. With the group differences relates to the
help of intelligence tests cultural bias of intelligence tests. It
applicants’ intelligence level is has been argued that many of the
assessed and the results are used tests have been developed in
by the employer in the process of western cultural context. As a
decision making about the result, children familiar with
applicants. western cultural context score
higher than those who are not

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familiar with it. This is why some
efforts have been made to develop
culture fair test like Cattell’s
Culture Fair Test of Intelligence.

Evaluate yourself
1. What is the difference
between factor and process
theory of intelligence?
2. Describe the different test of
intelligence.
3. Discuss the different use of
intelligence test.

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 LESSON 16
WHAT IS SELF?
SUMMARY bounded, separate and individual
entity which is central to all the
Self is focus of our everyday
while people in collectivist
behaviour and all of us do have a
cultures prefer an interdependent
set of perceptions and beliefs
mode of self-construal. It
about ourselves. This kind of self-
emphasizes on connectivity,
concept plays important role in
interdependence and sharing.
motivating us and organizing our
behaviours. It starts evolving early In particular when a child is
in life. addressed by someone s/he starts
thinking about self. Thus, self
All of us engage in experiences
originates in social experience.
which enhance our sense of self.
Gradually people internalize a
As Rogers said we want positive
particular view of self which
regard from others. In other words,
becomes a powerful source that
we have a strong need of being
influences behaviour. Some part of
loved and valued by other people.
our self is private to us and only
Concept of self we know about that. Another part
is public which is known to others.
The self-concept is a collection of
Also, there is a part of self which
diverse information. It constitutes
comes from our membership of a
a central aspect of psychological
group. This kind of self is called
functioning.
collective self or social identity.
Self is subject as well as object.
Levels of self
Self as a Subject
Self is experienced at different
•Person's experience as thinker, feeler and
actor levels. William James talked about
material self, social self and
Self as an Object spiritual self. More recently Neisser
•Person's view of the self or "me" has talked about ecological self.
•refers to the self in the
The structure and contents of self Ecological self
embodied form that can
be physically identified in
are shaped by the society and time and space.
culture in which people live. Based •involves the self which
exists in the social
on the cultural context people Interpersonal self
relations when we interact
with others.
divide the world into the categories
of “self” and “non self”. In the conceptual self
•the idea of self that a
person holds.
individualistic cultures people
prefer independent self-construal. Extended self
•the self which is in our
memory.
It considers self in terms of a

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The conceptualization of self is relates Jiva to past actions. Also,
nurtured in each culture in a given the feelings of pride take place.
way. Consider the concept of
Anandmaya Kosha: It is the
Panch Koshas as developed in the
joyous sheath. The experience of
Indian thought. Kosha means
bliss has spiritual basis also, the
layers or sheath like the sheath of
pleasure that one gets from
an onion. The Jiva consists of five
obtaining the desired objects is
such Koshas and self should be
part of it.
considered in terms of a multi
layered structure of hierarchically Aspects of self
organized sheaths and these are as The ideas held by the people about
follows: self, shape our personal lives and
allow participation in group life.
Annamaya Kosha
Self-esteem - It is the evaluative
Pranamaya Kosha
component of self-concept. It deals
Manomaya Kosha
with internalized social judgments
Vijyanmaya Kosha and ideas about how worthwhile a
Anandmaya Kosha personal quality is. People who feel
good about themselves or have
Annamaya Kosh: This involves the high self-esteem are found to be
gross physical body. This is the more active, motivated, persistent,
outermost layer of existence. It is and happy than the people with
called annamaya because it is low self-esteem. It has been noted
grounded in the food that we eat that unhappiness, and despair are
and consume. related to low self-esteem.
Pranamaya Kosha: This layer Self-efficacy - refers to our belief
deals with life (Prana) and about what we are capable of
represents the functions of achieving or perceived
breathing and metabolic processes. competencies of a person. They
The five effectors are also included determine how we interact with
in it. our environment and other people.
Manomaya Kosha: It consists of High self-efficacy children solve
sense organs. It is the seat of ego problems more quickly than those
and leads to personal involvements who had low self-efficacy beliefs.
which bind people with the desires According to Bandura self-efficacy
and activities. beliefs have power of four major
influences as given below:
Vigyanamaya Kosha: It consists of
five sense organs and intellect. It (a) Cognitive: refers to the effect
regulates the worldly life. The on thought patterns. Self-efficacy
feeling of “I-ness” present in it influences evaluation of capability

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and preparation to make an certain events do compel us to
attempt. turn to our own selves. When we
b) Motivational: It influences how become self-aware, we start
long we will keep trying. comparing our behaviour with
internal standards. Such a
(c) Affective: It deals with stress, comparison reveals negative
anxiety, and feeling of control. discrepancy. Under these
(d)Selection: It includes choosing conditions our self-esteem
challenging activities. decreases. In order to deal with
this situation, we may attempt to
Self-presentation–The term self-
reduce self-discrepancy or
presentation technically means the
withdraw from the state of self-
strategies people use to shape
awareness. There are two types of
what others think of them. It deals
self-consciousness:
with the behavioural expression of
self. The process of self- 1. Private self-consciousness –
presentation can take many forms. such an individual
It can be conscious or introspects the inner
unconscious, accurate or thoughts and feelings.
misleading, and intended for real 2. Public self-consciousness –
audience or for ourselves. The two these individuals have
motives for self-presentation are – tendency to be aware of
outer public image.
Strategic self-presentation
•The strategic self-presentation is our effort to Awareness of self: how
shape other’s impression to gain power,
influence or sympathy. Ingratiation and self accurate are we in self-
promotion often make us liked and respected
by others. appraisal?
Self-verification
Three possibilities of self-
•The goal of self – verification help people to
affirm their existing self concept.
awareness are as follows –
1. There are attributes of self that
Self-Monitoring - the extent to
are known to the person but
which external situation and the
unknown to others.
reactions of others help one to
2. There are attributes of self that
regulate behaviour. The people
are not known to the person
who are low self-monitors regulate
but known to others.
their behaviours on the basis of
3. There are attributes of self that
internal factors such as beliefs,
are neither known to the
attitudes and interests. It has been
person nor known to others.
found that high self-monitors pay
attention to others and low self- In order to live a healthy life proper
monitors pay attention to them. appreciation of one’s attributes is
necessary. Also, it must be a
Self-consciousness - we are not
realistic appraisal. It is on the
always self-focused. However,

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basis of an impartial knowledge others. This set of emotions
and understanding of the reflects socially engaged
strengths and weaknesses of emotions.
oneself that proper course of action Self and Motivation – It has
can be planned. generally been thought that the
People often show self-serving bias. issue of motivation deals with
This implies that they try to defend internal processes pertaining to a
themselves and view things in a person. This view is very close to
way that positive attributes of self the independent self-construal. All
are enhanced. Also, everybody of them refer to the motivation
likes positive appreciation from related to the person or “me”.
others, whether it is correct or In case of interdependent self, it is
incorrect. This may lead to noted that behaviours are directed
building false self-images. or guided by the expectations of
Relationship of self with significant others (e.g., parents,
other processes teachers, other family members),
obligations and duties toward
We attend and perceive objects and others.
people in a manner which is
compatible with one’s self. Evaluate yourself
Self and cognition - It has been 1. Discuss the level of self as
found that people with given by William James.
independent self-construal 2. How is self-related to
emphasize on their internal motivation and emotion?
attributes as important features. In
3. Discuss the Panch kosha
contrast, the people with
model.
interdependent-self think more
about relationships and contexts.
Self and Emotion – Some
emotions emphasize inner
attributes such as pride,
frustration (as desires are blocked).
In these situations the emotional
experience tends to separate or
disengage the self from one’s social
relationships. In positive emotions
such as respect, happiness,
promote an interpersonal bond. In
case of negative emotions, such as
feelings of indebtedness or guilt,
they occur because of failure in
maintaining relationship with
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 LESSON 17
SELF AND PSYCHOLOGICAL PROCESSES
SUMMARY situation. Self undergoes
transformation and many elements
As people grow, they develop their
are included and excluded in one’s
own concept of self which
self structure. People often strive
determine how they relate to
for an ideal self. The chart given
others and perform the various
below describes the different
activities. Our self-concept
stages of self through lifespan:
changes during the different stages
of life. We perceive others as Infancy

persons, relate to them and •15 to 24 months old infants have a visual self-
concept. 3 years old do not have clear self-
develop friendship and other kinds awareness. 4-5-year-olds have better self-
representations.
of close relationships. Also, we
develop self-control and grow Childhood and Adolescence
morally. Self goes beyond one’s •In early childhood children start defining themselves
on the basis of psychological attributes. In
personal attribute and relates to adolescence representations of the self, become
the social world that we inhabit. In much more subtle. Identity provides a stable sense
of who a person is and what one’s values and ideals
fact, self relates to the social world are. Many adolescents experience identity crisis.
They fail to have a coherent and enduring sense of
in a reciprocal manner as it self.

influences our interactions with Early Adulthood

the social world and is influenced
•the challenge of intimacy vs. isolation. Intimacy
by it. In this process self also gets refers to the establishment of a committed
relationship which is enduring.
influenced by the social world.
Middle age
Self in a Lifespan
•In this period a person faces the crisis of
perspective generativity vs. stagnation. People are expected to
engage in more and more generative activities. The
term Midlife crisis is used for this stage when an
The studies suggest that some interruption in the normal rhythm of life.
crude idea of self-recognition is
Old age
noted by the middle of the first
•The challenge in the stage is integrity vs. despair. In
year. It is during this period that view of social mobility and disintegration of
traditional family ties, many aged people suffer
children start processing the voices from poor self-concept. However, those who look
back upon their lives with a sense of satisfaction
and facial images of infants other that they have lived it well, experience a sense of
than themselves. This is often integrity.

interpreted as an indication of the

beginning of self-other distinction.
Self-control and its
development
The notion of self assumes
different forms and undergoes Self-control is a process of learning
important changes during the life to regulate one’s own behaviour in
course. Self, works as a powerful a manner maximally rewarding or
force which directs behaviours and satisfying.
shapes interactions in social

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 Piaget found that younger children
Performing a task Self-monitoring of up to 9-10 years of age show
•This refers to the performance and
action taken to solve a outcome morality of constraint where
specific problem. •It means actual children think in terms of
observation and
recording of the conformity to social rules and
action taken.
focus only one aspect of an event.
Self reinforcement Self-evaluation: Older children follow morality of
•This means •This involves revising
recognizing and one’s beliefs about his cooperation where they think
approving of the or her competence. about the intentions and do not
accomplishment that
may lead to a tangible consider rules as unchangeable.
reward or a positive
self-statement Moral development starts early in
Self Instructional Training (SIT) - childhood and it happens in
This kind of instruction focuses on stages.
the development of major skill
Stage I - Objective moral orientation
areas emphasizing “self-talking”
•It is based on consequences such as good or
responses. The steps of self bad.
instruction are as follows: Stage II - Subjective moral orientation
•After the age of seven years, child focus the
Teaching problem identification.
attention on the intentions behind various
actions.

According to Kohlberg, moral

reasoning passes through three
Teaching self interrogation skills.
different levels as given below:

Preconventional Level
Stage II - Actions that satisfy the
Teaching attention – focusing and Stage I - Moral judgement is
needs are viewed as “good” and
appropriate responding skills. based on obedience and
which does not are viewed as
punishment
bad.

Teaching self-reinforcement skills so that the

youngster evaluates his own responses and Conventional Level
rewards the adaptive ones.
Stage III - Actions which are approved
Stage IV - Action that show obedience
of by others are viewed as “good” and
of law and duty is considered good and
those which are disapproved are
which violate law are considered bad.
viewed as “bad”.
Self correction and coping options enable the
youngster continuously to monitor his
behaviour, evaluate alternatives and arrive at
optional solutions.
Postconventional Level
Moral Development
Stage V - Actions which are consistent Stage VI - Actions which are consistent
Development of the notions of with the community’s welfare are with an individual’s self-chosen
viewed as “good” and which do not are standards of justice are viewed as

“right” and “wrong” is an important viewed as “bad”. “good and which are viewed as “bad”.

aspect of social development. Kohlberg used certain situations in

These notions help a person to which a moral dilemma is
balance the self-interest and well- presented and the task of person is
being of others. to solve the dilemma. The solution

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arrived at indicates the stage of reinforcing desirable behaviour as
moral reasoning being used by the and when it occurs will strengthen
person. the development of pro-social
behaviour.
Role of Family
Stage 1 - infants have difficulty in differentiating self form
The various domestic exchanges others

regarding rights and wrongs and

Stage 2 - It is characterized by egocentric thinking. They
parental expressions of regulations “help” the other person in ways that they themselves would
want to be helped.
contribute to the development of
morality. The actions and Stage 3 - children show situation—specific empathy.
emphases on acceptable behaviour
by parents play an important role
Stage 4 - they relate their expression of distress to others
in moral development. The early when others are also in distress.

experiences outside the family

Anti-social behaviours are
(e.g., preschool, peers, and
characterized by truancy,
neighbourhood) also contribute to
delinquency, theft, vandalism and
the development of morality.
other forms of violation of the
Gilligan has proposed that while accepted social rules and
male children are socialized to be convention. In some cases of
independent and achievement antisocial behaviour the causal
oriented, female children are factors may be more personal than
socialized to be nurturing and environmental, whereas in other
maintain a sense of responsibility. cases it is vice versa. However,
Womanhood or femininity is often there is always a mixture of both
linked with self sacrifice and care personal and environmental
of others. influences, in varying proportion
Pro and Anti-Social that leads to delinquent
behaviours.
Behaviour
Psychological management
Pro-social behaviours are
of antisocial behaviour would
behaviours which benefit another
include counselling and guidance
person. They include cooperation,
for learning socially constructive
sharing and helping when others
behaviours, assertiveness training
are in distress. Children pass
or social skills training which will
through four predictable stages in
enable them to shed aggressive
the development of empathy which
behaviour or channelize the
makes pro-social behaviours
aggressive behaviour into
possible. (See the next diagram).
something constructive. This
Children can learn helping would enable the growing child to
behaviour by imitating other benefit own self, as well as the
known people. Opportunities for society.
responsibility taking, role playing,

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Evaluate yourself
1. Discuss self in a lifespan
perspective.
2. What is the role of family in
the development of self?
3. Discuss the stages of
development of empathy.

4
Psychology (328)
 LESSON 18
PERSONALITY THEORIES
SUMMARY Different theories provide different
explanations about the role of
The study of personality deals with
conscious/unconscious factors,
the issue of human individuality.
determinism/freedom in
As a human being each one of us
functioning, role of early
shows certain specific patterns of
experience, role of genetic factors,
thinking, feeling and acting.
uniqueness/universality etc.
The study of personality has
also attracted the attention of The Psychoanalytic
psychologists and they have perspective
developed various theories of Founded by Sigmund Freud, this
personality. Also, they have theory emphasizes the influence of
developed certain tools to assess the unconscious, the importance of
people’s personality. The sexual and aggressive instincts,
personality related information is and early childhood experience on
used in selecting people for various a person. Freud started his career
jobs, giving guidance to people in as a neurologist. His theory
the need of psychological help, and developed in the course of his
mapping their potential. Thus, the observations of his patients, as
study of personality contributes to well as, self-analysis. He used free
different areas of human association to help his patients
behaviour. recover forgotten memories. Freud
Concept of personality discovered that mind is like an
iceberg and we have limited
Psychologist refers to the term conscious awareness. Freud
personality as characteristic proposed that psychological forces
pattern of thinking, feeling and operate at three levels of
acting. Characteristic pattern awareness:
means the consistent and
distinctive ways our ideas, feelings Conscious level: The thoughts,
and actions are organized. feelings, and sensations that one is
aware of at the present moment.
The enduring pattern expressed by
the person in various situations is Preconscious level: It contains
the hall mark of personality. information of which one is not
Personality theorists view currently aware, however, they can
‘personality’ as the essence of the easily enter conscious mind.
person. It is a person’s “true” inner Unconscious level: It consists of
nature. thought, feelings, wishes, drives
etc. of which we are not aware. It,

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however, influences our conscious Super Ego: It is the internal
level of activity. representation of parental and
societal values. It works as the
Freud thought that unconscious
voice of conscience that compels
material often seeks to push
the ego to consider not only the
through to the conscious level in a
real but also the ideal. It judges
disguised manner. It may be in a
one’s behaviours as right or wrong,
distorted manner and or it may
good or bad. Failing up to moral
take a symbolic form.
ideals bring about the shame,
Interpretation of dreams and free
guilt, inferiority and anxiety in the
association were used for analysis
person.
of the three levels of awareness.
Personality Development
Personality Structure
Freud reached at a conclusion that
Freud believed that human
personality development occurs
personality emerges due to a
through a sequence of
conflict between our aggressive
psychosexual stages.
and pleasure-seeking biological
impulses and the internalized Stages Focus of activity
social restraints against them. Oral Pleasure centres in the
(0-18 mouth and leads to activities
Thus, personality arises in the
months) of sucking and biting etc.
course of our effort to resolve the Anal Pleasure centres on bowel
conflicts. To this end he proposed (18-36 and bladder elimination
three structures which interact months)
with each other: Id, Ego and Super Phallic Pleasure centre is genitals
(4 to 6 Touching and fondling of
Ego.
years) genitals give pleasure
Id: It is the unconscious, irrational Latency Children repress their sexual
part of personality. It is the (7 to 11 impulses and channelize
years) them into socially acceptable
primitive part immune to morality
activities such as sports,
and demands of the external arts.
world. It operates on the pleasure Genital Pleasure zone is the genital.
principle. It seeks immediate (From Maturation of sexual
satisfaction. Puberty) interests.

Ego: It is involved with the

workings of the real world. It Defense Mechanisms
operates on the reality principle. It The Ego has to perform a difficult
is the conscious and rational part duty of mediating between the
of personality that regulates instinctual demands of Id and
thoughts and behaviours. It moral position of Super Ego.
teaches the person to balance
The Ego tries to solve the problem
demands of external world and
and if a realistic solution or
needs of the person.
compromise is not possible it

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indulges in distorting thoughts or Karen Horney: Basic anxiety
perception of reality through Horney emphasized on the
certain processes called defense importance of social relationships
mechanisms. in personality development. Basic
Mechanism Description anxiety refers to the feeling of a
Denial Failure to recognize or child of being isolated and helpless
acknowledge the
in a potentially hostile world.
existence of unpleasant
event. Alfred Adler: Feelings of
Displaceme Emotional impulses are Inferiority and Superiority
nt redirected toward one
other i.e., substitute Adler proposed that the central
person/object human motive is that of striving
Projection Attributing own for superiority. It arises from
unacceptable urges to
feelings of inferiority that are
others
Rationaliza Justifying our actions or experienced during infancy and
tion feelings through socially childhood. During this period the
acceptable explanations child is helpless and depends on
Reaction Thinking or acting in a others for help and support.
formation way that is the extreme
opposite of unacceptable The Trait Perspective
urges
Regression Retreating to behaviour
Traits are characteristic
characteristic of an behaviours and conscious motives.
earlier stage of They represent a relatively stable
development and enduring predisposition to
Repression Exclusion of anxiety behave in a given way. This
producing thoughts,
feelings or impulses
approach involves enumerating list
from consciousness of personal characteristics. The
Sublimatio Sexual urges are apparent traits are called surface
n channelized into traits (e.g., happy, cordial).
productive, nonsexual Contrary to this there are certain
activities
source traits. Raymond Cattell
Carl Jung: Collective developed a trait theory which has
unconscious 16 source traits. He called them
Carl Jung proposed that people are personality factors, e.g., Reserved-
motivated by more general Outgoing, Practical-Imaginative.
psychological energy. He proposed Eysenck proposed a theory which
that psyche comprises the classifies people in four types:
collective unconscious. The introverted-neurotic, introverted-
collective unconscious contains stable, extraverted- neurotic and
archetypes which are the mental extraverted- stable. In subsequent
images of a particular person, work Eysenck proposed
object or experience.

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psychoticism as another dimension Rogers and Abraham Maslow are
of personality. the main proponents of the
humanistic perspective.
McCrae and Costa have proposed a
five-factor model, comprising of Abraham Maslow proposed the
neuroticism, extraversion, and theory of needs, where he
openness to experience, organized the needs in a hierarchy.
agreeableness and Abraham Maslow proposed the
conscientiousness. idea of self-actualized people.

The Social cognitive Maslow notes that the self-

perspective actualized people have realistic
perception, are spontaneous, easily
This perspective was developed by accept self and others, are creative,
Albert Bandura. It views behaviour and enjoy and appreciate positive
as influenced by the interaction aspects of life, like privacy and
between persons and the social independence.
context. Bandura developed the
concept of self-efficacy which Carl Rogers thinks that the basic
incorporates a person’s cognitive human motive is actualizing
skills, abilities and attitudes as tendency. It is the innate drive to
represented in one’s self-system. maintain and enhance the human
organism.
The theory is based on laboratory
research. However, the theory Rogers observed that people are
ignores the unconscious factors motivated to act in accordance
which may influence behaviour. with their self concept. The ideal
The theory also emphasizes the condition for development is
rational side of life while ignoring unconditional positive regard. His
the emotional side. The cognitive- notion of a fully functioning
social theory brings into focus the individual is that the self-concept
role of thought and memory in is flexible and evolving.
personality. Concept of Gunas
The Humanistic perspective The Indian approach to personality
These theories propose that within emphasizes on the combination of
each individual is an active three qualities namely, Sattava,
creative force, often called “self”. Rajas and Tamas. These Gunas
This perspective, also known as have been discussed in detail in
the third force, emphasizes on Samkhya Theory.
human potential and These gunas are present in
characteristics like self-awareness different degrees and at any point
and free will. The conscious and of time one or the other may
subjective perception of self is dominate. The behaviour of a
considered very important. Carl person depends on the guna that

4
Psychology (328)
is dominating a person at any namely observational, self-report
point of time. and projective.
The observational tools include
SATTV
IC
interview, rating of a person in one
or many situations.
Projective tests are a special kind
PERSONAL of test in which ambiguous
ITY material is used and the person
RAJASI whose personality is being tested
TAMAS
C IC has to give his or her own meaning
or interpretation. Thus, it is
expected that the personality of the
Sattva Guna: The main attributes examinee will be projected in the
which characterize Sattva guna are response given by him or her.
truth, gravity, duty, discipline, E.g., Rorschach Ink Blot Test and
detachment, cleanliness, and Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)
mental balance, sense of control,
determination and sharp Factors influencing
intelligence. personality development
Rajas Guna: A person dominated The development of personality of
by Rajas guna has attributes that an individual takes place in a
include vigorous activity, desire for socio-cultural context. In the
sense gratification, dissatisfaction, process of growth and development
envy and materialistic point of people develop unique
view. configuration of traits which lead
to individual differences. In this
Tamas Guna: It involves anger,
way one finds that personality
arrogance, mental imbalance,
formation is a complex process
depression, laziness,
depending upon common and
procrastination and a feeling of
unique experiences on the one
helplessness. Bhagvadgita views
hand, and, genetic factors on the
the three gunas in a prototypical
other.
form and describes that the food
which we eat, mentality (Budhi), Genetic factors - Studies of
Charity (Dan) etc. can also be behaviour genetics suggest that
categorized in the three types of most personality variables are 15
gunas or qualities. to 50 percent inheritable.

Assessing Human Early experience - The early years

play very important role in the
Personality
shaping of personality. However,
Personality assessment tools can the immediate environment and
be categorized into three types

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Psychology (328)
experiences are also found to be of
immense value.
Primary groups – In personality
development family is found to
play a critical role. The early
relationships with members of
family are particularly important.
Culture - People living in one
culture often share similar
practices, beliefs and values. The
child is expected to learn to behave
in the manner expected by the
culture. However, the effect of
culture may not be uniform for
everyone belonging to that culture
because they are transmitted
through different ways and
persons and people also have
certain unique experiences.

Evaluate yourself
1. Define at least five defense
mechanisms.
2. Discuss the theory of Tri-
gunas.
3. What is the humanistic
perspective of personality?
4. List ways to assess the
personality.

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 LESSON 19
PERSONALITY ASSESSMENT
SUMMARY Sometimes when a person has to
report about his/her reactions,
If we wish to determine aspects of
they are biased about their own
a person’s personality based on a
characteristics. To overcome this,
particular theory, there are specific
rating scales are used to assess
techniques for assessing those.
personality traits. An individual
Assessing personality can be asked to rate the other
person different traits. But for this
traits
the rater must fulfil certain
There are two ways of assessing conditions, such as -
personality traits. One method
consists of asking a set of They must be able to understand the
questions which a person has to scale.
answer about his/her opinions, They should know the person well
feelings and actions. For this about whom the rating has to be made.
purpose, a personality inventory is
used. In the second approach, They should not get biased in his/ her
some other person makes judgment, about the person.
assessments about a person’s
traits, based on prior knowledge
Assessment of Personality
about that person, or by direct As the unconscious part of
observation of the person. This is person’s personality is hidden from
called the rating-scale approach. one’s self-awareness,
Personality inventories are Psychoanalysts, therefore, use
questionnaires where a person has indirect symbolic information and
to answer many questions about interpret this to uncover the
the way she/he reacts to different unconscious conflicts and motives.
situations. A personality inventory This approach is called projective
may be designed to assess a single technique.
trait like extroversion-introversion, In this approach, if the
or it may assess a number of psychoanalyst wants to obtain
traits. The Sixteen Factor knowledge of unconscious
Personality Questionnaire (16 PF) processes in a person’s psyche,
and the Minnesota Multiphasic she/he presents certain
Personality Inventory (MMPI) are ambiguous material and asks the
two very well-known inventories person to describe what she/he
which are useful for obtaining sees. The person starts projecting
information about a person’s some meaning to the ambiguous
traits. stimuli from personal experience

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or fantasy and in this way, then which is less dominant, and
unconscious mind is tapped and finally which is the least.
something is revealed about it. E.g. In order to assess which
Rorschach Ink Blot Test and Guna is predominant in an
Thematic Apperception Test individual’s personality, we have to
(TAT). obtain combined information using
Assessment in Humanistic questionnaires, observation etc.
perspective Some inventories have been
developed which gives us some
The humanistic approach to information about the way the
personality focuses on how a Gunas are active in an individual’s
person experiences her/his world. personality.
Therefore, assessment here is
concerned with understanding the Evaluate yourself
perception of a person about 1. What are the conditions that
his/her life situation and a rater must fulfil to use a
experience. There are different rating scale?
methods for psychological
2. List the different methods to
assessment under humanistic
assess personality?
approach. One approach is based
on the person selecting, from a 3. How does the humanistic
number of descriptive sentences, approach assess
those which describe him/her in personality?
an accurate way. Another
approach focuses on a person’s
willingness to express his/her
inner nature or self to others. This
approach is based on the
understanding that the tendencies
for very high or very low level of
self-disclosure are both an
indication of emotional immaturity.

Assessment of Guans
In the Indian approach to
personality which emphasises the
three Gunas: Sattva, Rajas and
Tamas, in order to assess a
person’s nature, we need to have
an understanding of which Guna
is predominant in a person’s life,
in thought, speech and action, and

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 LESSON 20
PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS
SUMMARY Suffering – experiencing distress and discomfort
in one’s own life.
Feeling happy, or crying when one
is hurt, are some common actions Maladaptiveness – engaging in behaviour or
which we all engage in some time thought pattern which makes it more difficult to
lead one’s life.
or the other. Most of the time we
act as the situation demands us Irrationality – unable to communicate in a
to, that is, we control our emotions reasonable manner with others.

and behaviours according to the

Unpredictability – acting in ways which are
norm prevalent in the society. entirely unexpected.
Psychological disorders Vividness and intensity– experience sensations
which are far more vivid and intense than those
Any disorder, which presents a of other people.
person to function ineffectively in
the social domain, is termed as a It can be said that abnormality is a
psychological disorder – it can be matter of the degree to which a set
defined as a pattern of behavioural of behaviours of an individual are
or psychological symptoms that considered inappropriate as
causes significant distress, impairs against accepted norms of the
the ability to function in one or society, and which are problematic
more areas of life or both. The for the person in his/her social
important feature is that the functioning and adjustment.
symptoms must represent a
Causes of Abnormal
serious departure from the
prevalent social and cultural behaviour
norms. Some actions which may Factors that may contribute to
form an essential part of one abnormal behaviours are -
culture may be a serious
Biological factors
disturbance in others. To •It may involve - genetic factors,
determine any behaviour as away chromosomal dysfunctions, brain or
from normal, seven considerations endocrine dysfunctions that may cause
the development of abnormal behaviour.
are used as the distinguishing
Psychological factors
criteria. They are:
•these factors are difficult to identify and
measure as they work indirectly. The
Observer discomfort – acting in ways which effect is not very predictable but if one
others find embarrassing. tries to analyze the various processes
adopted during childhood like over-
protection or over-indulgence,
Violation of moral and ideal standards – habitual
inconsistent rewards and punishments,
breaking of norms.
these factors significantly contribute in
the development of maladaptive
behaviour.
Types of disorders as - depressive disorders, bipolar
disorders, and other disorders.
Anxiety disorders
Mood disorders include severe
Anxiety disorders are disorders symptoms such as dissatisfaction
which decrease the performance or and anxiety, changes in appetite,
social functioning of an individual disturbances of sleep and
due to hyper-anxiety. It can be of psychomotor functions, sudden
many types. Some of the anxiety weight loss, inability to think
disorders clearly, and thought of death and
suicide.
Generalised Anxiety disorder
Substance related disorders
•The various symptoms of GAD areunrealistic or
excessive worry, nervousness, dizziness, sweating,
trembling, tension, difficulty in concentration etc. Drugs, like alcohol, influence our
thoughts, actions and activities
Panic disorder
negatively. These drugs, if used for
•Intense anxiety along with marked physiological
symptoms such as increased palpitation, breathing a long time, cause deterioration in
difficulty, and a sense of helplessness.
attention, motivation, and motor
Phobia co-ordination.
•irrational fear of some object or situation which
disrupts normal functioning. E.g., Social phobia This disorder involves alcohol,
(person is afraid of speaking on stage, or talking to
strangers and there are some specific phobias, like pan-masala, tobacco, opium,
fear of rats or cats.) marijuana etc. To help a person
Obsessive-compulsive disorder suffering from this disorder, the
•Persistent thoughts or wishes that intrude into following steps are important:
ones consciousness and cannot be stopped are
obsessions. Compulsion is an act which a person
feels compelled to carry out despite knowing that it
Important steps to help in case of
is unnecessary. Obsessive thinking often leads to substance-abuse disorder
compulsive acts.
•Detoxification
Somatoform disorder •Administration of drugs for easing
withdrawal symptoms.
•These are physical problems which have no organic
basis, for example, fatigue, headaches, vague body •Aversive conditioning
pains etc. The persons suffering from this disease •Social support
remains preoccupied with symptoms •Psychotherapy
•Rehabilitation
•Prevention and follow up
Mood disorders
Mood disorders are disorders of Schizophrenia
emotion. Heightened intensity and It is a cluster of disorders
duration of emotion require characterized by fragmentation of
immediate psychological and the basic psychological processes
medical attention. The individuals such as attention, perception,
suffering from this type of disorder thoughts, emotions, behaviour.
are termed as emotionally Patients suffering from
disturbed. schizophrenia are not able to
The three types of mood perceive things correctly, see or
disorders have been characterized hear things which are not there,
thinking pattern is confused and
disorganized and fail to
communicate properly.
Types of Schizophrenia

•Catatonic - Unusual patterns of

motor activity, speech disturbances
such as repetitive chatter or rigid
postures
•Disorganized - Verbal asymmetry,
poorly developed ideas
•Paranoid - Preoccupied with one or
more set of ideas
•Undifferentiated - Hallucinations,
incoherence
•Residual - Residual Withdrawal,
absence of motivation etc

Personality disorder
Personality disorder is
characterized by a maladaptive
style of thinking, feeling and
behaving which disturbs the
normal functioning of an
individual.

•paranoid
Types of Personality
disorder

•schizoid
•schizotypal
•antisocial
•borderline
•histrionic
•narcissistic
•avoidant
•dependent
•obsessive-compulsive

Evaluate yourself
1. List the different types of
personality disorder.
2. Define mood disorder and
write the types of mood
disorder.
3. Explain the different anxiety
disorders.
 LESSON 21
GROUP PROCESSES
SUMMARY
Human life primarily depends on various
kinds of groups. After we are born, we Interdependence of outcome

remain dependent upon fellow human •each member’s outcome (received reward) is
not the result of his/her behaviour alone but
beings to achieve various goals. We spend is also dependent upon the behaviour of other
most of our time interacting with people. group members

21.1 The nature of group Task interdependence

When two or more persons interact, we say •to achieve a goal, group members need to
coordinate their activities
that a group has come into existence. Each
group strives to achieve a goal. The more
explicit a goal is, the greater the interaction 21.2 How groups operate?
and cooperation among the group Important aspect of group functioning are
members. The relationship among group the group norms (rules), roles and status of
members remains stable or continues for members. Finally, a group may be highly
some time (months, or years). The group integrated and members may share
also has a structure and members think that cohesiveness or may lack it.
they are part of a group or have a feeling
of belongingness. Norms

At the physical level any collectivity, •In any group different members are required
to perform different roles.
with a purpose can be called a group. In
these groups direct and immediate Roles
communication among the members of •Each group functions according to certain
group is possible and usually takes place. rules. These rules constitute the norms.

Persons possessing certain common Status

characteristics, too, are conceived to
•The different roles carry a specific rank or
form a group. All elements in the set standing in the group and is related to nature
of task assigned and power to influence
possess at least one common characteristic decision making.
which non-members may lack. One
member may not necessarily know another 21.3 The nature of group processes
member.
A group can be helpful to individual in at
The most important characteristic of a least four ways:
group is interdependence. It may be
the group members
related to behaviours, outcomes and tasks. to achieve those goals
have resources
that one cannot
(economic or
attain individually
otherwise)
Interdependence of behaviour

•the behaviour of one member gives rise to

another member’s behaviour and which in to meet the need for to provide positive
turn forces the entire group to perform security social identity
certain functions
Outcome of Group Experiences: 21.6 Effects of group on individual’s
Cohesiveness behaviour
A sense of satisfaction leads to Decision Making
cohesiveness in the group. A cohesive
Risky shift - It has been found that while
group has a higher level of solidarity and
taking decisions an individual, when left
consensus. There are forces in the structure
alone, takes less risk. On the other hand,
of the group that act on the members to
when he or she is present in a group, there
remain in the group.
appears a tendency on the part of an
21.4 Stages in Group formation individual to take greater amount of risk.
The group as a whole takes greater risk
•At this stage people judge about their
potentialities and the goals of the group. than the individual. It is believed that it is
They become more concerned about
Stage 1 – their benefits or losses while joining a
due to the spread of responsibility and
Orientation particular group. from persuasive communication.
Social Facilitation - It refers to the
•members become clear about their influence of the presence of others persons
contribution to achieve the group goal,
the other available resources, and the on one’s performance. When performing
Stage 2 - likely benefits to be received.
Focus an easy task, there is a possibility that
other group members evaluate an
individual’s work, they try to show their
•member becomes the leader of the best performance. On the other hand, such
group and starts playing a decisive role in
Stage 3 – shaping the activities of the group. awareness interferes with your ability to
Regulation perform when the task is complex and
your performance decreases.
•the norms and roles become formalized.
Members of the group, either in writing Evaluate yourself
or in their speech, acknowledge the
Stage 4 - existence of these rules and show their 1. Discuss the different stages of
Formalization willingness to comply with them.
group formation.
2. Define norms, status and roles in
context of group.
21.5 Types of Groups
3. What are the effects of group on
individual behaviour?
Primary groups - more or less continued,
intimate, face-to-face association and
cooperation. Members have a common
fate. This group is nucleus of all social
organizations.

Secondary groups - special interest

groups. Members of these groups do not
necessarily have face-to-face contact
although there may be direct interaction
among them. People become members
of this group to satisfy their
psychological needs such as prestige,
companionship, etc.
 LESSON 22
PERSON PERCEPTION AND INTERPERSONAL
ATTRACTION
SUMMARY environment provide context and
guidance to them.They talk about
Achieving a sense of self is an
various events and happenings in
important achievement. A neonate
the child’s environment. All these
may not be able to distinguish
situations help child to learn about
between self and others. Our self-
‘self’. In particular children learn
knowledge is peculiar in the sense
about emotional regulation.
that we are aware that we have a
self. This kind of self- However, it would be inaccurate to
consciousness is a major view self merely something to be
achievement. It may be easily shaped by others. It is a complex
guessed that the knowledge of self social product in which child’s own
does require some kind of social experience also plays an important
knowledge. In the beginning the role.
infant lacks distinction between While learning about self, children
his and her world which includes also develop an understanding that
other persons. The child is people are different from other
immersed in the social things, they have certain
environment. From there, the child characteristics and have
gradually attains an awareness of independent psychological
self. existence.
Perception of others It has been found that the
Toward the end of infancy children understanding of others is related
start constructing a representation to understanding of the self. The
of the self as an objective entity. awareness grows and gets
The cognitive and linguistic elaborated with advancing age. The
development facilitates interaction school age children provide
with others. elaborated and complex
descriptions of others. The
By third year children indicate children actively construct a social
existence of internal processes, understanding. This involves
appearance, opinions and volition. finding out the similarities between
As they grow their self- child’s own psychological
conceptbecome more and more processes and those of others.
differentiated. It may be noted that
the development of self-concept is Impression formation
primarily a social activity. The When we perceive others, we do
other persons present in the not simply add various pieces of

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information. Rather we perceive •Familiarity and Propinquity: Propinquity means
the various traits in relation to nearness or physical proximity. Thus, nearness and
familiarity shape our attraction to other persons.
others. We form a dynamic whole. •Reciprocal Liking: Whether we like someone or not
depends on the fact that whether the other person
We form an impression of the likes you or not.
•Affect: it refers to the feelings and emotions which
whole person. The traits do not vary in intensity and direction. Thus, our feelings can
remain in isolation. They interact be very intense or less intense and can be positive or
negative.
with each other and form a new •Need for Affiliation: We spend a lot of our free time
whole. While forming impressions interacting with other persons, because affiliation
improves the chances of survival. Enduring
we rely on and give greater Relationships: Many of our relationships continue
for long periods of time. They may be lifelong like
weightage to the sources we trust friendship, marriage etc.
or admire. Similarly, we often
As person children are treated by
emphasize more the negative
mothers using a certain type of
information. Also, we give more
attachment. It can be secure,
importance to unusual
avoidant or ambivalent.
information. Finally, the first
Psychologists think that infants
impressions are given more
learn to trust and to love another
weightage than subsequent
person, to mistrust and avoid or a
information.
mixture of the two on the basis of
It has been found that when we the kind of attachment they are
make judgments about others, we exposed to. It has been found that
recall examples of their behaviours mothers contact with the infant
and base our judgments on them. (tactile, visual and verbal) and her
We also use previously formed awareness of and responsivity to
abstractions or representations in infant’s needs leads to secure
mind while forming impressions attachment.
and making decisions.
Virtues emphasized in Indian society
Dealing with social world
•Charity: Helping, forgiving and tolerating
Interpersonal attraction - The parents.
•Justice: Fulfilling obligations to parents and
self realizes itself while relating to respecting their rights.
other persons. In this way the •Prudence: Using reason for their benefit.
processes taking place between •Fortitude: undergoing hardships for their
benefit.
persons is known as interpersonal •Temperance: Controlling disruptive emotions
processes. Given below are factors and practicing self-discipline.
that influence attraction:
Close relationship is found when
•Physical Attractiveness: It has generally been found
that we react more positively to people who are friends spend a considerable
viewed as physically attractive. amount of time together, interact
•Similarity and Complementarity: We like people
who are similar to ourselves. Complementarity is a in a number of settings, and
situation in which we find that people who are provide emotional support to each
different but complement each other, like to interact
more with each other. other. During childhood children
desire to share activities with

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friends which both parties tend to
enjoy.
During adolescence and young
adulthood friendship tends to
become more intimate. Intimate
relationship is expressed in a
variety of behaviours including
self-disclosing behaviour,
emotional expression, giving and
receiving support, experiencing
trust, and feeling relaxed in the
company of each other.

Evaluate yourself
1. What are the factors that
influence attraction?
2. Describe virtues that are
emphasized in Indian
society.
3. Discuss the process of
impression formation.

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 LESSON 23
MAN-ENVIRONMENT INTERACTION
SUMMARY people become more irritable and
aggressive when the weather is hot
Environment is a very broad
and humid, in comparison to cold
concept. Everything that affects us
weather. Interest in such
during our lifetime is collectively
environmental variables has led to
known as environment. All over
the development of a field known
the world there is growing concern
as Environmental Psychology. Its
about the deteriorating quality of
focus is to study the reciprocal (bi-
environment.
directional) relationships between
The first United Nations psychological processes and
Conference on Environment and physical environments, both
Development (UNCED) was held in natural and manmade.
Rio de Janeiro in 1992. It reflected
Physical environment - It includes both
Types of environment
world-wide concern about the physical reality and social-cultural
quality of environment. phenomenon that surround us. E.g.,
noise, temperature, quality of air etc.
International Environment Social and cultural environment - It
Education Programme is the includes the aspects of social interaction
including products such as beliefs,
outcome of the 1992 conference attitudes, stereotypes, etc. The material
and efforts are being made globally and non-material aspects of environment
are included in it.
to educate people at all levels of Psychological Environment: It includes
society about the environmental the perceptions and experiences
pertaining to any environmental setting.
concerns. E.g., dull and boring environment or
stimulating environment etc.
The environment in which we live
and work affects our thoughts, Environment is related to other
feelings, and behaviours. The subjects such as geography, urban
relationship of man and planning etc., it is indeed
environment is, however, bi- multidisciplinary in nature and
directional. That is, human beings that is why it is labelled as
are affected by the environment Environmental Science. Given
and they also affect the below are Major components of
environment. The study of human-environment interaction.
environmental psychology •Physical Environment: It includes aspect of natural
emphasises this interaction. environment such as climate, terrain, temperature, rainfall,
flora, fauna, etc.
•Social –Cultural Environment: It includes all aspects of
Man-Environment cultural environment such as norms, customs, process of
socialization, etc.
Interaction •Environmental Orientations: It refers to the beliefs that
people hold about their environment.
Physical environment directly or •Environmental Behaviour: It refers to the use of
environment by people in the course of social interactions.
indirectly affects our behaviour.For •Products of Behaviour: These include the outcomes of
people’s actions such as homes, cities, dams, schools, etc.
example, it has been observed that

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It is very important to understand Throughout human history, people
that human beings are part of the have been threatened by floods,
environment and degrading earthquakes, and other natural
environment will result in disasters. In recent times,
extinction of human beings and technological innovations and
other forms of life. Therefore, it is advances have brought us new
the prime responsibility of human potential threats from the
beings to maintain the environment, which are manmade.
environment in trim condition, its These threats are physically
destruction means destruction of harmful and stressful. These
human life. stressors are called pollutants and
basically there are four: air
Physical vs. Psychological
pollution, water pollution, noise
environment pollution and Crowding.
Kurt Lewin, a German We find many natural disasters
Psychologist, differentiated that affect human behaviour in
between physical environment and many ways. The earth quakes at
psychological environment. Latoor and Bhuj (2001) and Super
According to Lewin, life space is cyclone in Orissa (1999) not only
the whole psychological reality that caused extensive damage to
determines the behaviour of an property and physical environment
individual. He gave the following (uprooting of trees etc) but also
equation: had long-term effect on the lives of
B = f (L) = f (P.E) the people.
That is behaviour (B) of an There are various man-made
individual at a particular time is a disasters also. The technological
function (f) of life space, which disasters such as the Three Mile
contains the person (P) and Island disaster (1979), Chernobyl
environment (E). disaster (1986) and Bhopal Gas
Tragedy (1984) due to the leak of
Foreign hull - the environment (E)
methyl isocyanate or MIC etc. They
in the life space influences
had intense and long-term adverse
individual’s behaviour and other
effects on the lives of the people.
physical environment that does not
The victims of these disasters are
directly influence behaviour that is
still suffering from various health
called foreign hull.
problems such as intellectual
Environmental effects on disability, physically handicap,
human behaviour anxiety, depression, PTSD etc.

Environment has both nourishing

as well as destructive effects on
human beings.

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Effects of human behaviour gases like carbon monoxide,
on environment nitrogen dioxide, sulphur dioxide
etc., in the air that we breathe.
As indicated earlier human Interventions are required to
activities also affect the restore the quality of air.
environment. In fact, almost every
human being adds, through his Waste Material - The waste
activities, some effect that product of our activity ranges from
contributes cumulatively and sewage to garbage. It is a very
negatively to the environment we serious to manage. Much of the
live in. The effect of human activity sewage disposal is flushed
is long-term and irreversible and untreated into the rivers which has
will affect the lives of generations created serious problem of water
that are to follow. pollution. Now-a-days some efforts
are being made in pre-treating the
Planning for the future sewage disposal before throwing it
Environment is a naturally given in the rivers and sea.
capital having certain limits and Another serious problem emanates
we have to learn to use the from the tremendous amount of
resources judiciously. We have to garbage we produce. The disposal
pay greater attention to conserve of the garbage, especially of non-
water and air. Disposal of waste bio-degradable material (e.g.,
material we produce, ranging from plastic bags) is a serious problem.
sewage to garbage needs special We must take care not to use such
attentions. material, like plastic bags for daily
Water - We are using natural use. Recycling the waste should be
resources that we are not undertaken to save the land from
replenishing, and water is one the polluting effects of such
such resource. On our planet, garbage.
there are now at least 80 countries Evaluate yourself
having serious water shortage with
serious threat to agriculture. The 1. What is environmental
solution lies in harvesting rain psychology?
water and efforts are being made to 2. Discuss the major
use rain water to augment water components of human
supply. environment interaction.
Air - The quality of air has been 3. Discuss the concept of Life
adversely affected by automobile space.
and industrial emission. Large
4. Describe the effect of human
quantities of emissions from such
behaviour on environment
sources have increased the
and vice-versa.
presence of harmful and toxic

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 LESSON 24
PSYCHOTHERAPY
SUMMARY Chemotherapy - involves giving medicines. Three main
types of medicines are - Neuroleptics (major tranquilizers or
Psychologists have tried to antipsychotics) used to treat schizophrenia and mania.
Antidepressants are used to treat depression. Anxiolytic
understand the causes of drugs (minor tranquilisers) are used in anxiety disorders.
abnormal behaviour, and the best
way to treat it. There are four
Psychodynamic therapy
major models which deal with
psychological disorders and their Given by Sigmund Freud, this
treatment. These are known as model focuses on mental disorders
medical, psychodynamic, as caused by internal,
behavioural and the humanistic. psychological factors, which are
The term psychotherapy is used to basically unresolved, unconscious,
describe the process where a conflicts. The therapeutic
trained psychologist helps a approach is referred to as
disturbed person to behave Psychoanalysis. It focuses on
normally. The psychologist understanding the unconscious
generally uses one of the conflicts which are responsible for
approaches mentioned above. a person’s mental disorder, and
then to make the person
Medical Model consciously aware of it. This allows
According to the medical model, the person to deal more effectively
abnormality occurs due to a with his or her problems, without
physical cause, and can be treated using defense mechanisms. The
with the help of medicines. It goal of psychoanalysis is major
examines the role of genetics and modification of personality. Some
imbalances in neurotransmitters. of the techniques involved in
The therapeutic approaches used psychoanalysis are – free
in the medical model are referred association (patient says whatever
to as somatic therapy. Three comes to their), hypnosis and
somatic therapies which are dream interpretation.
currently used - chemotherapy,
Behavioural Model
electro convulsive therapy (ECT)
and psychosurgery. In the behavioural model,
disorders are viewed as learned
ECT - involves administering electric current for short maladaptive behaviours. Behaviour
duration through electrodes to the head of the person. Used
to treat depression, OCD. therapies use classical
conditioning principles, whereas
Psychosurgery - involves performing surgery on the brain to behaviour modification techniques
alter psychological functioning. Used in extreme
psychological disturbance. are based on operant conditioning.
In behaviour therapy, the

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assumption is that if maladaptive Another method involves use of
behaviour can be acquired through stimuli which have a negative
classical conditioning, they can impact in the form of punishment
also be unlearned by the same for voluntary maladaptive
principles. Different techniques in behaviour.
this model are - Operant conditioning can also be
Implosion therapy used to increase desirable
•The therapist exposes the person to mental behaviours by giving positive
images of the feared stimulus in the safety of reinforcement when the desirable
his room. The person is asked to imagine the
most frightening form of contact with the behaviour is carried out.
feared object. After a number of trials, the
stimulus loses its power to cause anxiety. A Social learning approach to
psychotherapy has emerged. This
Flooding
model is a link between behaviour
and cognitive model of personality.
•Individual is forced to face the situation
causing fear or anxiety Cognitive approaches view mental
disorders as caused by “irrational
beliefs” or faulty thinking. This
Systematic desensitization
therapy involves cognitive
•The person is asked to construct a series of restructuring or changing one’s
scenes or events which gradually lead the
person to face the object/situation which way of thinking.
causes the fear.
Humanistic Psychotherapy
There are a number of therapies According to the humanistic view
based on operant conditioning, but of personality, people are
all of them consist of three basic fundamentally good and seek
steps as following: growth and work towards better
ways of living.
I - Identification of the undesirable or
maladaptive behaviours. In the humanistic view,
psychological disorders are seen as
II - Identification of the reinforcers that maintain occurring because the external
the maladaptive behaviours. environment blocks us from
moving in the direction of personal
III - Restructuring the environment in such a way growth. People around us put
that the maladaptive behaviour is no longer
reinforced. pressure by their expectations
from us, they do not accept us as
One way to eliminate behaviours we are.
which are not desirable is to
If everyone around us gives us
remove the stimuli that maintain
unconditional positive regard there
them. This is based on the idea
would be hardly any gap between
that removing the stimuli will
what we are and what we desire to
extinguish the behaviour that was
be. This means there would be
earlier reinforced by it.

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little gap between the real self and
the ideal self. This leads to greater
harmony in our functioning,
termed as congruence.
The goal of humanistic therapy is
that the therapist by creating an
environment of unconditional
positive regard allows the client to
get in touch with his or her true
feelings and inner self. Then the
client has to take responsibility
and live more in accordance with
the strivings of the inner self. This
eventually leads to growth and
greater life satisfaction.

Evaluate yourself
1. What is psychotherapy?
2. Discuss the psychodynamic
and humanistic model of
psychotherapy.
3. List the basic steps of
behavioural therapy.

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 LESSON 25
HEALTH PSYCHOLOGY
SUMMARY external environment stress,
changes in social structure,
In order to enjoy life, one needs to
increased competition,
be healthy. People who are
consumerism – which are causing
unhealthy or sick, cannot perform
frustration, loneliness, conflict and
well and meet the various
loss of support. The result is that
demands of life. Health is
psychosomatic disorders are on
important for a person individually
the rise.
as well as socially. In order to be a
productive member of society, we Stress has a negative effect on
need an alert mind and an active physical health as well as
body. psychological well-being.
Technically, stress refers to our
The field of health psychology
response to events that are viewed
deals with psychological factors
as threatening and disrupting
which are important in
psychological functioning.The
maintaining and fostering health
situations or factors in the
and well-being. Also, it explores
environment that cause stress are
the factors which lead to the
called stressors.
condition of illness. It has become
increasingly clear that the life style
or our ways of thinking and
Major categories of stressors
behaving are contributing to the Stressful life events
health status of people. Experts
Hassles of everyday life
think that the factors causing
Work related stress
illness and death can be prevented
with the help of exercise, proper Catastrophic events like disasters
intake of nutritious food, and
changes in bad habits like Stress effect depends on the degree
smoking. of fit between person and
environment. Also, people vary in
Concept of Health and Well- certain dispositions like optimism,
being perception of control, health
Health refers to a state of physical, beliefs, emotional state, and
mental and spiritual well-being. It personality pattern which may
is a positive state and incorporates help or hinder coping with stress.
thriving and coping. In Indian thought the term
The quality of life of people in swastha (healthy) means the state
today’s world is being challenged of ‘being in oneself’. It is an auto-
from many quarters such as locus person who can be called
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swastha. Ayurveda or the science Threats to health
of life often refers to a state of
Many of the diseases and threats
balance or appropriateness (Sama)
to health which ultimately reduce
as an important component of
longevity are related to the ways
well-being and health.
we behave and conduct ourselves.
Health Promoting behaviours Some of the important ones which
Achieving health requires following increase the risk for health are as
certain patterns of behaviour. The follows:
important behaviours are
Alcohol and drug abuse
described below:
Smoking
Relaxation - it is very useful for
Use of tobacco
stress reduction. It involves deep
breathing. By holding one’s breath Poor nutritional habits
for a few seconds and exhaling Lack of exercise
slowly.
Unsafe sex (HIV, AIDS)
Exercise - regular exercise helps
in maintaining physical and Interventions for promoting
mental health. It strengthens the well being
heartand lungs and improves the
use of oxygen by the body. People with such successful ageing
are clearly different from the rest
Weight control - it is very difficult
in terms of three factors viz.- diet,
to control weight. Dietary physical activity, and involvement
intervention is necessary but often in community life.
insufficient for producing lasting
weight loss. Based on researches of a wide
variety, it is being felt that
Diet - dietary control involves meal ensuring health and wellness is
planning, cooking methods and possible with the help of adopting
eating habits. A healthy diet certain preventive strategies such
should be a goal for every one of as –
us.
Attending to health problems - It Primary Prevention - It tries to reduce or
is very important to attend to your eliminate the occurrence of preventable
health problems in time. illness and injury. It involves helping people
learn about behaviour and health,
Positive emotions - Recent promoting motivation and necessary skills to
studies indicate that the practice healthy behaviour, and modifying
poor health practices. It also involves
experiences of various positive generating awareness about immunization.
emotions enhance the status of
one’s health.

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 Secondary Prevention - The major goal of
this kind of prevention is to decrease the
severity of illness which a person suffers.
With the help of early detection, using
diagnostic tests that screen the disease,
steps may be taken for cure. People can
learn methods of self-examination of body
parts, and functioning of various organs,
that may help in prevention of disease.

Changing lifestyle - Mind and body both go

together. The various types of illnesses are
often caused by our beliefs and habits. In
achieving the optimum state of health it is
important to achieve the harmony of body
and mind. Ayurveda, suggests that health
and well being depend upon proper Ahara
(diet), Vihar (recreation), Achara (conduct)
and Vichara (thought)

Evaluate yourself
1. List the threats to mental
health.
2. What are the major stressors
in human life?
3. Discuss the different health
promoting behaviours.

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 LESSON 28
VOCATIONAL CHOICE AND VOCATIONAL
ADJUSTMENT
SUMMARY which help in getting certain
specific types of skills. Examples of
Work is a very important part of
professional courses are medicine
one’s life. Almost every type of job
(to become doctor), engineering etc.
requires a basic minimum level of
education. It also requires a person The minimum level of general
to have certain skills or abilities education which is required for
which will be necessary in order to getting certain jobs and for
carry out the duties on the job. It admission to certain courses for
is also important that personality special training is 10th standard.
and interests of person must Entry to the jobs at the lower level
match with the requirements of the in clerical, police and armed forces
job. requires minimum higher
Educational and Vocational secondary level of education.
Planning For many other jobs, such as those
through competitive examinations,
Without a basic minimum level of
the graduation (B.A./B.Sc./B.
education, you can only get jobs
Com.) degree is required. E.g., IAS,
which require manual labour. In
LIC agent, BHEL etc.
order to do a job, certain skills or
abilities are also required. These Ability and Personality
skills can partly be acquired by Characteristics Relevant to
education, partly by experience, Vocational Choice
and partly one naturally has some
skills. Each type ofoccupation requires a
characteristic pattern of abilities
General education in school and and personality traits. Study the
college serves the purpose of given model (RAISEC):
providing with certain basic skills
Realistic
like reading, writing and arithmetic •Energetic and physically and strong, good motor
skills. It also provides with coordination skills
•Mechanically inclined, aggressive
knowledge about environment and •Direct, stable, natural and persistent, prefer concrete to
abstract problem
surroundings, culture, and •preferred occupations- mechanic, engineer etc.
desirable attitudes and values in Investigative
•have a scientific bent-of-mind
accordance with the expectations •task-oriented, prone to thinking
of society. •vocations - scientist, researcher, zoologist and
psychologist.
Artistic
Apart from general education, •prefer unstructured situations with maximum opportunity
for self-expression
there are certain professional, •creative especially in the area of art and music
technical and vocational courses •prefer occupations of artist, writer, musician etc

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 Social must have interest in that job.
•involved with people and to work in groups and occupy
central positions in groups.
Interest is also very important for
•Possess good language and interpersonal skills deriving satisfaction from one’s
•enjoy activities that involve informing, training, curing,
helping etc. job.Tools and measures are
•Vocational preferences of such persons include social available to identify interest. With
work, school teacher etc.
Enterprising the help of these tools, a
•effective in selling, dominating, leading psychologist/vocational counselor
•strong desire to achieve organizational goals and economic
gain will be able to provide a clear
•aggressive, popular, self-confident, cheerful, social and picture of your interests.
high energy level
•Vocational preferences include business executive,
politician etc. Thus, in making a vocational
Conventional choice, it is necessary for a person
•prefer well-ordered environment and like systematic
activities involving to be aware of- minimum
•avoid situations involving social dealing or physical skills.
educational qualifications, the
•enjoy power and material possessions.
•Vocational preferences - banking, clerical jobs, traffic abilities and personality
policemen, shop salesman etc.
characteristics appropriate for that
Will You Be Able to Do This job, and interest.
Job? What is Job Satisfaction?
Psychological tests have been Job satisfaction is a positive
developed which help in preparing emotional state that occurs when a
a profile (description) of an person’s job seems to fulfil his/her
individual’s abilities and needs. It is not always related with
personality characteristics. When the money factor-because some
you apply for jobs in different people also work to satisfy their
organisations directly or through urge to work.Dissatisfaction in a
competitive examinations, the job occurs due to many factors.
organisations assess your abilities
and personality characteristics Factors Influencing Job
with the help of certain tests. Satisfaction
For getting any job, you first Organisational Factors Personal Factors
require a minimum educational •Rewards: Reward •Personality Traits: While
includes all incentives like choosing for a job, one
qualification but that is not raise in pay, perks, should see that he or she
enough. Certain skills, abilities facilities and promotion. has those personality
•Physical Working traits which are necessary
and personality characteristics are Conditions: The physical for that job.
working conditions like •Status and Seniority: It
equally important in getting a job availability of necessary has been found that
furniture, lighting higher a person’s position
and being able to perform it facilities, and work within the organisation,
hazards etc. the higher the job
effectively. •Cooperation: satisfaction level is
Cooperation and attitude reported.
Vocational Choice: The of the staff members is •Life Satisfaction: A
also an important factor person wants to establish
Emerging Perspective in the job satisfaction of
the person.
or reach a goal in his life
and it can be
accomplished through
For any person to carry out the work which one is
doing.
his/her job effectively, the person

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Importance of Job
satisfaction
Job satisfaction plays a major role
in our occupational life. It affects a
person’s - mental health, physical
health and output.
Work motivation – It is the
driving force behind one’s work.
The success of our
organisation/institution depends
largely upon the worker’s
motivation. When the employees of
any organisation have high
motivation, the output increases.

What is an Organisation?
An organisation is a social unit
which is formed with a specific
purpose. It is made up of two or
more people who work together on
a regular basis in order to reach a
common goal or set of goals. Thus,
in all organisations people work
together to reach specific goals.
E.g. – School, bank, police station,
courts etc.

Evaluate yourself
1. Discuss the different
personality traits and their
relations to vocational
choice.
2. Describe factors affecting job
satisfaction.

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 LESSON 29
STRESS AND YOUR HEALTH
SUMMARY of the throat or mouth, feeling sick
in the stomach, trembling etc.
These days the life has become fast
and the pressures are so many Generally, it is the vulnerable and
that we are in a stressful situation weak bodily system that gets
in some or the other way. Also, we affected by stress first. The
are not able to manage our resulting symptoms are therefore
stresses effectively. So, one should called psychosomatic reactions.
know what are the sources of Affective Reactions: These
stress and how to deal with them. reactions are emotional responses.
Concept of Stress People suffering from stress get
affected quickly and manifest
Stress means pressure and an symptoms of anxiety, depression,
uneasy experience. The causes of anger, irritability and having poor
stress can be - self, other control over the emotions.
individuals around you and your
environment. Cognitive Reactions: poor
concentration, inability to learn
Stress need not necessarily always anything new with same speed and
be negative. A little bit of stress efficiency, forgetting, inability to
helps us by motivating to perform take proper decision that too in
well. Thus, stress has both positive time, confusion, gate crashing of
and negative dimensions. The ideas, and negative or unhealthy
positive aspect of stress is termed thoughts.
as “eustress” meaning stress
producing positive results. The Behavioural reactions: crying,
negative dimension is called talking incoherently, irrelevant
“distress”. The negative dimension speech, hitting, and bashing or
of stress or distress often causes banging etc.
unpleasantness and leads to poor Stressors
performance.
Stressors are events and situations
Reactions to Stress to which people must react. These
stressors are perceived as mild and
The reactions to stress can be
motivating for some and
classified into the following
moderately or severely stressful for
categories:
others. They affect well-being of
Physiological Reactions: rapid people. The common stressors
pounding of heart and pulse, include the following - Boredom,
muscles becoming tense, dryness loneliness, Frustration, Conflicts
Competition, Increased

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responsibility Divorce, separation subordinates, poor working
and death of loved ones, Trouble in conditions are some of the
interpersonal relations such as occupational stressors experienced
parents, in-laws, friends, boss, by the people.
servants, Sexual difficulties and Personal: Personal stresses are
guilt feelings, Changes in the many. A personal stress is often
financial status, Change of caused by feelings of inadequacy,
residence, Payment of loans etc. inferiority and insecurity.
Stress reactions are the physical, Environmental: Unexpected
psychological and behavioural natural calamities such as fire,
responses (such as nausea, famine, earthquake, tsunami,
nervousness and fatigue) which floods etc. are environmental
people display in the face of stressors. Crowd, poor sanitation
stressors. Mediating factors such and pollution are also sources of
as the circumstances in which environmental stress.
stressors take place and each
person’s characteristics, makes Stress and Health
people more or less sensitive to Indications are there that 75% of
stressors.Stress tolerance varies human diseases are caused by the
across individuals. We can always stress experienced by people.
reduce the stress. Stress can act During stressful period, anxiety
as a promoter of self- and nervousness are quite
understanding. common symptoms. When these
Sources of Stress become intense, phobia may
develop. Some of the common
Sources of stress can be classified
phobias are:
into four categories, which are as
follows: Social phobia—fear of addressing
public audience (e.g., Stage fear).
Family: If you are experiencing
stress because one of your family Claustrophobia—fear of closed
members is seriously ill, then the places.
source of your stress is family. The Anxiety refers to a vague
other familial stresses include unpleasant feeling of impending
financial difficulty, quarrel between threat and danger. A person with
spouses (husband & wife) etc. severe anxiety will always be
Occupational/Educational: For a worried, unclear, confused and
student stress may be the indecisive. Sometimes excessive
examination, stay in hostel etc. A anxiety may lead to speech
teacher who is not teaching well problems like stuttering and
may add to the stress. Poor pay, stammering. Urinary problems like
over demanding boss, bed-wetting are commonly seen
uncooperative co-worker and among children.

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Stress and the Immune System – Evaluate Yourself
Stress can weaken the immune
1. Discuss different reactions
system and can make us victim of
such as physiological,
many diseases. If the stress is for a
psychological etc. to stress.
shorter period there is not much
2. What are the different
damage, but if the stress prolongs,
sources of stress?
it results in serious illnesses such
3. Define social phobia and
as cancer, heart disease,
claustrophobia?
headache, asthma and peptic
ulcer.

Stress and Health Problems

Stress can lead to certain cardiac
problems like hypertension, angina
and heart attacks. Eating
disorders can also be caused due
to preoccupation with stressful
situations. Sleep disorders can
also occur due to stress. The most
common stress related health
problems are cold and headache.
Psychosomatic diseases like
peptic-ulcer, asthma, essential
hypertension (high BP), are also
caused by stresses.
Stress Relief: In severe cases of
stress, an individual must consult
the psychologist for immediate
help. Mild to moderate stress can
be easily relieved through different
way such as: regular physical
exercise, relaxation, meditation,
thinking positively, seeking social
activities, certain management
techniques like time –management,
stress reduction programmers etc.
Medication such as stress drugs
must be used only in severe cases
and under medical supervision.

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 LESSON 30
STRESS MANAGEMENT AND WELL-BEING
SUMMARY Techniques for Stress Reduction

Stress is by and large manageable. Physical exercise, sports, and yoga,

If a scientific approach is followed etc. are found to be of immense
for managing stress, it can be value in preparing a person for
relieved. Stress management relaxation. Other scientific and
training refers to a package of systematic techniques are –
techniques that are used for Deep Muscle Relaxation -
helping the individuals cope with Experience of relaxation and
stress rather effectively. Wellness appreciation of difference between
refers to the good physical, tension and relaxation immensely
psychological and social helps the individual in maximizing
functioning of an individual. the feeling of calmness. It is also
Altering Bodily Reactions called progressive muscle
relaxation, because as the
and Relaxation
individual practices this technique,
Relaxation is just opposite to the experience of relaxation increases.
state of stress or tension. It is a
Biofeedback - In this procedure,
state in which one is able to think
based on skin response (GSR),
clearly about or reflect on a
feedback on brain waves (EEG)
problem. Just as stress can affect
and feedback on any other
the individual at physiological,
physiological parameter, the
affective, cognitive and behavioural
individual is made to study the
levels, relaxation also can
internal reactions to stress and
influence the individual at all these
relaxation. By giving the
levels.
individual, feedback whether
Bodily or physiological dimension he/she is in a state of stress or
is the one which responds first to relaxation, the individual can be
stress. Therefore, to combat stress made to alter the reaction in favour
effectively, one will have to regulate of relaxation which he/she will
the physiological changes that have to maintain as much as
occur because of stress. possible.
All the muscles in the body reflect Cognitive Strategies
stress by being rather rigid or
tight. Breathing gets altered. Heart The term cognition is closely
starts beating faster. Similarly, associated with thinking. Behind
almost all organs and systems every action there is a thought or
present in the body are affected by cognition. So, by altering the
stress. cognitive environment, behaviour

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can be modified. By making Enhancing Supportiveness
negative or unhealthy thoughts, of The Environment
positive or healthy, both the
experience and expression of stress As stress causes a lot of feelings of
can be minimized. insecurity in an individual, it
becomes essential and rather
Systematic desensitization - imperative on the part of the
individuals are given training at environment to be highly
thought level to cope with stress by supportive so as to make him/her
not being that emotionally feel secure. If the external
sensitive as he or she had been. All environment is also as negative
the situations are graded on the and as discouraging as the internal
intensity of stress that each environment (mainly cognitive or
situation produces. These thought environment), the
situations, then, are presented to individual will feel stress all the
the individual one by one who more.
imagines the situations and slowly
or gradually, he/she counters “Stress free” environment will be
those provoking situations with the characterized by certain features
pleasant scenes which bring like having regard for an individual
relaxation. without any conditions, empathy,
careful listening, providing useful
Thought stopping - The individual tips to overcome stress which
is actively helped to stop occurs mainly because of poor
entertaining those negative or resolution of conflicts, appreciating
useless unnecessary thoughts adaptive behaviour etc. Such a
which prevent effective positive environment will not only
functioning. strengthen the personality make-
Rational Emotive Behaviour up of the individuals, but also
Therapy (REBT) - it is a cognitive make the individuals learn certain
technique which helps the new skills important for effective
individual to think rationally and living.A person having warm and
realistically so that positive positive environment is less likely
emotion comes out of it. The to go in to stress.
individual is, thus, made to
Hobbies, Recreation and
understand the fact that every
successful action depends on
Leisure
rational or logical thinking which Hobbies, recreation and leisure
takes reality into account. provide a highly admirable support
Self-talk - is another method to individuals for overcoming
which is useful in preparing the stress. They help individuals (who
individual cognitively for effective are under stress due to several
management of stress. reasons) relax and gain much
wanted relief from stress.

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Leisure activities may be active which are determined by personal,
such as participation in sports or familial and professional goals etc.
in artistic creation or they may be The priorities can be divided as
passive like engaging in spectator short-term and long-term and
sports or art etc. They can be accordingly they have to be
solitary pursuits such as reading executed. Time available should be
or quiet contemplative activity. The calculated after deducting the time
leisure activities have a recreative spent for personal necessities.
function enabling the individuals
Yoga
to renew their energies.
Yoga is a way of life that promotes
Time Management physical as well as psychological
Time management is necessary for well-being. Yoga has eight main
effective use of the available time steps as following:
for doing many activities within a
short duration of time, thus, Yama: practicing self-regulation.
increasing the quality of the •Yama: practicing self-regulation.
performance and life. Time acts as •Niyama: observing behavioural norms.
pressure when we simultaneously •Pranayama: Pranayama is an exercise
meant to regulate breathing.
try to do many things without •Asanas: Asanas are the physical aspect of
priorities. Time management yoga in which postures are checked and
modified
techniques mainly involve (1)
•Pratyahar: Means withdrawing the
efficiency in doing things, (2) senses from the external objects and turn
planning, and (3) prioritizing. them inward.
•Dharna: is focusing of mind on a
Planning would involve particular object.
•Dhyan: study contemplation or
preparation, goal setting, meditation.
scheduling future events and •Samadhi: Extreme level of Dhyana when
activities like fixing up one loses sense of time and place.
appointments, setting deadlines,
maintaining calendar etc. Promotive values of Yoga
Distribution of work: Some people 1. Relief from tension, stress and
have a tendency to do every work strain, anxiety, frustration,
by themselves. A manager will be anger etc. Itproduces
efficient only when he/she relaxation, positive thinking,
distributes the work amongst self-confidence, self-awareness,
subordinates and gets it done. The development of personality,
allocation of the work must be improvement of memory,
done according to each one’s reduction of sleep deficit, etc.
capacity, interest and skills. 2. Patience, endurance,
cheerfulness,
Time Budgeting: Time-budgeting
straightforwardness, discipline
is similar to money budgeting. It is
and perseverance are also
done by considering priorities,

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 achieved by practising yoga 3. List the different techniques
systematically for a long time. of relaxation.

Dhyana (Meditation)
Dhyana (meditation) is focussing
one’s attention to a particular state
and not letting a thought disturb
it. The aim of meditation is to relax
the body and mind. Meditation can
provide inner peace and reduce
stress from the hustle and bustle
of daily life. Dhyana brings down
intense emotions. Pulse rate, skin
conductivity, and muscle tension,
become better due to meditation.
Therefore, almost all stress related
disorders such as high Blood
Pressure, migraine etc. can be
managed rather effectively through
meditation. Meditation gives
healthy thinking characterized by
clarity, good concentration and
intellectual power.

Physical Exercise and

Nutrition
If an individual goes without
proper physical exercise, he/she
loses control over the functioning.
Physical exercises to a great extent
trim the body and discipline the
mind. Adequate and balanced
nutrition helps the individual to
promote health. The best defence
for the demands of stress is a
healthy body.

Evaluate Yourself
1. Discuss the main steps of
yoga.
2. What are the steps to
manage time efficiently?

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