UNIT 4 THE STATE AS A SOCIAL .

INSTITUTION: ITS ROLE AND

IMPACT ON OTHER INSTITUTIONS
Contents
4.0 Objectives
4.1 Introduction
4.2 State
4.3 Constitution and Law
4.4 Legislature, Executive and Judiciary
4.5 Citizenship, Rights and Duties
4.6 Democracy, Elite Theory and Power
4.7 Welfare State: Liberty, Equality, Justice
4.8 Nationalism: Religion, Caste and Class
4..9 Civil Society, Community Organisations, Social Capital
4.10 Local Governance and Public Opinion
4.11 Let Us Sum Up
4.12 Key Words
4.13 Suggested Readings
4.14 Answers to Check Your Progress

4.0 OBJECTIVES
The objective of this unit is to make you familiar with the concept of state as an
institution and its impact on other institutions of society.
After going through the unit you will be able to-understand:
the role and impartance of the state in modern society;
the various wings.'of the government;
the importance of constitutioil and law; and
the concepts of civil society, sbcial capital, elite and public opinion.
- - -

4.1 INTRODUCTION

This block deals with the concept of the state as an institution, its impact on other
societal institutions. It also provides basic information on many other concepts
associated with the state and politics.

The modem state is a complex set of institutions, which are highly integrated and
structured. The persons comprising the state are not treated as individuals but as
citizens or voters. Since the laws provide them equality, all citizens are ideally
speaking (and this is provided in our constitution as well) treated equally with rights
and privileges. The state has built up a web of institutions to administer and govern.
The government is composed of individuals and officials occupying these institutions
who derive their authority from thci: office.
Social System and Social
sub-systems 4.2 STATE
A commcnity or society politically organised under one independent government
within a definite territory can be called a State. The state is a special institution,
which serves the interest of the whole community, or a class of society. The state
emerges at a definite stage of social development, and in order to understand the
state. social evolution, in general, must be understood first. Without understanding
the general laws of social development, the state and politics cannot be studied
objectively.

The main elements of a state are as follows:

Population
All states must have a population. No explicit or fixed figure can be considered as
the ideal size of population. There is no rule or political practice governing the
number of persons necessary to entitle a community to recognition as a State.
Some writers in the past have, however, undertaken to lay down within broad lines
certain principles, which should determine the size of the population, necessary for
the existence of a State, and some have even assumed to fix exactly the minimum
and the maximum number of inhabitants, but manifestly any such rule would be
arbitrary.

Territory
Territory is another essential physical constituent of the State. Territory of the State
consists not only of a definite portion of land, but also includes water and air space
within its boundary. It also extends in addition to a distance of three miles into the
sea fiom its coast, an area called 'the territorial waters'. The state boundaries may
be natural that is, they may be bodies of water, mountain ranges, and deserts, or
artificial, like stones: trenches, walls etc. There is no rule or practice concerning
the extent of territory necessary to constitute the home of a State, any more than
there is, regarding the amount of population.

Government
A mere mass of people occupying a practical portion of territory does not constitute
a State until the people have organised themselves politically, and established a civil
government. There must be some political agency that comnands and regulates the
governed who obeys. The government exercises the authority of the State.
Government is a narrower term than the State, being only part of it. The State
includes both the government and the governed. The government is the established
form of political administration of a State.

Sovereignty
It means the supreme and ultimate power of the State by virtue of which it may
command and enforce obedience. It is this. which distinguishes the State from all
other associations and organisations. Sovereignty is chaacteristic of the State, not
of the government, though the government on behalf of the State may exercise it.
There can be no State without sovereignty.

International Recognition
In reality, international recognition is the outcome of the sovereignty of the State,
not the condition of its existence. States are sometimes defined as those entities
recognized by other States. A State recognizes another State when its government The State as a Social
Institution: Its Role and
is convinced that the other State has the characteristic of a State. Recognition is the - ~ - --- -
K-
on Other Institutions
voluntary action of one State for another.
Recognition can be of two types: de.fucfo and de.jut-e.
Defucfo recognition means the State is recognized as existing in fact, but not
necessarily in law. De jzrre recognitioi~implies that the State is a rightful one, of
legitimate origin and existence.
Role of the State and Impact on other Institutions
The State takes the responsibility to provide all the public goods such as education,
health care, drinlung water, basic infrastructure in both rural and urban settings, and
provide social security, etc.
In India, the Tenth Plan, in this emerging scenario, inakes a distinct shift from an
investment-oriented approach to setting a reform agenda designed to achieve the
social targets through effective governance.
It relies on the mobilization of the energies of Central and State Governments,
Panchayat Raj institutions and Non - Governmental Organisations for the
accomplishment of the clearly spelt out tasks of social development. Programs
intended for the poor or the targeted groups must be delivered to them effectively.
There are many radical changes in the style of hctioning of Government and its
agencies have been asked to bring about greater efficiency, transparency and
accountability.

4.3 CONSTITUTION AND LAW

The term "law"is applied to rules for the guidance of huinan conduct.
No group of people can live longer in peace and tranquility without such rules of
conduct. Rules need not essentially require to have been written. These can be in
the form of traditions and conventions as well.
The word law has been derived from the term 'lug ' which means somekng which
lies fixed. So it follows that the 'law' in principle which is fixed or uniform or
"generally followed". Gettell has classified the laws that govern the conduct of
human beings under three categories: (i) moral laws (ii) social laws, and (iii) political
laws.
The people generally obey the law because of (a) the force of the State, (b) the
promotion of common good, or (c) n ~ l econforming habit. However, if we genuinely
feel that a particular law is unjust, we should create public opinion against that law.
Mahatma Gandhi has shown how the techniques of non-cooperation and civil
disobedience can be used effectively against autocratic regimes.
Check Your Progress I
Note: a) Use the space provided for your answers.
b) Check your answers with those provided at the end of the unit.
1) What is a state and what are its basic elements?
Social System and Social
sub-systems 4.4 LEGISLATURE, EXECUTIVE AND JUDICIARY
Legislature
The legislature is the most important of the three organs of the government because
it represents the people and tries to represent their hopes and aspirations in the
shape of laws. Legislature is the official rule making body of a political system.

The Indian Constitution has adopted the parliamentary system of government, a

system in which the executive is responsible to the legislatures constituted by the
election.

The primary function of the legislature is to legislate both in the sense of scrutinizing
the details of laws and in the sense of authorizing or legitimising the passage of laws.

Being a federal polity, legislative organs have been provided in our Constitution at
the Union as well as the State.

Executive
The executive is that part of the organisation of the government, which is concerned
with the enforcement of the laws enacted by the legislature as well as general
administration.

With the conversion of the modem state into welfare state, the hnctions of the
executive have enormously expanded.

The functions which are performed by the executive in different parts of the world
are the following:
a) Maintenance of law and order
b) Protection of country and maintenance of diplomatic relations
c) The enactment of.the laws.
d) The chief executive enjoys the right to grant pardon, amnesty, reprieve, etc. to
the persons punished by the law courts.
e) Miscellaneous functions like formulation of national plans for greater prosperity
of the country, distribution of honours and titles to the persons who are
distinguished in their respective fields or render meritorious services to the state.
Judiciary
'Thejudiciary is the most important organ of the governnlent because it is through
it that justice is realized as defined by law, both as between one private citizen and
another and as between private citizens and members of government.
'The term judiciary is generally applied to designate those officers of the government
whose function is to apply the existing law to individual cases.
1t is the responsibility of these officers to discover the relevant facts in any case and
protect the innocent from injury by either the legislature or the executive branch of
government.
The main functions of judiciary are: (a) administration of justice (b) protection of
the rights and liberties (c) protectio~~ and interpretation of the constitution
(d) protection of federation, (e) the advisory role to the executive, etc.
check Your Progress I1 The State as a Social
Institution: Its Role and
Note: a) Use the space provided for your answers. Impact on Other Institutions

b) Check your answers with those provided at the end of the unit.
1) . What are the functions of the Executive?

4.5 CITIZENSHIP, RIGHTS AND DUTIES

Citizenship
In traditional States, most of the population ruled by the King or Emperor showed
little awareness of, or interest in, those who governed them. Neither did they have
any political rights nor influence. Normally only the dominant classes or more
affluent groups felt a sense of belonging to an overall political community.

In modem societies, by contrast, most people living within the borders of the
political system are citizens, having common rights and duties and knowing them-
selves to be part of a Nation. While there are some people who are political
refugees or are 'state less' almost everyone in the world today is a member of a
'definite national political order.

Rights
Rights are the social requirements of a social man or woman for the development
of hisher personality and society at large. There are two aspects of rights: personal
and social. Rights have a social character and are given only to the people living
in society and wbrking in the overall interest of society.

According to Green a right is a power of acting for hisher own ends.. .secured to
an individual by the community on the supposition that it contributes to the good
of the community.

Duties
There are no duties without rights and no rights without duties. A duty means an
obligation imposed by law on an officer or a private person. As such, duty
presupposes that one is capable.of knowing the rules. Infants, idiots and animals
are not supposed to know the rules and to act inaccordance with them. However
we attribute rights to infants, idiots and even animals.

4.6 DEMOCRACY, ELITE THEORY AND POWER

Democracy
The term democracy is derived from two Greek words 'demos' which means
people and 'kratia' meaning the government. The boundaries of democracy have
been widened, so as to add social and econon~icjustice to the principle of political
equality. Abraham Lincoln projected democracy as "gol)ernment of the people,
Social System and Social .for the people und by [he people. " Democracy is not a mere form of government.
Sub-systems
It is also n form or conditioil of society as well as an order in which the ownership
of property is widely and rather evenly distributed.

Elite Theory
The elite theory was first developed by two Italian sociologists, namely, Vilfredo
Pareto and G. Mosca.
Elite theory claims that the personal qualities of individuals separate the rulers from
the ruled. The elite owe their position to the superiority of their personal characteristics
or attributes. For example, they may possess considerable organisational ability, a
talent that Mosca believed to be basis for leadership. On the other hand, they may
possess a high degree of cunning and intelligence, qualities that Pareto saw as one
of the prerequisites of power.
Later versions of elite theory place less emphasis on the personal qualities of the
powerful and more on the institutional framework of the society. They argue that
the hierarchical organisation of social institutions allows a minority to monopolize
power.
Elite theory rejected the idea of communism as utopia and argues that an egalitarian
society was an illusion. It saw Marxism as ideology rather than an objective analysis
of society. Elite theory argues that all societies are divided into two main groups,
a ruling minority, and the ruled and this situation is inevitable. According to elite
theory. if the proletarian revolution occurs, it would merely result in the replacement
of one ruling elite by another.

The economic ~stsuccture,be it capitalist or communist, will not alter the inevitability
of elite rule. Apart from the personal qualities of its members, an elite owes its
power to its internal organisation. It forms a united and cohesive minoiity in the face
of an unorganised and fragmented mass. In Mosca's words, 'the power of the
minority is irresistible as against each single individual in the majority'.

The elite takes inajor decisions, which affect society. Even in so-called democratic
societies, these decisions will usually reflect the concerns of the elite rather than the
wishes of the people. Elite theorists picture the illajority as apathetic and unconcerned
with the major issues of the day. The mass of the population is largely controlled
and manipulated by the elite, passively accepting the propaganda. which justifies
elite rule.

Power
Power means strength or the capacity to control. It is described as the ability of
an individual or group to hliill its desires and implement its decisions and ideas. It
involves the ability to influence as well as control the behaviour of others even
against their will. N.P. power is a multifaceted concept admitting various definitions.
Some emphasize different bases of power (for e.g.: wealth, status, knowledge,
charisma, force, authority); some others talk of different forms of power, such as,
influence, coercion or control; yet others discuss power from the point of view of
its uses such as individual or conlmunity ends, political ends, economic ends etc.
In sum the concept of power involves a
a) Relational situation where power is exercised by one or other(s).
b) It is concerned with bringing about a consequence.
 . -" P

The State as a Social

4.7 WELFARE STATE: LIBERTY, EQUALITY
- Institution: Its Role and
Impact on Other Institutions
AND JUSTICE
Welfare State
The term welfare state was originally applied to Britain during the Second World
War. After the war the term came into popular usage, as a convenient way of
referring to the social and economic policy changes taking place, which according
to those sponsoring them, would transform British society.

There were these main services provided by the Welfare State:

1) The direction and extension of a range of social services, including social
security. The National Health Services, Education, Housing, Employment service
ahd welfare services for elderly and disabled people and for deprived children.
2) The maintenance of full employment as the paramount aim and policy.
3) A Program of Nationalization.

It was these three strands together which constituted the welfare State.

As a response to mass democracy, the welfare state can be viewed as stemming

from demands for greater e q d t y and recognition of social rights to welfare services
and socio-economic security.

As in India, the picture of a 'democratic republic' which the preamble envisages

is the democratic system not only from the political but also from the social
sdndpoint. In other words, it envisages not only a democratic form of Government
but also a democratic society, infbsed with the spirit of 'justice, liberty, equality and
hternity '.

This democratic republic which stands for the good of all the people is embodied
in the concept of a 'Welfare State' which inspires the Directive Principles of State
Policy.

Liberty
The idea of liberty has been the most powerful weapon in the hands of the unarmed
and it has defeated the strong enemies of dictators and imperialists. The term liberty
is derived from the Latin word liber that means free. Sometimes it is identified with
the absence of restraint-a negative meaning. Sometimes it is identified with the
availability of certain socioeconomic conditions in which manlwoman may develop .
their personality-a positive meaning.

Equality
Equality does not mean identical treatment to all. It means proportional equality-
equal among equals and inequality among unequals. The basis of treating equals and
unequals should be rational and just.

Explaining the meaning of equality, Laski maintains that equality means the following
thmgs: i

1) The end of special privileges in the society

2) Adequate opportunities are laid open to all and each may'develop his/ her
wrsonalh. ,
Social System and Social .
3) All must have access to social benefits and no one should be restricted on the
Sub-Systerng
ground. The inequalities by birth or.because of parent and hereditary causes
are unreasonable.

4) Absence of economic and social exploitation.

Justice
In different social systems, there are different conceptions of justice. The main
difficulty in definingjustice is that it is not an independent concept. Justice is closely
associated with the system of values and the behaviour of social systems. Every
system is governed by certain norms and values and these in turn determinejustice.
With the change of time and circumstances values undergo change that brings a
change in the concept of justice also.

The Indian Scenario

Since independence, active participation of people in the national democratic process
has articulated itself through mobilization of a plurality of political structures or
political parties, which emerge as new forms of macro structures of social change
and modernization in India.
The significance is directly socio-structural since their commitment is primarily to a
legitimate access to sources of power.
A unique feature of political macro-structure in India has been the continuity of a
single party (Congress) dominance in the sphere of political power, which was only
partially broken in general elections of 1967.
This provides the historical setting for any analysis of political structure of India in
relation to the process of modernization.
The political ii-amework of modernization is essentially rooted in the changing sources
of legitimation of authority and process of its di&sion and centricity in the social
structure.
In a society having a traditional polity, source of powefis in the traditionally I

established and institutionalized offices of king, chieftains, or priest-rulers who have

had access to this office by virtue of qualities ascribed to them. I

The norms, which form the basis of allocation of these political offices, are inequitably
distributed on the hierarchical principle of caste or other similar status groups. The
incumbents to. political office have an authoritarian character and conformity to
political norms is arbitrary. In the sense that, the sphere of action, which may be
truly be called 'political' or which has to do with policy formulation for the nation
or the community as a whole is limited to a selected few, is also traditionally closed.
In such a system authority has a hierarchical character and not consensual. It is .
undifferentiated from other roles of incumbencies vis-a-vis their role in power
structure.

Education
The state provides the largest number of educational institutions in our country. The
state in India, through its Constitution had laid ''permanent provisions" of education
for minorities, scheduled castes and scheduled tribes. Under the permanent provisions
of the Indian constitution, No citizen shall be denied admission into any educational
institution maintained by the state or receiving State aid, on grounds only of religion,
race, caste, language or any of them [Article 29(2)].
Further, all- minorities, whether based on religion or language, shall have the The State as a Social
Institution: Its Role and
fundamental right to establish and administer educational institutions of their choice on Other Institutions
[Art. 30(1)1 and the state shall not, in granting aid to educational institutions,
discriminate against any educational institution on the ground that it is under the
management of a minority, whether based on religion or language [Art. 30(2)].

Finally, it is the duty of the state to provide free and compulsory education (Art.
45.).The state shall endeavour to raise the level of nutrition and standard of living
and to improve public health and to prohibit consumption of liquor and intoxicating
drugs except for medical purposes [Article 471.

NATIONALISM, RELIGION, CASTE AND CLASS

Nationalism
Nation - States are associated with the rise of Nationalism, which can be defined
- as a set of symbols and beliefs providing the sense of being part of a simple political
community. Thus, individuals feel a sense of pride and belonging in being Indian,
British, American, Canadian, or Russian.

Probably people have always felt some kind of identity with social groups of one
form or another : their family, village, or religious community. Nationalism, however,
made its appearance only with the development of the modern state.

Culture and Religion:

The Indian state plays a significant role in safeguarding the religions. The unity and
fraternity of the people of India, professing numerous faiths has been sought to be
achieved by enshrining the ideals of a 'secular state' which means that the state
protects all religions equally and does not itself impose a state religion.

This itself is one of the glowing achievement of Indian democracy when her neighbours
such-& Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, and Burma, uphold a particular religions
as the state religion. In India on the other hand the state will neither establish a
religion of its own nor confer any special patronage upon any particular religion.
The state shall not compel any citizen to pay any taxes for the promotion or
maintenance of any particular religion or religious institutions.

No religious instruction shall be provided in any educational institution wholly provided

by state funds. Every person is guaranteed the freedom of conscience and the
freedom to profess, practice, and propagate his own religion. Where a religious
community is in the minority, the constitution goes further to enable it to preserve
its culture and religious interest.

According to Article 29 of the Indian constitution, the state shall not impose upon
it any culture other than the community's own culture.

Such community shall have the right to establish and administer educational institutions
of its choice and the state shall not, in granting aid to educational institutions,
discriminate against such an educational institution maintained by a minority community
on the ground that it is under the management 0f.a religious co,mmunity [Art. 301.

Caste and Politics

Caste is gradually taking up new forms and functions, leaving its traditional ones.
It has specially become more influential in the field of public life and politics. It is
Social System and Social playing an important role in India in political matters. A brief discussion follows as
Sub-systems
to why and how these two institutions have come closer to each other and with
what consequences.

The first and foremost cause of each entering the fields of the other is that social
life is the root for both. Political relationships are essentially social relationships. It
is a system of seeking and attaining social and economic dominance. The political
and administrative structures of a country are merely the projections of the social
system and social relationships existing in a particular phase of time. In a society
where interactional pattern and institutional arrangements are dominantly caste-
ridden, politics cannot but be influenced by caste. ,

According to Rajini Kothari 'those in India who complain of casteism in politics are
merely looking for sort of politics which has no basis in society. They probably lack
any clear conception of either the nature of politics or the nature of the caste I

system'. The nature of political democracy has brought caste and politics closer to
each other. Politics is a competitive enterprize. Its purpose is the acquisition of i
power for the realization of certain goals, and its process is one of identifjing and
1
manipulating existing allegiance in order to mobilize and consolidate positions. I
Therefore, the core of politics is the organisation and mobilization of the masses
towards some issues by a leader or a party.

Such mobilizations are done based on group considerations and group allegiances,'
j
for all the groups cannot be mobilized on one issue in one direction due to the
difference in the hndamental nature and interest. ii
Thus, caste, which has divided a society for centuries, serves as the best technique f
of grou? mobilization. The politicians find caste an extremely well articulated and
flexible basis for organisation. Since power and prestige are no more being offered 1
based on caste the lower caste people have naturally been prompted to accept
political involvement as the other means out. I
i
The people of all categories have tried to mobilize public support in their favor by
taking caste as a basis for propaganda since it gives a readymade ground for such
mobilization in Indian society. Uttar Pradesh, Andhra ~radesh,and Bihar provide
good examples of a rapid succession of various caste groups into factional network
of politics, which provide the best channels of mobility.
Class and Society
Classes are those social groups, which occupies specific high and low position in
I
a given society. Social classes arise from the consequence of a division of labor.
They are made up of people of similar social status who regard one another as
social equals. Each class is a sub-culture, with a set of attitudes, beliefs, values and
behaviour norms, which differ from those of other classes.
. Social classes are based on total social and economic position in the comrnuhity,
including wealth, income, occupation, education, self-identification, hereditary
prestige, group participation, and recognition by others.
Class lines are not clearly drawn but represent points along a continuum of social
status
I
The exact size and memberihip of a given class is difficult to establish. Class sub-
cultures prepare children to retain the status of their parents.The idea of Marx and
I i
Weber regarding class are discussed below followed by a review of the modern The State as a Social
Institution: Its Role and
approaches to class analysis in sociology. Impact on Other Institutions

Karl M a n
For Marx, the term class has a number of different applications, but the essential
aspects of Marx's general model of social class are clear:
a) Every society has to produce a surplus to feed, house and-clothe dependent
children, the sick and the elderly Class differences begin when one group of
people claim resqurces that are not consumed for immediate survival as their
private property.
b) Classes, therefore, are defined in terms of ownership (or non-ownership) of
productive property, which makes the taking of surplus possible. At different
times in human history different forms of property (e.g.: slaves, water, land,
capital) have been crucial in shaping social relationships, but all class systems
are characterized by two major classes. The most important class relationship
according to Marx was that found in capitalism, between the bourgeoisie and
the proletariat. '

Max Weber
Weber's analytical conceptioi~of class is regarded as the best and most influential
alternative theory of class Unlike Marx, Weber emphasized other factors, which
prompted inequality. In particulal; he considered status or honour and prestige as
a distinct variable.

He has emphasized the link between class status and power. He argues that a dass
is a category or a group of people who share similar 'life chances'. Status achieved
is an important factor in determining the class position. With Marx, he saw ownership
and non-ownership as basic criterion, but Weber gives more importance to non-
economic factors.

Weber also differs from Marx in viewing bureaucracy as a rational and achieved
system of power in modem societies. Weber 's stress on a variety of factors influencing
opportunities and rewards has made his approach to the analysis of class and social
stratification very influential in sociological theory.

Check Your Progress I11

Note: a) Use the space provided for your answers.
b) Check your answers with those provided at the end of the unit.
1) Mention briefly how Weber differs from Marx?
Social System and Social
Sub-systems 4.9 CIVIL SOCIETY, COMMUNITY
ORGANISATIONS, SOCIAL CAPITAL
Civil Society
aroadly, civil society can be conceived as including all public political non-state
activity occurring between government and family. Civil Society comprises all
independent voluntary and private sector activities that include individuals and
households, the media, business and civic institutions and organisations, etq. Civil
society organisations have been responsible for advancing political freedom,
safeguarding basic rights, enhancing civil institutions and furthering social
development at a much lower cost than the government. These responsibilities are
reflected in the activities of non-governmental organisations, social movements,
community-based people's organisations, religious groups, peasants associations,
consumer groups and trade unions. The civil society has a special role for those
who are excluded from the formal structures of governance, such as women. the
poor, and minorities (ethnic, religious, racial), civil society institutions often welcome
alternatives.

The stronger or more dense and vibrant the civil Society, the better the democracy .
functions. Civil Society is a precondition for democracy.

Community Organisations.
The community based people's organisations are also important contributors to
good civic governance. These organisations are defined as democratic organisations
that represent the interest of their members and are accountable to them. The
tradition to organize collectively theucommunitybased organisations to deal with
community issues llas a long history. It is the people themselves who initiate these
organisations and formulite their programmes. Non-governmental organisations are
commanding greater attention within civil society as vehicles for social service
delivery, advocacy and empowerment.

Social Capital
Social capital promotes democratization in general, and democratic periormance in
particular. Social capital is the ability of people to work together for common
purposes in groups and organisations. Social capital can be defined simply as the
existence of a certain set of illformal values or norms shared among members of
the group that pern~itcooperation among them. Social capital involves features of
social organisations such as networks, norms and social trust that facilitate cooperation
and coordination for mutual benefit.

Like other forms of capital, social capital is productive, making possible the
achievement of certain ends that would not be attainable in its absence. If one
wishes to promote democratic governance, one should support networks and, for
instance, cooperative cormnullity development schemes.

4.10 LOCAL GOVERNANCE AND PUBLIC OPINION

Local Self-Governance: Panchayati Raj
Panchayati Raj in the rural self-government system in India. Panchayati Raj system
becomes very importanf in the Indianscontext where almost 80 percent of the
people reside in rural areas. Panchayati Raj in India was inaugurated as a
consequence of the recommendations of Balwai~thRai Mel~tacommittee set up in The State as a Social
Institution: Its Role and
1957, to study the community developnlent programme and national extension on Other Institutions
service launched in 1952 and 1953 respectively.

In 1992, the 73rd Constitutional Amendment was enacted, which gaveconstitutional

status to Panchayati Raj institutions. It also makes it obligatory on all the States to
have the three-tier system' at (a) the village level, (b) the intermediate level and (c)
the district level.

Public Opinion
Public opinion is said to be the basis of democracy. It is the link between the
government and the people. The term public opinion is commonly used to denote
the aggregate of views the people hold regarding matters that affect or interest
them, their community and society. The people's conceptions of political personalities,
institutions and ideologies matter in the formulation of opinion. In democracy the
continuance and the fall of the governments depend upon public opinion.

Public opinion is created through means like mass media, political parties, pressure
groups, elections, debates in the legislature, educational institutions, public meetings
etc. The press, radio, television and cinema are some of the several means of
carrying political, social and religious ideas to the people. That is why a lot of
emphasis is laid on freedom of press in a democracy.

4.1.1- LET US SUM UP

The political trends in India since independence have largely been a series of
reconciliations like (a) the demands articulated by regional interest groups, (b)
linguistic formation of states in the political realm, (c) emphasis on mixed economy
in the sphere of economic policy, (d) ideology of secularism in religion and culture,
and (e) neutrality in international relationship, etc. These are all reflections of
predominantly reconciliatory of political modernization in India.

The reconciliatory approach is also reflected in the adjustment between 'traditional

institutions' in politics, caste associations, kinship groups and ethnic solidarities.
They have adapted themselves to the needs of modern democratic political culture
in large measure quite successfully and with fewer distortions.

Some maladjustment is however, natural in the process.Ho&ever, so far, the

reconciliatory orientation of Indian politics has succeeded in absorbing their shocks
because of the natural elasticity of the Indian institutions and built-in tendency of
tolerance in the cultural tradition of India. We may speculate that in future among
the political protest movements threatening the political structure, reconciliatory
orientation will triumph again and again. This might render the place of polii'cal
modernisation of India slow but it will certainly minimise the cost of social
transformation.

KEY WORDS
Civil society : It consists of groups, organisations and institutions, both
formal and informal, which act independently of the
State and the m.arket to promote diverse interests in the
society.
Social System and Social Social capital : The capital which obtains from networks of
Sub-systems
relationships, trust, reciprocity and norms that
facilitate collective and coordinated action,
thereby increasing the efficiency of the community
and benefiting the participating members and the
community at large.

4.13 SUGGESTED READINGS

Arora, Prem (198 1), Political Science - Comparative Politics, Cosmos Bookhive
Private Limited, New Delhi.
Jain, M.P. (1989), Politicul Theory, Authors Guild Publications, New Delhi.
Mishra, K.K. (1988), Political Theory, S. Chand and Company, New Delhi.
Narang, A.S. (1996), Indian Government and Politics, Gitanjali Publishing House,
New Delhi.
Tayal, B. B. (1990), Political Theory and Indian Democracy, Arya Book Depot,
New Delhi.

4.14 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Check Your Progress I

1) A society politically organised under one independent government within a

definite territolial boundary can be called a State. The main elements of a state
are population, territory, government, sovereignty, and international recognition.

Check Your Progress I1

1) The main functions of the executive are:
a) Maintenance of law and order
b) protection of country and maintenance of diplomatic relations
c) The executive also plays a significant role in enactment of the laws.
d) The chief executive enjoys the right to grant pardon, amnesty, reprieve,
etc. to the persons punished by the law courts.
e) Miscellaneous functions like formulation of national plans for greater
prosperity of the country, distribution of honours and titles to the persons
who distinguish themselves in their respective fields or render meritorious
services to the state.
Check Your Progress I11
1) Weber, unlike Marx, emphasised other factors that prompted inequality,
particularly; he considered status and prestige as a distinct variable. Weber
stressed divisions within classes and empirical changes in class boundaries to
. much greater extent that than Marx.

Weber also differs from Marx in viewing bureaucracy as a fundamental nexus

of power in modern societies.