Chapter-4

Laws of Motion
Course Content
• Laws of motion, conservation of linear momentum, qualitative concepts of rocket propulsion.
Friction and its cause, Static and kinetic friction, self-adjusting nature of friction, laws of limiting
friction, rolling friction, angle of friction and angle of repose, methods to reduce friction.

Force can be defined as a push or pull which either changes or tends to change the state of rest or of
uniform motion of a body. The force is a vector quantity measured in Newton in the SI system of units and
in dynes in the CGS system of units. There are several laws which are basically originated from the
Newton’s Laws; which govern the concepts of motion and description.

Inertia: “In the absence of an external force, the inability of a body to change its state by itself is called
inertia.”

E.g. if there is a book on the table, the book has no ability to change its position/state itself.
It will remain on the table, as long as the student not touches it. This inability of the book to not change its
state by itself is called inertia. On the other hand, it will change, its state, when a force acts on it (touch by
student). This is due to force.

Newton’s first law of motion or law of inertia: It states that, “everybody continues in its state of rest or
of uniform motion in a straight line, unless it is compelled by some external force to change that state.”

This can be explained as:

1. If there is a book on the table, it remains at rest as long as no force acts on it.
2. If a bi-cycle is in uniform motion, it will not stop, not turn to any direction, and not be slow or fast
until a force is not act on it.

Applications of Law of force:

1. When a running horse suddenly stops, the rider falls forwards, because the body of the rider is in
motion, so tends to keep on moving; due to the inertia. So, the rider falls towards.
2. When we hit a carpet with a stick to remove the dust. This is also due to inertia. When a carpet is hit
with a stick, it moves but the dust particles remain at rest. So, they get departure from the carpet.
3. When we shake the branch of a mango tree, the mangoes, get down.
4. A man jumping from a moving train/bus may fall down because when the feet touches the ground,
they come to rest, but duet to inertia, the upper part of body tends to keep on moving. As a result
the body/man may fall down.
5. If a cloth placed under a book, is given a sudden pull it goes out without disturbing the book.
Because the book continuous to be at rest due to inertia, when the cloth is suddenly pulled out.
6. The mud from the wheels of a moving vehicle flies off tangentially.
7. When a vehicle starts to move forward suddenly, the passengers fall back.
1
Linear Momentum or Momentum: “It is defined as the total quantity of motion contained in a body and
is measured as the product of its mass and velocity.”

If m is the mass of a body and v

⃗ is the velocity; then:

⃗ ) =mv
Momentum (P ⃗

Or ⃗P = mv
⃗

As it is clear that the momentum is the product of mass and velocity which are scalar and vector
respectively. So on the whole the momentum is a vector quantity.

Units:

as ⃗P = mv
⃗ ⇒ unit of ⃗P = unit of m × unit of v
⃗

⇒ unit of ⃗P = Kg × ms−1 = Kgms −1

Hence the unit of momentum in SI system is Kgms-1 and in CGS system is gm.cm.s-1

Dimensional formula:

Dimensional formula of ⃗P = Dimension formula of m × dimensional formula of v

⃗

= M × LT −1 = [MLT −1 ]

Newton’s Second Law of Motion:

“It states that the rate of change of momentum of a body w.r.t. time is directly proportional to the external
force applied on it and the change in momentum takes place in the direction of applied force.”

⃗ be the momentum of a body, F

Let P ⃗ be the force acting on it. Then according to the 2nd law
of motion;

force ∝ rate of change of momentum w. r. t. time

⃗
dP ⃗
dP
⇒ ⃗F ∝ ⇒ ⃗F = K − − − (1)
dt dt
Where K is the proportionality constant, it is generally taken as 1.

So, from (1)

⃗
dP
⃗F =
dt
Measure of force: If a body having mass m, moving with velocity v
⃗ , then;

2
 ⃗P = mv
⃗ − − − (2)

⃗
dP d dv
⃗
but; ⃗F = = (mv
⃗)=m = ma⃗
dt dt dt
dv
⃗
⃗ = ma⃗ {where a⃗ = accelration =
or F }
dt

In the vector form: If the force produces acceleration a⃗ such that ax, ay, az are the magnitudes of
the components of acceleration along X-axis, Y-axis and Z-axis respectively, then;

⃗F = m(îax + ĵay + k̂az ) − − − (1)

If fx, fy, fz are components of force along X-axis, Y-axis, Z-axis then:

⃗F = (îfx + ĵfy + k̂fz ) − − − − − (2)

From the equations (1) and (2) it is clear that;

Fx = max , Fy = may & Fz = maz − − − (3)

The set of equations represented by (3) expresses Newton’s law of motion in component form.

In the scalar form this 2nd law is generally written as: F=ma

Dimensional Formula: from the formula, F=ma

Dimensional formula of force = Dimensional formula of of m × dimensional formula of a

LT −1
= M. = [M. LT −2 ]
T
Units:

1. In SI system the unit of force is Newton.

As; F=ma⇒1 Newton=1kg×1ms-2

Thus, “one Newton is that force which produces an acceleration of 1ms-2 in a mass of 1Kg.”

2. In CGS system the unit of force if dyne or called dynes also.

⇒as F=ma⇒1 dyne=1gm.1cms-2

Thus, “one dyne is a force which produces an acceleration of 1cms-2 in a mass of 1gm.”

3. Relation between Newton and Dyne:

As F=ma
3
 ⇒1 Newton=1Kg. 1ms-2=1000gm×100cms-2

⇒1 Newton=105gm.cm.s-2=105dyne

1 Newton = 105Dyne

Newton’s third law of motion: It states that, “to every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.”

Consider that there is a body A which is placed on body B. The body A exerts a force on B, equal to its
⃗⃗⃗ ). At same time, the body B also exerts a force on A equal to ⃗W
weight (W ⃗⃗ but in opposite direction.

i.e. ⃗R = −W
⃗⃗⃗

If ⃗FAB is the force exerted by body A on B and ⃗FBA is the force exerted by body B on A.

Then; ⃗FAB = −F
⃗ BA

This means both the forces are equal in magnitude but opposite in directions.

Examples:

1. Walking: When we walk, we apply a force on ground in downward direction but at the same time
the ground applies same and opposite force to our feet, which results to step up.
2. When a rocket launched, the fuel burnt out of it i.e. in the downward, immediately it apply an equal
force in upward, so it goes up in sky.

Impulse: The quantity 𝐹𝑎𝑣 . 𝑡 is called impulse. Therefore the impulse received during an impact is defined
as the product of the average force and the time for which the force acts.
4
 If ⃗F is the force acting on a body, ⃗P is the momentum produced, then according to Newton’s
nd
2 law of motion is:

⃗
dP
⃗F = ⇒ ⃗Fdt = dP
⃗ − − − (1)
dt
⃗ 1 to P
Suppose the impact lasts for a time t and during this time, the momentum of the body changes fromP ⃗ 2,
then integrating equation (1) within proper limits:

t ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
P2
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
P
⇒ ∫ ⃗Fdt = ∫ dP ⃗ ] 2 = ⃗⃗⃗
⃗ = [P P2 − ⃗⃗⃗
P1
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
P 1
0 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
P1

t t

⇒ ∫ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
Fav . dt = ⃗⃗⃗
P2 − ⃗⃗⃗
P1 ⇒ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
Fav ∫ dt = ⃗⃗⃗
P2 − ⃗⃗⃗
P1
0 0

⇒ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
Fav [t]t0 = ⃗⃗⃗
P2 − ⃗⃗⃗
P1 ⇒ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
Fav [t − 0] = ⃗⃗⃗
P2 − ⃗⃗⃗
P1 ⇒ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
Fav . t = ⃗⃗⃗
P2 − ⃗⃗⃗
P1 − − − (2)

If I is the total impulse of the impact then;

I = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
Fav . t = ⃗⃗⃗
P2 − ⃗⃗⃗
P1

So, the impulse received during an impact is the product of average force and the time t for which the force
act, and is equal to the total change in momentum during the impact.

In scalar form:

I = Ft = P2 − P1

Units of Impulse (I) :

Unit of I = Unit of F. Unit of t=Newton. Second = Ns

Dimensional Formula of Impulse (I):

[MLT −2 ][T] = [MLT −1 ]

Que: While a cricket player catching a ball, he lowers his hands to save himself from getting hurt,
why?

Ans: When a cricket ball is in velocity and in air, it has certain momentum (mv ⃗ ). The player lowers his
hands to increase the time interval of change in momentum. This means dt increases of dP⃗ ⁄dt

⃗
dP
i. e. decreases
dt

5
 ⃗
dP
as ⃗F = ; So, ⃗F also decreases, hence the hands save from getting hurt.
dt

Principle of Conservation of Linear Momentum:

“It states that if no external force acts on a system, the momentum of the system remains constant.”

Consider that there is a system of two bodies on which no external force acts. As such the
system is said to be isolated from the surroundings. The bodies can only mutually interact with each other.
Due to mutual interaction of the bodies, the momentum of the individual bodies may change, but the total
momentum of the system will remains unchanged.

If ⃗P1 and ⃗P2 are the momenta of the two bodies at any instant, then in the absence of external
force:

⃗1 + P
P ⃗ 2 = Constant

⃗ 1 and P
If during the mutual induction, the momenta of two bodies becomes P ⃗ 2 respectively, then according
to principle of conservation of momentum;
′ ′
⃗P1 + ⃗P2 = ⃗P1 + ⃗P2

or M1 u
⃗ 1 + M2 u
⃗ 2 = M1 v
⃗ 1 + M2 v
⃗2

Where u ⃗ 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 u⃗ 2 are the initial velocities of the two bodies of masses M1 and M2 and v
⃗ 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 v
⃗ 2 are their
final velocities.

Application of Principle of Conservation of Momentum:

1. When a bullet fired from a gun, the gun recoils or gives a kick in backward direction, why?

Ans. This is due to law of conservation of momentum. Let M and m be the mass of the gun and the bullet
respectively. Initially, both the gun and bullet are at rest, on firing the gun, suppose the bullet moves with a
velocity v
⃗ and the gun moves with a velocityV ⃗ . According to the principle of conservation of momentum:

Total momentum of the gun and bullet before firing = total momentum of gun and bullet after firing
m
⃗ + mv
⇒ 0 = MV ⃗ = −mv
⃗ ⇒ MV ⃗ ⇒ ⃗V = − ⃗
v
M
⃗ and v
The negative sign shows that V ⃗ are in opposite directions i.e. the bullet moves forward, the gun will
move in backward direction. The backward motion of the gun is called recoil of the gun.

2. Rocket works on the principle of conservation of linear momentum: As the fuel in the rocket undergoes
combustion, the burnt gases leave the body of the rocket with a large velocity in downward direction and
6
thus provide thrust to the rocket. If we assume that the fuel burnt at a constant rate, then the rate of change
of momentum of the rocket will be constant. As more and more fuel gets burnt out, the mass of the rocket
goes on decreasing and leads to increase of velocity of the rocket more and more rapidly.

Rocket Propulsion: (Example of variable mass situation) This is the application of Newton’s 3rd law and
explain the mechanism of the working of a rocket. Here the rocket propulsion means to apply the force in
the vertical upward direction of the required orbit or the space destination. The entire process can be

explained in the following steps by applying the principle of conservation of momentum.

Figure 4.1 Stages of Rocket Propulsion

Consider a rocket (may be a multistage) moving vertically upwards from the surface of earth. Suppose that
at time, t=0, the mass of the rocket is m0 and is moving with velocity v0 w.r.t. earth as shown in Figure 4.1

Let at any time t, mass of the rocket be m and its velocity v. The velocity of the rocket
increases due to combustion of fuel. Thus m<m0 and v>v0.Suppose that in the time interval between t and
t+dt, the mass dm of the fuel gets burnt out and the velocity of the rocket increases to v+dv. The mass dm
of the fuel leaves from the rocket in downward direction in the form of burnt gases with velocity vg (of
mass dm) w.r.t. earth.

According to principle of conservation of momentum for the 2nd and 3rd stages of the above Figure

⇒ mv = (m − dm)(v + dv) + dm(−vg ) − − − (1)

The velocity of burnt gases, vg taking –ve due to opposition of direction of the rocket,

⇒ mv = mv + mdv − v. dm − dm × dv − vg dm

The product dm×dv is very small, so neglect it.

7
 ⇒ mdv = (v + vg )dm − − − (2)

If u is the relative velocity of the burnt gases w.r.t. the rocket, then:

⇒ u = v + vg (in the downward direction)

Then (2) becomes

mdv = −udm − − − (3)

The negative sign indicates that the velocity of the burnt gases w.r.t. to the rocket i.e. u is in downward
direction.

Expression for the velocity of the rocket at any instant:

From equation (3)

dm
dv = −u − − − (4)
m
When m=m0 and v=v0 and when m=m, v=v.

Therefore integrating the equation (4) within proper limits, we get:

v m
dm
∫ dv = −u ∫
m
v0 m0

1
⇒ |v|vv0 = −u|log e m|m
m0 {∵ ∫ = log e x}
x

⇒ v − v0 = −u[log e m − log e m0 ] = u[log e m0 − log e m]

m0
⇒ v = v0 + u log e − − − (5){∵ log e m − log e n = log e m⁄n}
m
At time, t=0, the initial velocity v0=0
m0
∴ v = u log e − − − (6)
m
Thus: the velocity of the rocket at any time is proportional to

1. The exhaust speed of the burnt gases (u).

2. The natural logarithm of the ratio of initial mass of the rocket to its mass at that instant.

Thrust on the rocket: this is the vertical force applied to propel the rocket in the upward direction such
that,

M dv = -u dm
8
 Divide both sides of the above equation by dt:

dv dm dv
⇒m = −u , but = instaneous accelration (a)
dt dt dt
dm
∴ ma = −u , but F = ma
dt
dm
So, F = −u
dt

Where dm⁄dt denotes the intaneous rate of consumption of the fuel in the rocket.

Thus, “the thrust on the rocket at any instant is equal to the product of the exhaust speed of
the burnt gases and the rate of consumption of the fuel at that instant.”

Burnt Out speed of the rocket: The speed acquired by the rocket, when whole of the fuel gets burnt, is
called the burnt out speed and it is the maximum speed that can be acquired by the rocket.

Therefore, the rocket acquires the burnt-out speed (vb) , when mass of the rocket becomes
equal to that of its empty container, say mc i.e.

When v = vb , m = mc
m0
as; v = v0 + u log e
m
m0
⇒ vb = v0 + u log e
mc

Friction: If there is a box on a surface say stone if we apply the force in one direction to pull the box then
in starting the box will oppose of our application of force. This oppose is called friction. So, the friction
may be defined as the opposing force that is set up between the surfaces of contact, when one body slides
or rolls on the surface of another body.

Self Adjusting nature of friction: Consider that there is a wooden box lying on a horizontal table. If we
push the block by some force; initially it will not move because the force of friction (opposite force) exists.
If we give a certain more push, the force of friction increases i.e. the block will not move, but if we apply
more force, the wooden block will starts sliding over the horizontal table.

“The maximum value of the force of friction which comes into play before a body just begins
to slide over the surface of the body is called the limiting friction.”

The force of attraction always adjusts itself equal to the applied force up to the value of
limiting friction. This is known as the self adjust nature of the friction.

Static friction: As we apply a force on a body to move, it will not move initially. But as greater as the
force is applied the body starts to move in the direction of applied force and set in motion.
9
 The force of friction that comes into play between the surfaces of two bodies before the
body actually starts moving is called static friction. Its value depends upon the nature of surfaces of two
bodies.

Kinetic friction: The force of friction which acts between the surfaces of two bodies, when one body is in
motion over another body is called kinetic friction. The kinetic friction is always less than the limiting
static friction.

From the graph it is clear that the value of limiting static friction is maximum i.e. AL. On the other hand,
value of kinetic friction is always less than the limiting static friction.

Figure 4.2 Comparison of Limiting Static Friction and Kinetic Friction

Laws of limiting friction: The limiting friction obeys the following laws which are based on the
experimental observations only:

1. The value of the limiting friction depends upon the nature of two surfaces in contact and their state
of roughness.
2. The force of friction is tangential (parallel) to the two surfaces in contact and acts opposite to the
direction in which the body starts moving on applying the force.
3. The value of limiting friction between two given surfaces is directly proportional to the normal
reaction between two surfaces.

Consider that there is a body placed on the horizontal surface and R is the normal reaction, F is the force of
friction, the force is applied in the opposite direction as shown in Figure 4.3.

F
So, F ∝ R ⇒ F = μR or μ =
R
F Limiting friction
∴μ= =
R normal reaction

10
 Figure 4.3 Limiting Friction (F) and Applied Force with the Vertical Reaction

The constant of proportionality μ is known as coefficient of limiting friction. “The coefficient of limiting
friction may be defined as the ratio of limiting fiction to the normal reaction.”

4. The value of limiting friction for any two given surfaces is independent of the shape or area of the
surfaces in contact so long as the normal reaction remains the same.

The laws of limiting friction are also applicable to the kinetic friction. As the kinetic friction is similar to
the static friction.

Kinetic friction
hence , μk = F⁄R =
Normal reaction
Angle of friction: “The angle of friction may be defined as the angle which the resultant of limiting
friction and normal reaction makes with the normal reaction.”

Figure 4.4 Angle of Friction (α)

In the figure the resultant of the limiting friction and normal reaction R makes an angle ‘α’
with the normal reaction. Therefore ‘α’ is the angle of friction, then:

11
 BC OA F F
tanα = = = ∴ tan α = − − − (1)
OB OB R R
F
but μ = ⇒ tanα = μ
R
Hence the coefficient of limiting friction (μ) is equal to the tangent of the angle of friction.

Angle of repose: “The angle of repose is defined as the angle of the inclined plane at which a body placed
on it just being to slide.”

Figure 4.5 Angle of Repose

Consider an inclined plane, whose inclination with the horizontal is gradually increased till
the body placed on its surface just begins to the slide down. If θ is the inclination at which the body just
begins to slide down, then θ is called angle of repose.

The body is under the action of following forces:

1. The weight Mg of the body acting vertically downwards.

2. The limiting friction F acting along inclined plane in the upwards direction, its magnitude, i.e.
F=Mg Sinθ
3. The normal reaction acting at right angle to the inclined plane in the upward direction.

i. e. R = Mgcosθ

as; F = Mgsinθ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑅 = 𝑀𝑔𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

F Mgsinθ
Dividing each other; = = tanθ
R Mgcosθ

F F
∴ = tanθ; but = μ = tanθ
R R
12
Therefore the coefficient of limiting friction is equal to the tangent of angle of repose.

As For the angle of repose, μ=tanθ

And for the angle of friction, μ=tanα

hence , tanθ = tanα ⇒ θ = α

So, the angle of repose and angle of friction are equal to each other.

Rolling Friction: When an object such as a wheel, sphere, cycle or cylinder rolls over a surface; the force
of friction that comes into play is called rolling friction.

Figure 4.6 Rolling Friction

Sliding friction: When a plane surface tends to move on any another surface, the force of friction comes
into play is called sliding friction. It should be noted that the sliding friction is always more than the rolling
friction.

Figure 4.7 Sliding Friction

Cause of friction:

1. Cause of rolling friction: When a wheel moves on a level surface the wheel causes a little
depression. Due to this a small ‘hump’ is created just ahead of the wheel. In climbing up the hump,
the wheel encounters some opposition to the motion which is called rolling friction.
13
 Figure 4.8 Hump Created in the Rolling Friction

2. Cause of Sliding Friction:

(a) Old view: The surfaces of the bodies which ordinarily look smooth are found to possess
irregularities in the form of projections and depressions, when observed in a microscope. Coulomb
suggested that when a body A is placed on body B, the projections and depressions are interlocked
to each other. This interlocking opposes the applied force. This oppose is known as sliding friction.

(b) Modern View: The cause of friction is largely due to atomic and molecular forces of attraction
between two surfaces at the point of their actual contact. When a body is placed on the other, at a
no. of points the bodies come into contact; at these points a strong force of attraction exist that may
be due to electromagnetic reasons. When we try to move the body, this force of attraction opposes
the motion. This oppose is friction.

Methods to reduce friction: There are some methods to reduce or overcome the friction:

1. Polishing: Polishing a surface means depositing a finite layer of a suitable material on the surface
of body. This material fills up the space between the projections on the surface and makes it

14
 smooth. This interlocking between the body and the surface decreases and the surfaces offers lesser
friction to a body moving over it.
2. Lubrication: Oil or grease, when put between the two surfaces in contact, forming a thin layer
between them. This avoids he direct contact of solid surfaces. In fact, by spreading the lubricants,
the dry friction is converted into fluid friction, which is comparatively of lesser magnitude.
3. Proper selection of material: The friction depends upon the nature of materials. For example
friction between concrete and iron is higher than between rubber and concrete. So, tyres/wheels are
made up of rubber.
4. Rolling friction: The friction during rolling becomes much smaller than during sliding. So the
wheels are used to reduce the rolling friction. This is also used in ball bearing.
5. Steam lining: It implies giving the typical shape i.e. sharp in front to high speed vehicles. The fluid
friction decreases due to steam lining. For this reason the rockets, aeroplanes, jets are sharp at the
front.

Friction is a necessary evil:

Although, friction is an evil because it opposes the motion of vehicles and a large amount of energy is
dissipated in overcome the friction. Sometimes it causes heat and effect the life and working of machines.
But, in spite of these facts; this is also very necessary. Due to the following reasons:

1. It helps us in walking. If there is no friction, action and reaction between the foot and ground will
not possible. So walking will not be possible.
2. It also plays an important role in stopping the vehicles i.e. in braking.
3. On the icy roads, the chains produce treadings which causes friction between tyres and ice. So the
vehicles got in moving.
4. Friction also plays important role in bathing, washing and in the cleaning processes.
5. This is also used in sharpening the pencils, knives etc.

15
 Numerical Problem

1. The force of 98N is just able to move a body weighing 45Kgf on rough horizontal
surface. Calculate the coefficient of friction and the angle of friction.
2. A body placed on rough inclined plane just beings to slide, when the slope of plane is
1 in 4, calculates the coefficient of friction.
3. An automobile is moving on a horizontal road with a speed v. If the co-efficient of
friction between the tyres and the road is μ, show that the shortest distance in which
2
the automobile can be stopped in 𝑣 ⁄2𝜇𝑔.
4. If the co-efficient of friction is 0.6, calculate the angle of friction.
5. A mass of 4Kg rests on a horizontal plane. The plane is gradually inclined until at an
angle θ=150 with the horizontal, the mass just begins to slide. What is the co-efficient
of friction between the block and surface?
6. State Newton’s first law of motion? Give few examples.
7. What is normal reaction?
8. Give any two applications of law of conservation of linear momentum.
9. Prove that the impulse is equal to the change in momentum.
10.What do you mean by the self-adjusting nature of friction?

16