MYP Physics

Processing & Evaluating

Investigations & Writing Lab Reports

Criterion C
Criterion C – Results, Analysis, Conclusion and
Evaluation
Criterion C is all about what information you can get from your results and how you can
evaluate and improve the method to account for limitations and uncertainties. It consists of 3 main
sections, some of which can be divided further into other sections or what the MYP calls “strands”.

Results: Divided into two sections

• Strand (i) – Creating Results Tables and Graphs
• Strand (ii) – Analysis and Interpreting the results

Conclusion:
• Strand (iii) – Answering the RQ, discussing the hypothesis and giving an explanation.

Evaluation: Also divided into two sections

• Strand (iv) – Evaluating the method
• Strand (v) – Describing improvements
Collecting Data
There are some important things to consider when collecting data during an investigation:

• The IV must be changed at least 5 times

• The IV should increase by the same amount each time ie. steady increments, eg. 2,4 6, 8 10
seconds or 5, 10, 15, 20 25 seconds, etc.

• The DV should be measured three times for each value of IV, ie. 3 trials of data so that an
average value of the DV can be calculated.
Results - Table
Results from the investigation should be recorded in this section. Data should first be displayed in a
table. The table should have headings which include units.

Sample Results Table

Time / t (s) Distance / D Average

(m) Distance /
D (m)
Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3

10 32 34 30 32
Results – Data Processing

Calculating the Average Distance:

Distance Trial 1 + Distance Trial 2 + Distance Trial 3

Average Distance =
!"#$%& () *&+,-.
32 + 34 + 30
Average Distance =
/
Average Distance = 32 m
Results - Graph
Results should also be displayed in a suitable graph. This could be a bar graph (usually not in Physics) or line graph (most
probably). You need to decide the correct type of graph based on your investigation. Continuous data is usually plotted
on a line graph, whereas discontinuous data (involving groups or categories) is usually plotted on a bar graph or pie chart.

Your graph must include a title, axis labels and units for each axis label. For the title, the format should be “Variation of
(insert y variable) with (insert x variable) for (give some detail or context about what was being investigated)”.

For a line graph, it could be a straight line or a curve depending on the data. You need to look at the data (or associated
formula) to decide the most suitable line of best fit.

Example: Distance/Time graph with title, axis labels and line of best fit showing the change in distance of a ball rolling
down a ramp. The trend clearly indicates a curved line of best fit.
 Interpreting the Results
How to describe the results:

• Look at the results (ie. your graph) and describe any patterns shown in relation to your variables.
As the independent variable increases, what happens to the dependent variable? Does it increase
or decrease. How do you know – use data (ie. use specific numbers to justify your findings).

• Comment on the type of relationship shown between the independent and dependent variables.
What type of relationship is this? How do you know.

– If the y variable increases as the x variable increases the relationship is positive.

– If the y variable decreases as the x variable increases the relationship is negative.
– If the graph shows a straight line it is a linear relationship.
– If the graph shows a straight line which also passes through the origin it is a directly proportional
relationship.
– If it is not a straight line or it does not pass through the origin then it is not directly proportional.
 More on Proportionality
Note: This is one of the most fundamentally important ideas in Physics. There are two types
of proportionality in Physics, Directly Proportional and Inversely Proportional.

Directly Proportional relationships

A directly proportional relationship is a type of positive relationship

where both variables increase or decrease at the same rate, if you
double one variable, you double the other, if you halve one variable
you halve the other.

You can see it from the graph. If the line is a straight line and it passes
through the origin (0,0), then y is directly proportional to x.

You can also spot it from the formula. If the formula you are using is in the form y = k x, where y is a
variable and x is a variable and k is a constant, then y is directly proportional to x.

Example 1: From Newton’s 2nd Law: F = ma. Therefore, if the mass of the object is constant, then F
is directly proportional to a.

Example 2: Ek = ½ m v2 , where Ek is kinetic energy. Again, if the mass of the object is constant (and
since ½ is obviously a constant), the equation is in the form y = k x, where “y” is Ek ,
“x” is v2 and “k” is ½ m. Therefore, Ek is directly proportional to v2.
More on Proportionality
Inversely Proportional relationships

An inversely proportional relationship is a type of negative relationship,

where as one variables increase the other variable decreases at the same
rate, ie. if you double one variable, you halve the other and vice versa.

You can see it from the graph if you plot y against x and get a graph like the
one on the top right. However, this is still only an educated guess. To be
sure you would plot a graph of y against 𝟏⁄𝒙 ( 𝟏⁄𝒙 is the “inverse” of x ).

As shown on the bottom right. If you then get a straight line that passes
through the origin (0,0), then y is inversely proportional to x.

Another way of saying this is that y is directly proportional to the inverse of

x, although this is less commonly used.

You can also use the formula to see if it’s an inversely proportional relationship. If the formula is
4
in the form y = 2⁄3 ( ie. y = k 3 ) then the formula shows that y is directly proportional to 4⁄3 .

Example: From the formula Pressure = 5(&6%⁄7&%, , if the Force is a constant (ie. “k”), this can be
written in the form P = 2⁄7 or P = (k)(4⁄7) showing that P is inverserly proportional to A.
 What is the gradient telling me?
!" #!$ &'()*+ ,) ! -(.,(/0+
• To calculate the gradient of a line, you calculate , ie. gradient =
%" # %$ &'()*+ ,) % -(.,(/0+

• So to check what the gradient of the graph represents, just put the Y variable over the X
variable and then relate that to any known formula.

• For the graph in this investigation,

Distance is on the Y axis and Time is
on the X axis. Therefore the
&'()*+ ,) 2,34()&+
gradient gives us .
&'()*+ ,) 5,6+

• You should recognize from the

2,34()&+
formula Speed = that the
5,6+
gradient of this graph therefore
gives us the Speed.
• So whatever happens to the gradient, that’s what happens to the speed in this graph.

• Remember the gradient just means how steep the line is, so if the line is getting steeper
we would say the gradient is increasing, therefore that means the speed is increasing.
 Interpreting the Results - Example

L7-8 Sample Answer – using the graph from the previous slide:

As the Time increases the Distance also increases. As shown on the graph, when the
time increased from 30 s to 60 s, the distance increased from 200 m to 1000 m. This
shows a positive relationship between distance and time. Since it is not a straight line
through the origin, the distance and time are not directly proportional in this case.

The graph shows that the gradient of the curve increases with time. Since the gradient
&'()*+ ,) 7,34()&+
gives , this means the gradient of the graph gives the Speed of the
&'()*+ ,) 4,6+
object. Therefore, since the gradient is increasing, the speed of the object is increasing,
ie. it is accelerating.
Finding the “Constant of Proportionality”
By creating a straight line graph, more information can be analyzed. Now that you have shown that
there is a directly proportional relationship between distance and time squared for your moving ball
you can calculate the constant of proportionality – this just means the gradient of a straight line!

Once you have the constant of proportionality, you can make an equation which would allow you to
predict the distance covered for any given value of time. This is one of the most important and
fundamental concepts in all of Physics because it is how we make new formulas.

This only works with straight lines, because they are in the form y = mx which is the equation of a
straight line. Think about what this means. In the general equation for a line, y = mx, y is the y
variable on your graph, ie. the distance in this case, and x is the x variable, ie. time sqaured in this
case. The gradient “m” is your constant of proportionality which we call “k”. So the graph can be
represented as a formula:
"Variation of Distance with the square of the time for a
y=mx ball in motion"
ie. 1400
Distance = (k) (Time Squared) 1200
or 1000

DISTANCE (M)
D = k t2 800
Since you calculated “k” by finding the gradient, you 600
can fill in any value for t into the formula and it will 400
tell you the distance travelled by the object. 200

0
Let’s try it. Go to the next slide. 0 1000 2000 3000
TIME SQUARED (Sˆ2)
4000 5000 6000
Finding the “Constant of Proportionality”
Step 1: Calculate the gradient.

𝒀𝟐 :𝒀𝟏
Use “rise over run” or to calculate the gradient. Note: your two points that you choose must be:
𝑿𝟐 :𝑿𝟏

(a) On the line itself - not points from the table or points used to make the graph.
(b) Separated by at least half the length of the line apart from each other.

Tip: Choose 2 points that are on

intersecting gridlines if possible.

Example:

𝒀𝟐 :𝒀𝟏 𝒓𝒊𝒔𝒆 𝟕𝟔𝟎

m (gradient) = 𝑿𝟐 :𝑿𝟏 = 𝒓𝒖𝒏 = 𝟑𝟐𝟎𝟎
m = 0.24

Therefore, the constant of

proportionality “k” = 0.24 m / s2

Note: I found the unit for “k” by taking the unit of “Y” and dividing by the unit of “X”.
 Using the constant of Proportionality
Step 2: Plug your K value into the formula that you have created using the graph.

D = K t2 Note: From the previous slide k = 0.24 which is

Y=mX equal to “m”, the gradient of the line. Remember, k
is our “constant of proportionality” which is the
therefore
same thing as our gradient “m”, so we plug that
into our formula that we made from the graph.
D = 0.24 x t2
Sample Question: Find the distance covered by the ball after 150 seconds.

Sample Answer: "Variation of Distance with the square of the time for a Note: In some cases, you could take the
ball in motion"
time value you were given (150s), square
1400
t = 150 s 1200
it and then look at the graph to read the
and 1000 distance for that value of t2 using the
DISTANCE (M)

D = 0.24 x t2 800 graph directly, but only if the line actually

therefore 600
goes that far. In this case it does not go
D = 0.24 x (150)2
400

200
far enough (1502 = 22,500 s2 which is too
so 0 big for this graph). So we need to use the
formula.
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000
D = 5400 m TIME SQUARED (Sˆ2)

Now you start to see the usefulness of the graph and the formula we created, because our Distance
Time graph from earlier only went as far as 70 seconds (check back and see!), so reading the Distance
for a Time of 150 s would be impossible. But with our formula that we made from the Distance vs Time
Squared graph, we can calculate the distance for any time we want.
 Another way to use the gradient
Note: You might be given a formula that you can relate to your graph, or you might have to relate the
formula of the line to a known formula as we did with the distance time graph. For example, there is a
formula that would apply to a ball rolling down a ramp. It’s comes from one of our “suvat” equations.
The formula relating to this investigation would be D = ½ a t2 where a is the acceleration of the ball.
Look at how this relates to our equation D = K t2 and the
equation of a straight line, y = mx for our graph where y = D
and x = t2. See the comparison below.

y=mx
D = (K) t2……………. D is y, t2 is x, so k is m.
D = (½ a) t2 …………… The equations match, so k = ½ a = m
Look how similar they are. Can you see that comparing these
two equations shows us that our constant of proportionality
k = ½ a (ie. the gradient of the line, m = ½ a). So we can find
“a” by using the gradient.
Sample Question: Given the formula D = ½ a t2, use the graph to calculate the acceleration of the ball.

Sample Answer: Note: Notice how when we calculated the gradient earlier we
𝒀𝟐 :𝒀𝟏
Gradient = m = = 0.24 and m = ½ a. divided the rise over the run which was 760 m divided by 3200
𝑿𝟐 :𝑿𝟏
s2. The answer was 0.24 and the unit would be m/s2, which is
Therefore ½ a = 0.24
Therefore a = 0.24 x 2 = 0.48 m/s2. the unit of acceleration. Checking the unit of the gradient
gives a clue about what it can be used to find.
 Writing a Conclusion
Step 1: State and justify whether your results
support the hypothesis or not or State and justify
an answer to the Research Question. Use data form
the experiment to justify your statement in either
case.

Sample Question:

A student hypothesized that the distance travelled

"Variation of Distance with the square of the time for a
by the ball when falling down the ramp would be ball in motion"
directly proportional to the time. Discuss whether 1400

the data provided supports the hypothesis. 1200

1000

DISTANCE (M)
800
Note: We will use the data collected and shown on 600
the two graphs provided from the previous slides to 400

write our conclusion based on this question. 200

0
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000
TIME SQUARED (Sˆ2)
Example Answer:
The hypothesis for this investigation was that the distance would be directly proportional to the
time. Since the graph of distance vs time showed a curve, not a straight line, the data does not
support this hypothesis. However the graph of distance against the square of the time showed a
straight line through the origin showing that D ∝ t2. Therefore as t2 doubles, D will double.
 Evaluation
This is the easiest part of any Criterion C and should be your best opportunity to pick up
some marks, especially since the questions and answers are quite predictable.

There are 4 parts to an Evaluation:

i. Discussing strengths
ii. Discussing limitations
iii. Suggesting and explaining improvements
iv. Suggesting extensions

First, look at the data on the graphs as well as the steps in the method to find strengths and
limitations.

Note: You may be asked to simply state some strengths or limitations or to explain them. As
always, do as asked in the question.
 Evaluation
Identifying strengths and limitations from the method

Strenghts are anything in the method that improve the reliability of the investigation. Limitations
reduce reliability. State the strength or limitation and explain the effec it had on the investigation
if asked to explain. Here are some common examples of strenths in a method.

Strength Explanation
Broad range of Increases reliability of conclusions.
values for IV Gives evidence for the relationship over a wider range.
Steady / regular Increaes reliability of conclusions.
increments of IV Gives better evidence of the observed trend.
Pevents gaps in the data where confidence in the trend may not be justified.
Repeated trials for Reduces the effect of random error on the investigation
DV and average Improves reliability of data
value calcualted Makes it easier to spot outliers.
CVs were kept Ensures that observed trend was caused by a change in the IV and not some
constant (state other variable.
specific examples) Improves reliability of conclusions by inreasing confidence in the trend.

Note: You must check to see if these things were actually done before selecting them as strengths.
If they were not done then they are limitations. Change the wording of the explanation slightly
and you have your limitations.
 Evaluation
Identify strenghts and limitations from the data

Sometimes the data suggests that there are strengths or limitations in how the experiment was
conducted. Some examples are outlined below.

• If all the data points lie directly on the line of best fit, this indicates high precision, decreased
effect of randrom errors and increases confidence in the trend. If the points are scattered
either side of the trend line, this indicates low precision, random errors have affectd the
investiation and there is decreased confidence in the trend.

• If you expect a relationship to be directly proportional and the graph does produce a straight
line, but that line does not go through the origin, this would suggest a “zero erro” in one of
your measured variables, ie. a systematic error caused by the fact that the measuring device
was not zeroed before use. This reduces the reliability of your investigation by negatively
affecting the accuracy of your measurements. All values will be off by the same amount.

• Look for outliers or anomalies in the data. These are points on the graph or data
measurements in the table that fall far outside the trend compared with other data points.
This would indicate that something went wrong with this measurement, most probably a
random error affected the measurement, or the device was not zeroed or calibrated correctly
on this trial (systematic error). You would need to think of possible causes for this and look at
the method for possible errors in how the measurement was taken.
 Evaluation
Identify strenghts and limitations from the equipment

Sometimes the equipment used is not appropriate, it is not used correctly (affecting the accuracy)
or the precision of the instrument is low. Some examples are outlined below.

• Measurement devices which allow for small changes in variables improve the precision of that
measurement (strength), ie. large nubmers of decimal places for digial devices or small
increments on the scale of measurement for analogue devices. Eg. a ruler with increments of 1
mm is more precise than a ruler with increments to the nearst 0.5 cm. Another example would
be using a measuring cyclinder instead of a beaker to measure volume.

• If a measurement is taken on an unstable surface or the instrument is prone to random

movement or changes, then this will increase the effect of random errors and reduce precision.
Steps that are taken to prevent such effects can be seen as strengths, eg. clamping a ruler in
place so that it cannot move, allowing water to settle in a measuring cylinder before measuring
the volume etc.

• Measurements not taken at eye level cause a specific type of error called “parallax error”. This
means the value taken will not be the true value (ie. it is not accurate). If all measurements were
taken from the same position, the parallax error will be the same for all measurements (ie.
systematic error), buf if the position was different for each measurement (more likely) this
would cause a different error for each measurement, thereby also affecting the precision (ie.
random error).
 Evaluation
Identify strenghts and limitations from the equipment - continued

• If an instrument is not zeroed before use, all the measurements taken on that device will be off
by the same amount, indicating a systematic error. This negatively affects the reliability of the
investigation by reducing the accuracy of that measurement.

• If a timer is used, human reaction time affects the accuracy of the time measurement. If the
same person takes the time for each point then the error would be the same each time
(approximately) indicating a systematic error. If different people take the measurement, the
reaction time for each person would also differ and the error would be different each time,
causing a random error and reducing precision.

Note: It is generally stated that random erors affect the reliability of an investigation by reducing
precision while systematic errors reduce accuracy. Remember that precision relates to how close
the values are to eachother within a set of trials, or how closely the data fits the trendline, but
accuracy is how close the recorded value is to the true value. Be careful to use these words in the
correct context, otherwise you may lose marks.

Systematic errors are errors that are the same for each value, ie. each value is off by the same
amount. Random errors are errors that are different for each value and are usually caused by
random fluctuations (changes) to environmental conditions like temperature, wind, shaky surfaces,
etc.
Relative Uncertainty Evaluation
While small increments on measuring devcies are good because they increase precision and reduce
the uncertainty in a measurement, the actual values chosen for the IV and DV should be as larage as
possible because of something called relative error.

For example, you might ask the following question: Is an uncertainty of +/- 1 cm a large uncertainty
for a distance measurement?

You would be tempted to say that this is a small uncertainty, but in reality the question is flawed
because it doesn’t take into account the size of the actual measurement. Consider the following two
scenarios when setting the values for the distance along a ramp.

(a) Distances of 10, 20, 30, 40 and 50 cm are chosen.

(b) Distances of 50, 100, 150, 200 and 250 cm are chosen.

In the case of (a) the first distance is 10 cm and the uncertainty is +/- 0.1 cm. This is a relative
uncertainty of F.4⁄4F which is equal to 10 %.
In the case of (b) the first distance is 50 cm and the uncertainty is still +/- 0.1 cm. The relative
uncertainty in this case is F.4⁄HF which is 2 %.

So when dealing with larger numbers, any uncertainty in the measurement will become less
significant in terms of their effect on the investigation when larger values are used – this is a good
improvement to suggest, or a strength / limitation to identify from the method.
 Evaluation
Improvements

You need to describe improvements for each of the errors that you identified.

These should be specific, not vague comments like “increase the accuracy of the investigation”.

They should involve specific steps or equipment that could be used to improve the accuracy and/or
precision of the measurements, how to reduce systematic or random errors and how to control
your variables more reliably to increase the reliability of your conclusions.

Example 1: To improve the accuracy of the time measurement and reduce the systematic error
caused by the reaction time of the person using the stopwatch, an automatic timer could be used.
An example of an automatic timer would be a piece of equipment called a light gate which records
the time at which an object passes through the gate.

Example 2: Increase the number of trials for the DV measurement and take an average. This would
reduce the effect of random error on the DV measurement and increase reliability of these
measurements.

Example 3: Use a broader range for the IV and increase the number of IV measurements. This would
give more evidence to support the trend and improve the reliability of the conclusions.

Note: Look at the strengths identifed earlier, if they were done they are strengths, but if
they were not done then you can identify limitations and suggest those things as
improvements for the investigation.
 Evaluation
Extensions

An extension to an investigation usually involves changing the IV in order to determine

relationships for other factors that might affect the DV. You might make one of your CVs
the new IV for your extension.

You could also choose a different DV to see what other factors are affected by changes
to the original IV.

The extension should add value to the investigation and answer some questions that
arose during the original investigation.