1st - UCSP Module12

GRADE 11: UNDERSTANDING CULTURE, SOCIETY AND POLITICS
FIRST QUARTER
CHAPTER I: Starting points for the Understanding of Culture, Society, and Politics
The Learners:
 Articulate observations on human cultural variation, social differences, social change, and political identities
 Demonstrate curiosity and an openness to explore the origins and dynamics of culture and society, and
political identities
 Analyze social, political, and cultural change
Section I: THE DIVERSIFIED HUMAN SOCIETY

Human society is composed of a very complex system of ramified human endeavors which are
amplified by the diversity found in human culture. The genus Homo has its greatest masterpiece in the
species called Homo sapiens or anatomically modern humans. These human beings serve as the
master of the present world. This is so because humans are equipped with a high intellectual capacity
which allows them to adapt to whatever challenges and obstacles mother-nature has installed for them.
This intellect which serves as the best asset for human beings is also the faculty which allows
them to develop culture. Man has always been influenced by culture which evolved through the changes
in society's structures and pattern. Since all men are living inside the society, society influences how
culture will evolve and how culture will influence everyone in the society. Thus, we can clearly see that
all kinds of people exhibit a particular cultural orientation which is manifested through their day-to-day
activities.
Sharing of Social and Cultural Backgrounds

 The society is composed of many individuals who belong to a particular culture that evolved in
the geographical location where the society is situated. Hence, we can see varying cultures
around the world belonging to the different nations.
 A very good example is the Filipino culture which is well-known for hospitality and close family
ties. A Filipino is known to belong to the cultural orientation of the Filipino Culture. The same goes
for say an American who belongs to the American culture which is known for individualism and
liberalism.
 There are numerous examples that can be used to denote this concept of cultural diversity
among the various nations and races of the world. However, the diversity among different cultural
orientations is not only manifested in such a large scheme as the nations of the world. Diversity of
culture is also manifested in smaller schemes such as the ones present inside a particular nation.
 To illustrate this concept, a Filipino generally belongs to the Filipino culture which permeates all
Filipinos in the Philippines. Nevertheless, even inside the Filipino community, there are other
smaller cultures which saturate the population. This can be seen among the different regional
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cultural orientation of Filipinos. Although everyone is a Filipino, each one is also directly or
indirectly linked to regional cultures such as the Ilocano, Kapampangan, Bisaya, Waray,
Bicolano and Tagalog cultures.
 This simply means that subcultures exist within a larger cultural backdrop. The example given in
the above discussion merely underscored one perspective. Culture can be seen in many lights
such as race and ethnicity, religion, gender, socio-economic classes and many others.
 Take for example gender, males and females do things differently. From the moment a male or a
female is born, their family already acquaints them to the things which they should do in
conformity to their cultural orientations such as the way they dress, talk, and act. Females
should be good at household chores and must dress appropriately. Males on the other hand must
exhibit the "Macho Attitude" which will make him manlier. These are just few examples where
diversity of culture is manifested.
Observations about social, political, and cultural behavior and phenomena

Those involve in the study of culture, society and politics are also invited to
become observant in the social and political undertakings that happen every day
which we always hear from news on the television, radio and newspaper.
Knowledge of social and political events such as but not limited to rising
crime rate, poverty, elections, corruption and the media controversies will
help those who want to know more about the society and its social dynamics
to be aware of the different issues that besiege the society.
Not only careful scrutiny and observation is needed for students who
study the society and politics. Critical analysis is also warranted in order to
assure that right and systematic appreciation of these issues which is in accordance to
the established parameters of sociology, anthropology and political science will be applied.
Observations on social, political, and cultural change

There is a saying that the only thing that does not change is
change itself. This is considered as a truism in almost all the aspects of
the study of culture, society and politics. Change has always been
present not only in the history of mankind but also in the history of the
world itself. Change also has always been the springboard for all
controversies and issues that besieged mankind. Thus, it will be right to
assume that culture, society and politics change all the time.
Just take a look at the phenomenon of texting. This could be very
ordinary among the young people of today because the use of cellphones
is already prevalent today. However, if you will ask older people some
might even say that they do not know how to use cell phones. This is so
because the use of cellphones is only new to the present culture. People
of older generations did not experience the instantaneous communication
brought about by the emergence of cellphones. This is a very good
example of change that occurs inside the society. Such changes are
accompanied by many repercussions in culture, politics and social life of
people.
References:
Riodique III, MA, C. (2015). Understanding Culture Society and Politics. Manila City: Mindshapers C. Inc.
Saluba D. et.al. (2016. Understanding Culture Society and Politics.Malabon City: Mutya Publishing House, Inc.
https://www.studocu.com/en-us/document/collin-college/academic-coop-sociology/ucsp-module1lecturenotes-1-18/20481755
https://www.studocu.com/en-us/document/collin-college/academic-coop-sociology/ucsp-module-2-lecture-notes-1-18/20481835
https://www.studocu.com/ph/document/binan-integrated-national-high-school/accountancy-business-and-management/ucsp-week-
56-ucsp-understanding-culture-society-and-politics/27446061
https://www.studocu.com/ph/document/caloocan-city-business-high-school/general-chemistry/understanding-culture-society-
political-q1-m1-final/18013047
The Learners:
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 Recognize the common concerns or intersections of anthropology, sociology, and political science
with respect to the phenomenon of change
 Identify the subjects of inquiry and goals of Anthropology, Political Science, and Sociology
Section II: ANTHROPOLOGY, POLITICAL SCIENCE, AND SOCIOLOGY
Anthropology
 From the Greek terms “anthropos”, meaning man, and “logas”,
meaning science or study of.
 Scientific study of humanity.
 The most common tool that aid Anthropologists in studying humanity
is archeology.
 A science that deals with the study of human beings and their
humanity through the examination of a people's biological and
cultural past and comparing these with that of another group or
community.
 Just like sociology makes use of scientific research in order to find the truth about the existence
of man. This subject can also be construed as a subject dealing with the question "what
constructs the humanity of humans?"
 Provides a window to our past, a mirror for our present, and a lens through which we look to the
future.
Subfields of Anthropology
Anthropology is divided in major sub-fields:
1. Socio-cultural/Cultural Anthropology
This sub-field of anthropology deals with the study of human culture and its
influences on the daily lives of people. It also deals with the study of the
differences and similarities of various cultures and how they correlate with each
other.
2. Biological/ Physical Anthropology

This sub-field of anthropology studies the biological or physical aspects of human
beings such as but not limited to genetics, paleoanthropology, evolutionary science
and population diversity.
3. Archaeology
Archaeology is basically the study of the cultural heritage of the past through
examination of the physical remains and ruins of past cultures.
4. Anthropological Linguistics
This sub-field of anthropology deals with the influences of language and
Symbols to human culture.
Political Science
 deals with the study of the state and government.
 A Social Science that deals with the study of the vacillating
spectrums of politics as it relates to the different situation both
inside and outside.
 The goal of Political Science is to constantly deepen the knowledge,
discover progress and protect the quality of life within a group,
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community, country, and the world. Thus, it is the study of power relationships and competing
interests among states around the world.
The Different Fields in Political Science

1. Political Philosophy
 this is the most basic of all Political Science subjects.
 It deals with the study of concepts such as politics, government, liberty and justice.
 It even comprehends the most difficult and abstract questions such as but not limited to what is
the best form of Government or what should be the best formula for good policy making.
2. Comparative Government and Politics

 this sub-field incorporates topics such as the different forms of government found in different
countries around the world with their concomitant advantages and disadvantages.
3. Public Administration
 deals with the study of the bureaucracy behind the government and the proper way to administer
the needs of the general public.
4. International Relations
 topics in International Diplomacy and Public International Law are included in this subject.
 It is the study of the diplomatic relations and practices among the states in the worldview setting
and how power is being balanced in the international level.
Sociology
 Sociology has been defined as the scientific study of the society which necessarily entails the
study of all human activities in the society.
 Including all interactions with other human beings, social institutions, social problems and
dilemmas and all other social forces inside the society.
 It is in sociology that one will know how it is to live as a man inside the confines of the society and
its culture.
 The society is the focal point of sociology. It can be basically defined as a group of people living
together in a particular area which commonly shares the same culture and racial heritage.
Sociology includes three major theoretical perspectives:

1. the functionalist perspective;
2. the conflict perspective; and
3. the symbolic interaction perspective
Goals of Anthropology, Sociology, and Political Science

Anthropology
 According to Parena (2017), all individuals have in common by considering commonalities
(folklores, conventions, dialect, etc.) in all humankind, we seem get it more almost the human’s
nature. Create modern information and modern hypotheses approximately mankind and human
behavior. This modern information is at that point connected in an endeavor to lighten human
challenges.
 Determine what makes people different from one another in order to understand and preserve
diversity. Anthropology attempts to answer questions like, “What does it mean to be a Filipino and
a citizen of the world?” It is not enough that anthropologists find out the characteristics that make
Filipinos unique, it is also important to emphasize the Filipino traits that makes them “one” with
the rest of the world. (Parena 2017)
 According to Parena (2017), at one’s own culture more objectively like an outsider. It aims to
make “the strange familiar and the familiar strange.” Anthropology also challenges individuals to
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evaluate and criticize their own culture. This is important so that people will be aware of the faults
in their own culture and make necessary changes for its betterment.
Sociology
 According to Saou (2017), sociology is the science that deals with the study of the manifestations,
systems and social relations, a careful analytical and descriptive study through the pursuit of
different research methods, in order to reach the rules and laws governing the conduct of these
phenomena and social relations.
 This science also means understanding the nature of various social realities so that this society
can draw up strategic plans, set goals and programs that will work to increase progress and raise
society. (Saou 2017).
Political Science
 The political science major aims to create educated citizens capable of organizing information,
thinking critically and communicating effectively. A solid foundational understanding of the
critical theoretical issues underlying political life: the individual and community; political
obligation; stability, revolution, and change; legitimacy and justice; and freedom and power. This
is the focus of nature
of politics. (Field & Bathory 2015)
The Importance of Studying Culture, Society and Politics

1. The study of culture, society and politics stimulates social awareness - Sociology, Anthropology and
political science are three fields in the social sciences that deals with people and their community.
2. It can help solve social problems that besiege everyone in the society - social problems are
everywhere, knowing the fabric of the society by studying it in a scientific way can help provide for
solutions to day-to-day social conflicts that affects all individuals in the society.
3. It can help people to connect themselves not only to the environment but to other people as well - all
humans live in a community where everyone shares the common goal to survive and live a happy life.
4. It lets human beings know their real essence as a human being who is not separate from nature but
actually a part of all the natural processes happening in nature - because humans are put at the top of
the food chain does not necessarily mean that man is separate from all other lower forms of animals.
5. To arouse the social consciousness/awareness of the students –As a part of Social Science, the study
of Politics and Governance, society and human beings will help improve the appreciation of the students
of the different social and political phenomenon that strikes both local and international affairs.
6. To develop the concept of civilian responsibility - Students as civilians have obligations and
responsibilities to the society and to the state as well.
References:
CHAPTER II: Defining Society and Culture from the Perspectives of Sociology and
Anthropology
The Learners:
 explain anthropological and sociological perspectives on culture and society
 describe society and culture as a complex whole
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 identify aspects of culture and society
 identify forms of tangible and intangible heritage and the threats to these
Section I: Doing Sociology and Anthropology
The Concept of Society

Meaning and Nature of Society
According to sociologist, a society is a group of people
with common territory, interaction, and culture. Arcinas (2016) in
his book, Understanding Culture, Society, and Politics, defined
society as group of people who share a common territory and
culture. It is a group of people living together in a definite
territory, having a sense of belongingness, mutually
interdependent of each other, and follow a certain way of life.
Society is derived from the Latin term “societas”, from
socius, which means companion or associate. Thus, it refers to all
people, collectively regarded as constituting a community of related, interdependent individuals living in
a definite place, following a certain mode of life (Ariola, 2012).
Definition of society has two types:

 functional point of view society is defined as a complex of groups in reciprocal relationships,
interacting upon one another, enabling human organisms to carry on their life-activities and
helping each person to fulfill his wishes and accomplish his interests in association with his
fellows.
 structural point of view society is the total social heritage of folkways, mores and institutions; of
habits, sentiments and ideals. The important aspect of society is the system of relationships, the
pattern of the norms of interaction by which the members of the society maintain themselves.
The following are reasons people live together as a society (Ariola, 2012):
a. For survival – No man is an island. No man can live alone. From birth to death, man always
depends upon his parents and from others. The care, support, and protection given by
them are important factors for survival.
b. Feeling of gregariousness – This is the desire of people to be with other people, especially of
their own culture. People flock together for emotional warmth and belongingness. The
need for approval, sympathy and understanding to which the individual belongs is a
psychosocial need. Among Filipinos, the feeling of gregariousness is found in all levels of
society, especially among the lower socio-economic classes. The more the person is
needy, the more he craves sympathy and understanding from someone else.
c. Specialization – Teachers, businessmen, students, physicians, nurses, lawyers, pharmacists, and

other professionals organize themselves into societies or associations to promote and
protect their own professions
Types of Societies
Societies exist in particular places and times, and they change over time. Societies are organized
in particular patterns, patterns that are shaped by a range of factors, including the way people procure
food, the availability of resources, contact with other societies, and cultural beliefs. For example, people
can change from herding to farming only if they have the knowledge, skills, and desire to do so and only
in environments that will support agriculture.
As societies develop, changes take place in the social structures and relationships between
people that characterize each type of society. For example, in industrialized societies, relationships
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between people typically must become more formal because people must interact with strangers and not
just relatives. It is important to note that not all societies go through all stages. Some are jolted into the
future by political events or changes in the global system, and some resist pressures to become
modernized and continue to live in simpler social systems.
Sociologists and anthropologists (experts who study early and tribal cultures) identified different
types and classification of societies. Below are the different types of societies as mentioned by Ariola
(2012) in his book Sociology and Anthropology with Family Planning:
According to Economic and According to Evolutionary View According to People’s
Material System Subsistence
1. Pre-class Societies 1.Simple Societies 1.Food Gathering

– They are characterized by – These were -Societies (more than 16, 000
communal ownership of predominantly small, nomadic years ago) – The people
property and division of labor. and leadership is unstable. The survived from day to day
Examples of people had no specialization of through hunting
these societies are earliest clans skills, thus they lived in a simple larger animals, collecting
and tribes. life. shellfish and vegetable
gathering. Their tools were
made of stones, wood and
bones.
2.Asiatic Societies 2.Compound Societies – 2.Horticultural
– The people are economically -Two or more simple societies -Societies (12, 000 to 15, 000
self-sufficient but their leaders merged to form a new and years ago) – The people
are despotic and powerful. bigger society. These societies planted seeds as a means of
tended to be predominantly production for subsistence.
settled agricultural societies and
tended to be characterized by a
division of four or five social
classes.
3. Ancient Societies 3. Doubly Compound 3. Pastoral Societies
–These are characterized by Societies -Most of the people are
private land ownership. The rich – These are completely nomadic who follow their herds
(those who have) owned big integrated, more definite in in quest of animals for food and
tract of private properties while political and religious structure clothing to satisfy their needs.
the poor (those who-have-not) and more complex division of They raised animals to provide
worked as laborers. Thus, labor. Considerable progress in milk, fur and blood for protein.
wealth is limited to a few infrastructure and knowledge in These societies typically are
people. arts had taken place. relatively small, wandering
communities organized along
male-centered kinship groups
4.Feudal Societies 4.Militant Societies 4.Agricultural Societies
-The aristocrats (feudal lords) -These are characterized by the – In the early agricultural
owned the wealth of the country following: societies, people used plow
due to their ownership of big (a) the existence of military than
tracts of lands. The peasants organization and military hoe in food production. By the
worked on the lands of the rank; use of plow, it turns the topsoil
feudal lords with only few (b) individual lives and private deeper allowing for better
benefits received by them. possessions are at the disposal aerating and fertilizing thus
However, these types of of the State; and improving better yield when
societies collapsed due to the (c) individual activities such as harvested. Irrigation farming
rise of cities and metropolis as a recreation, movements, was
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result of the rise of satisfaction of biological needs, introduced which resulted to a
trades and industries. and production of goods are larger yield of production that
totally regulated by the State. In can even feed large number of
other words, individuals exist to people who did not know how
serve the State. to produce food by themselves.
5.Capitalists Societies – 5.Industrial Societies – 5.Industrial Societies -
These societies existed in These societies are These societies began in the
societies where two classes of characterized by the following: 18th century during the
people (a) people elect their Industrial Revolution and
appeared. The bourgeoise representatives to protect their gained momentum by the turn
(property owners) who owned individual initiatives; of the 19th century. This period
the capital and the means of (b) freedom of belief, religion, is
production and the proletariat production of industrial goods characterized by the use of
(the laborers or workers) who exist; machines as means of food
are compelled to work for the (c) disputes and grievances are production. Mass production of
capitalists or sell their small settled through peaceful guns, invention of steam
properties to the capitalists. arbitration; and locomotives and large
(d) business organizations production of steel, and well-
appear where cooperative coordinated labor force took
efforts between management place. Thus, the people began
and labor are based on to be highly skilled and highly
contractual diversified in their occupation
agreement. In other words,
individual freedom, rights and
initiatives are being protected.
6.Democratic Societies 6.Post-Industrial Societies 6.Post-Industrial Societies
– These societies are – These are characterized by: or
characterized by free enterprise (a) spread of computer Information Societies
where people are free to machines and existence of –Information and
engage in any lawful business information and communication technology is
for profit communication; the hallmark of these modern
or gain. People had to work on (b) inventions and societies. These are
their own livelihood according to discoveries in medicines, characterized by the spread of
what the law mandates. agriculture, business whether in computer technology,
physical and natural sciences advances in this technology are
emerged; and made by highly-trained
(c) pollution, diseases, computer specialists who work
calamities are prevalent as a to increase the capabilities of
result of the use of advanced computers and internet. The
technology use of modern technology gave
rise to several technological
problems such as pollution,
lung
illness, skin problems and
other.
The Concept of Culture

Meaning and Nature of Culture
It was E.B. Taylor who conceptualized the definition of culture in
1860s.According to him, culture is a complex whole which consist of
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knowledge, beliefs, ideas, habits, attitudes, skills, abilities, values, norms, art, law, morals, customs,
traditions, feelings and other capabilities of man which are acquired, learned and socially transmitted by
man from one generation to another through language and living together as members of the society
(Arcinas, 2016).
Two Components of Culture

Sociologists describe two interrelated aspects of human culture: the physical
objects of the culture (material culture) and the ideas associated with these objects
(non-material culture).
1. Material culture
 consists of tangible things (Banaag, 2012). It refers to the
physical objects, resources, and spaces that people use
to define their culture.
 These include homes, neighborhoods, cities, schools,
churches, synagogues, temples, mosques, offices,
factories and plants, tools, means of production, goods
and products, stores, and so forth.
 All of these physical aspects of a culture help to define its
members' behaviors and perceptions. Everything that is
created, produced, changed and utilized by men is
included in the material culture (Arcinas, 2016).
2. Non-material culture
 consists of intangible things (Banaag, 2012). Non‐material
culture refers to the nonphysical ideas that people have about
their culture, including beliefs, values, rules, norms, morals,
language, organizations, and institutions.
 For instance, the non‐material cultural concept of religion
consists of a set of ideas and beliefs about God, worship,
morals, and ethics. These beliefs, then, determine how the
culture responds to its religious topics, issues, and events.
When considering non‐material culture, sociologists refer to
several processes that a culture uses to shape its members'
thoughts, feelings, and behaviors.
 Four of the most important of these are symbols, language,
values, and norms.
 Non-material culture can be categorized into
 Cognitive culture- ideas, concepts, philosophies, designs
etc. that are product of mental or intellectual functioning
and reasoning of the human mind.
 normative culture- all expectations, standards and rules for human behavior (Arcinas,
2016)
Elements of Culture
1. Symbols
 refers to anything that is used to stand for something else. It is anything that gives meaning to
the culture.
 People who share a culture often attach a specific meaning to an object, gesture, sound, or
image.
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 An example of which are the feasts we are celebrating. Those particular events give are
presentation of a particular culture.
 Even the meanings we provide to things such as colors and graphic symbols provide
understanding which is common to a certain group of people (David and Macaraeg, 2010).
 For instance, a cross is a significant symbol to Christians. It is not simply two pieces of wood
attached to each other, nor is it just an old object of torture and execution. To Christians, it
represents the basis of their entire religion, and they have great reverence for the symbol
2. Language
 is known as the storehouse of culture ( Arcinas, 2016).
 Its system of words and symbols used to communicate with other people.
 We have a lot of dialects in the Philippines that provide a means of understanding. Through
these, culture is hereby transmitted to future generation through learning (David and Macaraeg,
2010).
3. Technology
 refers to the application of knowledge and equipment to ease the task of living and maintaining
the environment; it includes artifacts, methods and devices created and used by people (Arcinas,
2016).
4. Values
 are culturally defined standards for what is good or desirable.
 Values determine how individuals will probably respond in any given circumstances. Members of
the culture use the shared system of values to decide what is good and what is bad.
 This also refers to the abstract concept of what is important and worthwhile (Davidand Macaraeg,
2010).
 What is considered as good, proper and desirable, or bad, improper or undesirable, in a culture
can be called as values (Arcinas, 2016).
 It influence people’s behavior and serve as a benchmark for evaluating the actions of others.
Majority of
Philippine population is bonded together by common values and traits that are first taught at home
and being applied in our day to day lives. Filipinos are known for the following values:
(a) compassionate;
(b) spirit of kinship and camaraderie;
(c) hard work and industry;
(d) ability to survive;
(e) faith and religiosity;
(f) flexibility, adaptability and creativity;
(g) joy and humor;
(h)family orientation;
(i) hospitality; and
(j) pakikipagkapwa-tao.
5. Beliefs
 refers to the faith of an individual ( David and Macaraeg, 2010).
 They are conceptions or ideas of people have about what is true in the environment around them
like what is life, how to value it and how one’s belied on the value of life relate with his or her
interaction with others and the world. These maybe based on common sense, folk wisdom,
religion, science or a combination of all of these (Arcinas, 2016).
6. Norms
 are specific rules/standards to guide for appropriate behavior (Arcinas, 2016).
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 These are societal expectations that mandate specific behaviors in specific situations (David and
Macaraeg, 2010).
 Like in school, we are expected to behave in a particular way. If violate norms, we look different.
Thus, we can be called as social deviants.
 For example, Filipino males are expected to wear pants, not skirts and females are expected to
have a long hair not a short one like that of males.
 Social norms are indeed very essential in understanding the nature of man’s social relationship.
They
are of different types and forms According to Palispis (2007), as mention by Baleña (2016), in the social
interaction process, each member possesses certain expectations about the responses of another
member. Therefore, it is very important to determine the different forms of societal norms.
Types:
a. Proscriptive norm defines and tells us things not to do
b. Prescriptive norm defines and tells us things to do
Forms:
a. Folkways
 are also known as customs (customary/repetitive ways of doing things);
 they are forms of norms for everyday behavior that people follow for the sake of
tradition or convenience.
 Breaking them does not usually have serious consequences.
 We have certain customs that were passed on by our forebears that make up a large
part of our day-to-day existence and we do not question their practicality. Since they
are being practiced, it is expected that we do them also. For example, we Filipinos eat
with our bear hands.
b. Mores
 are strict norms that control moral and ethical behavior;
 they are based on definitions of right and wrong (Arcinas, 2016).
 They are norms also but with moral undertones (David and Macaraeg, 2010). For
example, since our country Philippines isa Christian nation, we are expected to practice
monogamous marriage. So if a person who has two or more partners is looked upon as
immoral. Polygamy is considered taboo in Philippine society.
c. Laws
 are controlled ethics and they are morally agreed, written down and enforced by an
official law enforcement agency (Arcinas, 2016).
 They are institutionalized norms and mores that were enacted by the state to ensure
stricter punishment in order for the people to adhere to the standards set by society
(David and Macaraeg, 2010).
Aspects of Culture
From the Perspective of Sociologists From the Perspective of Anthropologists
1. Dynamic, flexible and adaptive- 1. Learned-
-Culture necessarily changes, and is changed by, -Culture is learned, as each person must learn
a variety of interactions, with individuals, media, how to “be” a member of that culture
and technology, just to name a few. - -Cultures
interact and change. Most societies interact with - Culture is acquired by being born into a
other societies, and as a consequence their particular society in the process of enculturation.
cultures interact that lead to exchanges of Through language, the cultural traits of society
material (ex: tools and furniture) and non-material are passed on to younger members in the
(ex: ideas and symbols) components of culture. process of growing up and through teaching.
- All cultures change, or else, they would have - Every human generation potentially can
problems adjusting and adapting to changing discover new things and invent better
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environments. technologies. The new cultural skills and
knowledge are added onto what was learned in
- Culture is adaptive and dynamic, once we previous generations
recognize problems, culture can adapt again, in a
more positive way, to find solutions.
- We need our cultural skills to stay alive.
2. Shared and maybe challenged 2. Symbolic
- (Given the reality of social differentiation), as we - Culture is symbolic, as it based on the
share culture with others, we are able to act in a manipulation of symbols.
appropriate ways as well as predict how others
will act. Despite the shared nature of culture, that - Culture renders meaning to what
doesn’t mean that culture is homogenous (the people do. Beliefs, religion, rituals,
same). myths, dances, performances, music,
artworks, sense of taste, education,
- It may be challenged by the presence of other innovations, identity, ethnicity, and so
cultures and other social forces in society like on are meaningful human expressions of
modernization, industrialization, and globalization. what people do and how they act.
3. Learned through socialization or 3. Systemic and integrated

enculturation - Culture is systemic and integrated as the parts
- Culture is not biological, people do not inherit it of culture work together in an integrated whole.
but learned as interact in society. Much of
learning culture is unconscious. People learn, - The systems of meanings and many other
absorb and facets (sides) of culture such as kindred, religion,
acquire culture from families, friends, institutions, economic activities, inheritance, and political
and the media. The process of learning culture is process, do not function in isolation but an
enculturation. integrated whole that makes society work.
- These varying systems of meanings, relations.

And processes are shared within a group of
people rendering culture bounded to those who
seek a
sense of belonging to the same society.
4. Patterned social interactions 4. Shared

- Culture as a normative system has the capacity - Culture is shared, as it offers all people ideas
to define and control human behaviors. about behavior
- Norms (for example) are cultural expectations in - Since culture is shared within exclusive domains
terms of how one will think, feel, or behave as set of social relations, societies operate differently
by one’s culture. It sets the patterns in terms of from each other leading for cultural variations.
what is appropriate or inappropriate in a given Even culture is bounded, it does not mean that
setting. there are no variations in how people act and
relate with each other within a given system of
- Human interactions are guided by some forms of their respective
standards and expectations which in the end societies. On the contrary, the same society can
regularize it be broadly diverse wherein people, for example,
profess connections to each other yet practice
different religion, values, or gender relations.
- Societies do not always exist
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independently from each other.
5. Transmitted through socialization 5. Encompassing
or enculturation
- As we share our culture with others, we are able - Culture covers every feature of humanity.
to pass it on to the new members of society or the Around the world, people as members of their
younger generation in different ways. own societies establish connections with each
other and form relationship guided by their
- In the process of socialization /enculturation, we respective cultural practices and values.
were able to teach them about many things in life
and equip them with the culturally acceptable - Edward Tylor defines culture as a complex
ways of surviving, competing, and making whole which encompasses beliefs, practices,
meaningful interaction with others in society traits, values, attitudes, laws, norms, artifacts,
symbols, knowledge, and everything that a
- In the process of socialization /Enculturation, we person learns and shares as a member of society
were able to teach them about many things in life (David and Macaraeg, 2010).
and equip them with the culturally acceptable
ways of surviving, competing, and making
meaningful interaction with others in society
6. Requires language and other forms
of communication
- In the process of learning and transmitting
culture, symbols and language are needed to
communicate with others in society (Arcinas,
2016).
Importance/Functions of Culture
Sociologists recognize and regard culture as one of the most important concepts within sociology
because it plays a vital role in our social lives. It is essential for shaping social relationships, maintaining
and challenging social order, determining how we make sense of the world and our place in it, and in
shaping our everyday actions and experiences in society. Moreover, culture is important to sociologists
because it plays a significant and important role in the production of social order. The social order
refers to the stability of society based on the collective agreement to rules and norms that allow us to
cooperate, function as a society, and live together (ideally) in peace and harmony (Cole, 2019).
In the book of (David and Macaraeg, 2010), the following functions of culture were given
emphasis:
(1) it serves as the “trademark” of the people in the society;
(2) it gives meaning and direction to one’s existence;
(3) it promotes meaning to individual’s existence;
(4) it predicts social behavior;
(5) it unifies diverse behavior;
(6) it provides social solidarity;
(7) it establishes social personality;
(8) it provides systematic behavioral pattern;
(9) it provides social structure category;
(10) it maintains the biologic functioning of the group;
(11) it offers ready-made solutions to man’s material and immaterial problems; and
(12) it develops man’s attitude and values and gives him a conscience
Ethnocentrism
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 is a perception that arises from the fact that cultures differ and each culture defines reality
differently.
 This happens when judging another culture solely by the values and standards of one’s own
culture (Baleña, et.al,2016). This is the tendency to see and evaluate other cultures in terms of
one’s own race, nation or culture.
 This is the feeling or belief that one’s culture is better than the rest.
 Whereas, xenocentrism is the opposite of ethnocentrism, the belief that one’s culture is inferior
compared to others. People are highly influenced by the culture or many culture outside the
realm of their society. This could be one of the effects of globalization. Exposure to cultural
practices of others may make one individual or group of individuals to give preference to the
ideas, lifestyle and products of other culture.
Cultural relativism
 is an attempt to judge behavior according to its cultural context (Baleña, et.al,2016).
 It is a principle that an individual person’s beliefs and activities should be understood by others in
terms of that individual’s own culture.
 This concept emphasizes the perspective that no culture is superior to any other culture (Arcinas,
2016) because
(a) different societies have different moral code;
(b) the moral code of a society determines what is right or wrong within the
society;
(c) there are no moral truths that hold for all people at all times; (d) the moral code of our
own society has no special status; it is but one among many; and
(e) it is arrogant for us to judge other cultures, so we have to be tolerant to them.
Cultural Diversity
 According to the sociologist Joan Ferrante in her book "Seeing Sociology, an Introduction”,
“sociologists use the term cultural diversity to capture the cultural variety that exists among
people who share some physical or virtual space. The space may be as large as the planet or as
small as a household" (2014).
 Sociologists use the material and non-material culture inside the society in order to understand
the concept of cultural diversity.
 Diversity can be found from varying cultures located at different geographical setting however
cultural diversity exists even in a particular place among people who shares the same virtual
space.
 In short, cultural diversity exists even inside the same social setting. This is the very reason why it
seems to be paradoxical that cultural diversity exists even inside the same social environment.
 Sociologists are eager to understand this social phenomenon. It will be helpful for us to consider
the concept of cultural capital in order to fully appreciate the idea of cultural diversity. Cultural
capital generally includes all the material and non-material culture that a person has access to
which could be useful or not in a certain social environment. It has basically three types:
1. Objectified Cultural Capital - This refers to all material and non-material culture
that a
person has or has a direct access to. Objectified cultural capital also has a
pecuniary value and as well as symbolic meaning that people impute to
them.
2. Embodied Cultural Capital - Refers to all kinds of material and non- material
objects
that have been internalized by the people in a conscious or unconscious
manner. Embodied cultural capital is learned by man through the process of
socialization.
3. Institutionalized Cultural Capital- This cultural capital consists of all material and
non-material culture that everyone considers as desirable in a given social
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setting. Institutionalized cultural capital is very important to success in a
certain
social environment. Examples are career, academic qualifications and
profession.
Each individualism has different cultural experiences even if he belongs to the same social
environment. This is the reason why even in the same social settings individual have different reaction to
cultural stimulus. This is the reason why cultural diversity exist.
Forms of Tangible and Intangible Heritage

The Concept of Heritage
Heritage
 refers to anything that is being passed down from one generation to another.
 It could be related to acquiring something from birth, like how infants inherit the social status of
their parents. It could also refer to the inheritance of property, such as a father entrusting his
estate to his son.
 In studying culture, the concept of heritage is also very relevant.
Cultural heritage,
 according to the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), “is
the legacy of physical artifacts and intangible attributes of a group or society that are inherited
from past generations, maintained in the present and bestowed for the benefit of future
generations”.
 Cultural heritage is a representation of a particular group’s way of living that is passed down from
one generation to another.
 Everything that was received from a culture’s ancestors that are still present in the culture’s
current form can be considered as part of its cultural heritage.
Two categories:
1. Tangible Heritage
 The material culture of a group is mostly what constitutes the tangible heritage of a specific
culture.
 Tangible heritage, as the word suggests, are material forms of cultural heritage. This includes
artifacts, historic places, monuments, buildings, or any object that is important forthe culture.
 It is composed of both movable and immovable cultural heritage.
 movable cultural heritage- are artifacts or objects that can be easily
transported, such as sculptures, musical instruments, clothing, and tools for
livelihood.
 Immovable cultural heritage- structures such as monuments, buildings, or even
a whole town. Examples: city of Vigan, Baroque churches in the Philippines like the
San Agustin Church in Manila, Santa Maria Church in Ilocos Sur, Paoay Church in
Ilocos Norte, and Miagao Church in Iloilo.
 natural heritage- A special form of heritage. These sites are not merely places,
but are also considered as part of a group’s culture. Examples of natural heritage
sites in the Philippines are the Tubbataha Reefs National Park in Puerto Princesa,
and the Banaue Rice Terraces in Cordillera.
.2. Intangible Heritage
 represents the non-material aspect of a cultural heritage.
 This includes oral tradition, performing arts, rituals, festivities, knowledge about nature, or skills in
producing traditional crafts.
 UNESCO states that intangible cultural heritage is, traditional, contemporary and living at the
same time (enduring despite its antiquity), inclusive (may be shared with other generations and
other cultures to ensure continuity), representative, and community-based (recognized by the
whole community as a heritage).
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 One example of an intangible heritage in the Philippines is the Hudhud of the Ifugao in Banaue.
The Hudhud is composed of more than 200 chants that are performed in certain events of the
culture, such as harvest time, the planting season, funeral wakes, and other rituals. There are also
chants about traditional practices, religious beliefs, ancestral heroes, customary laws, and the
importance of cultivating rice.
Preserving Our Cultural Heritage

Heritage is a crucial part of studying culture, because it provides tools that act as guides in
retracing the steps of a culture’s history. Cultural heritage gives us an idea of a group’s way of living in
the past but also provides us with knowledge of the sources of our contemporary ways of living. The
importance of heritage is not limited to the manifestations of one culture. More importantly, it is essential
in ensuring cultural diversity and the richness of all cultures. By learning the cultural heritage of different
peoples, we become closer to understanding and respecting not only our own culture, but also the
culture of others. It is, thus, important that everybody partakes in the preservation of all cultural
heritage.
The Heritage Cycle, developed by Simon Thurley might aid in the preservation of one’s cultural
heritage. By following the cycle, one can pass the heritage of past generations to future generations to
come. The cycle starts from enjoying a cultural heritage, leading to understanding it, eventually valuing
it, and caring for it.
References:
CHAPTER III: Looking back at Human Biocultural and Social Evolution
The Learners:
 trace the biological and cultural evolution of early to modern humans

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 explore the significance of human material remains and artefactual evidence in interpreting
cultural and social, including political and economic, processes
Section I: BIOLOGICAL AND CULTURAL EVOLUTION
The Biological and Cultural Evolution
Biological Evolution
 refers to the changes, modifications, and variations in the genetics and inherited traits of
biological populations from one generation to another.
 based on the theory of evolution that was introduced by the famous English naturalist and
geologist Charles Darwin (1809-1882). Because of the result of his studies, he introduced the
concept of evolution to explain the origins of modern humans.
Human evolution
 is the revolutionary process leading to the appearance of modern day humans.
 HOMO- is used to determine the species of human beings.
 HOMINIDS- is the direct ancestors of homo species.
AUSTRALOPITHECUS- the first definite hominids, lived 4.4 million to 1.4 million years ago.
- they were fully bipedal which means that they could walk using their two
legs.
Divided into 2 groups:
1. Gracile Australopithecines
 have smaller dentition and facial muscle.
 they lacked bony crests for the attachment of heavy chewing muscles, that’s why they are
frugivores (feeds on fruit).
 shared several traits with modern apes and humans and were widespread throughout Eastern and
Southern Africa as early as 4 to as late as 1.2 million years ago.
 the earliest evidence of fundamentally bipedal hominids can be observed at the site of Laetoli in
Tanzania.
2.Robust Australopithecines
 or Paranthropus, are characterized by several features of the skull that give them a "robust"
appearance when compared to gracile hominids.
 they existed in East and Southern Africa between approximately 2.5 and 1.4 million years ago.
 the most notable of these features are large, thickly enameled, post canine teeth that were
supported by deep and broad mandibular corpora with tall and broad rami.
 robust forms adapted to consume heavy and gritty vegetation as they are herbivores.
HOMO SPECIES- have a brain larger compared to the Australopithecus species which appeared
about 2.3million years ago.
Divided into 2 species:
1. Homo habilis
 has a larger brain and reduced the size of molars and premolars compared to the
Australopithecus.
 a.k.a Handy man because this species was thought to represent the first maker
stone tools.
2. Homo rudolfensis
 somehow the same as the features of H. habilis.
 many paleoanthropologists make no distinctions between the two species. Some say that the
difference lies on their cheek teeth and face.
 it has a broader face, larger braincase, and larger molar and premolar teeth compared to the H.
habilis.
HOMO ERECTUS- the first hominid species that was distributed in the “Old world”.
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- it was seen in parts of Africa and Asia, and was discovered by Eugene Dubois which he
called Pithecanthropus erectus at first which means erect ape man.
- had smaller teeth than other Homo genus.
- it is known that they have the capacity to control fire, because of this, they survived
the
cold weather.
- lower paleolithic tools and other artifacts were probably produced by them.
HOMO SAPIENS SAPIENS- appeared 50,000 years ago and was characterized as the modern
human beings.
- have a domed skull, chin, small eyebrows, and a rather puny skeleton.
- is thought to have evolved sometime between 160,000 and 90,000
years ago in Africa before migrating first to the Middle East and Europe
and later to Asia, Australia, and the Americas.
Cultural and sociopolitical evolution

The Neolithic Revolution
 also called the Agricultural Revolution, marked the transition in human history from small
nomadic bands of hunter-gatherers to larger, agricultural settlements and early civilization.
 it started around 10,000 B.C. in the Fertile Crescent, a boomerang-shaped region of the Middle
East where humans first took up farming. Shortly after, Stone Age humans in other parts of the
world also began to practice agriculture.
 Neolithic Age is sometimes called the New Stone Age.
 Neolithic humans used stone tools like their earlier Stone Age ancestors, who eked out a
marginal existence in small bands of hunter-gatherers during the last Ice Age.
Timeline of Agricultural Innovation and World Population –10,000 to 500 B.C.E:

World Year Agricultural Innovation
Population
1–5 million 10,000 Neolithic Revolution begins in Southwest Asia and other areas.
B.C.E. Climate change resulted in longer dry seasons and the end of a
100,000-year ice age.
Abundance of wild grains enabled hunter-gatherers to settle in
villages.
Domestication of dogs begin in Asia and North America
9500 B.C.E. The “founder crops” of agriculture appear: wheat, barley, peas,
lentils, bitter vetch, chickpeas, and flax
8–10 million 8000–6000 Nomadic hunter-gatherers begin to grow food and domesticate
B.C.E animals: Rice in China, 7500 B.C.E., Squash in Mexico, 7000
B.C.E. Wheat in Mesopotamia, 8500 B.C.E. Cattle in SW Asia,
and India, 7000 B.C.E. Domestication of sheep, goats and pigs
begin in SW Asia. Irrigation systems introduced.
7000–6000 Domestication of cattle begins in Southwest Asia, Pakistan, and
B.C.E. India
6000–3000 A wooden plow, the ard plow , used in Mesopotamia and Egypt.
B.C.E. Permanent villages established in the Fertile Crescent. Farming
established on the banks of the Nile River
5000–3000 Domestication begins of horses in Ukraine, donkeys in Egypt,
B.C.E. and water buffalo in China. Corn (maize) production in Mexico.
14–20 million 3000 B.C.E Irrigation systems and dams built in the Nile River. Crop
production increases trade and spread of agriculture. Potatoes
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domesticated in Peru.
2000 B.C.E. Iron plow developed in China.
50 million 1000 B.C.E Manure used as fertilizer. Iron plows widely used in China and
Southwest Asia.
100 million 500 B.C.E. Moldboard plow with a V-shaped iron cutting edge developed in
China
Early civilization and the rise of the state
Civilization
 is a complex society that creates agricultural surpluses, allowing for specialized labor, social
hierarchy, and the establishment of cities.
 Developments such as writing, complex religious systems, monumental architecture, and
centralized political power have been suggested as identifying markers of civilization, as well.
 Governments and states emerged as rulers gained control over larger areas and more resources,
often using writing and religion to maintain social hierarchies and consolidate power over larger
areas and populations.
 Characteristics: large population centers; monumental architecture and unique art styles; shared
communication strategies; systems for administering territories; a complex division of labor; and
the division of people into social and economic classes.
First Civilizations
The first civilizations appeared in major river valleys, where floodplains contained rich soil and the
rivers provided irrigation for crops and a means of transportation. Foundational civilizations developed
urbanization and complexity without outside influence and without building on a pre-existing civilization,
though they did not all develop simultaneously.
Location Social Class/ Architecture Religion Other

City State characteristics/
contributions
Mesopotamia (8000-2000 B.C.)- Cradle of civilization; Fertile Crescent
Region of Had three main Palaces were They were It built an extensive
southwest Asia classes; highly decorated polytheistic man-made irrigation
between Tigris government and contained (worshipping system that enabled it
and Euphrates officials, nobles solid ivory many gods and to grow a surplus of
river. and priests were furniture. Houses goddesses) as food. They relied on
at the top; were built from well as the annual flooding of
Its name derived second was a mud bricks, henotheistic the two rivers for
from ancient class comprised plaster and wood. (believed that fertility but the silt
Greek “between of merchants, certain gods are became an obstacle to
two rivers” artisans, Houses had long- viewed superior its irrigation systems,
craftsmen and roofed central to others). Every which consisted of
farmers; on the hallways, god has a priest, hundreds of channels
bottom were the courtyards, and temple and a that watered the crops
prisoners of war stores. traditional ritual
and slaves. and there were Cuneiform- One of
Commoners were Ziggurats were hundreds of the earliest known
considered free huge pyramidal temples forms of written
citizens and were temple towers scattered expression that began
protected by the which were first throughout each as a system of
law. built in Sumerian city. pictographs.
City-States and
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then developed
in Babylonia and
Assyrian cities as
well
Ancient Egypt (3100-332 B.C.)- The Black Land
a civilization of Egyptian society Built the first Its people Hieroglyphics—a
ancient Africa, was structured pyramids, which followed a form of writing that
concentrated like a pyramid. At were both tombs polytheistic used images to
along the lower the top were the and monuments religion in which express sounds and
reaches of the gods (such as for the kings, a vast number of meanings
Nile River, Ra, Osiris, and Sphinx in Giza, gods and
situated in the Isis). Their rulers and temples for goddesses were Irrigation practices
place that is now called different gods venerated. consisted of building
the country “Pharaoh” mud levees—which
Egypt. (from the Egyptians also Osiris, god of the were walls of
Egyptian term began to build underworld. compacted dirt that
“per-aa” means ships, Amun-Ra, a god directed the annual
“the Great constructed of associated with flooding onto farmland
House”), next the wooden planks the sun’ and kept it away from
soldiers, scribes, tied together with living areas—and of
merchants, rope and stuffed Egyptian dead digging canals to
artisans, farmers, with reeds, to were sometimes direct water to fields
and at the trade goods such mummified, as crops were growing
bottom are the as ebony, preserving the
slaves and incense, gold, body, and were
servants. – copper, and sometimes
Lebanese cedar buried with spells
Divided into 2 to aid them in
cities: Lower navigating the
Egypt in the underworld.
north and Upper
Egypt in the
southern portion
of the country.
Indus Valley (3300 B.C.E.- 1300 B.C.E.)- a.k.a Harappan Civilization; Largest civilization of
the Ancient world
An ancient India Consisted mainly Noted for their They believed in Mohenjo-Daro people
civilization that just the king urban planning, many gods like had finest bath
flourished more being the baked brick Prithivi mata facilities, drainage
than 4000 years supreme ruler, houses, elaborate (the earth system, and
ago in the north- and the social drainage mother), Surya knowledge of personal
western parts of class of people systems, water (the sun god), hygiene.
Indo-Pakistan under him. supply systems, Indra (the war New techniques in
sub-continent. clusters of large god) and Yama handicraft (carnelian
non-residential (the death God). products, seal carving)
It derived its buildings and metallurgy
name from river (copper, bronze, lead,
Indus, which is and tin).
the main river of
the region.
Huang He (2100-1600 B.C.E.)- China’s Sorrow
The Huang He It was an They lived in Have a common The peasants provided
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(Yellow River) aristocracy run houses below the belief in the the majority of the
Valley is the by kings and ground to save power of heaven labor using bone and
birthplace of upper-class fertile land for and the ancestral stone tools.
Chinese citizens. This the upper class. spirits to
Civilization and is civilization had a influence the Contributions:
often called patriarchal Brick and stone living, and a porcelain, fireworks,
“Mother River” society that are used for common gunpowder, civil
stressed respect defensive walls, emphasis on the service, paper, and silk
for parents and the arch for gates importance of
elders. and bridges, and ceremony and Oracle bone scripts
the vault for sacrifice to were their ancient
tombs. achieve harmony writing system. The
among heaven, ancient people of the
Wooden nature, and Yellow River valley
architecture was humankind. predicted good and
the mainstay of bad luck by divination.
traditional People practiced Oracle bones were
Chinese polytheism. their tools/records of
buildings. China’s They believed divination.
ancient wooden that their main
structures were god, Shang Di,
quite intricately and a mother
formed, goddess brought
sometimes plants and
without any nails. animals to earth.
FEATURES OF CIVILIZATION
Perry (1983) states that historians use the term civilization to distinguish between pre-historic
societies and the considerably more advanced societies that developed later. The civilization features the
following;
1. Cities.
 Civilized societies were urban societies, for civilization developed in cities.
 Cities were larger and more complex than villages.
 They had palaces, temples, markets, workshops, and homes.
 Before cities could emerge, there had to be a food surplus produced by the villages. City dwellers
grew little if no food. They depended upon nearby villages for their food supply.
2. Writing.
 Written language enabled people to preserve, organize and expand their knowledge. It made it
easier for government officials, priests, and merchants to carry out their duties.
3. Specialization.
 People in civilized societies were specialist-artisan, merchants, priest, record-keepers,
government officials, farmers.
 In exchange for the food they got from the villages, city dwellers supplied farmers with good
manufactured in the city.
 Specialization encouraged trade, local and regional, and trade encouraged the exchange of
ideas.
4. Government.
 In civilized societies government became more organized.
 There were rulers who issued laws and officials to carry them out.
 The government mobilized large numbers of people to work on public building projects - irrigation
works, roads, palaces, temples, bridges, and docks.
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 It collected taxes to pay for these projects and for the salaries of its officials.
 The government drew up boundary lines that defined the state's territory. It formed an army to
protect or expand its borders.
5. Religion.
 Civilized societies had organized religions with a powerful, trained, and wealthy priesthood.
 From the priesthood, people derived their values and attitudes toward life. Religion gave the
rulers their authority, for they were thought to represent the will of the gods.
Ancient State and Civilization

 One of the earliest states and civilizations was found in the Fertile Crescent which is known as
the Mesopotamian civilization. The word Mesopotamia is a Greek word for “Land between two
rivers” which is often referred to as the cradle of civilization. It is the region of the Western Asia
located between the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers. It is known as the Fertile Crescent where the
first evidence of agriculture was also found. Here the first human civilizations were taking the
earliest steps from hunter-gatherer society into settled community.
 Moreover, it is in Mesopotamia that the history writing appeared as early as over 5,000 years ago.
This invention was so important that it marks the end of the Prehistory, and the beginning of
history. One of the first writing systems, the Cuneiform, is one of the most important
civilizations in the history of Mesopotamian culture.
 Every city in Mesopotamia had its own government, rulers, warriors, patron god, and functioned
like an independent country. Mesopotamian cities were Ur, Uruk, Kish, Lagesh. There is a
temple at the center of each city called a ziggurat (a massive, tiered, pyramid-shaped structure).
 There was also what we called Mesopotamian warrior-gods (2.400-2.500 B.C.) who govern and
protect the people under its government. Military commanders eventually became monarch
creating a new structure of government called a Dynasty. It is a series of rulers descending from
a single-family line. The Akkadian Empire lasted about 200 years. In the year 2350–2150 B.C,
Babylonian Empire overtook Sumerians around 2000 B.C., and they built capital, the Babylon,
on Euphrates River.
 Another ancient states and civilizations was the Egyptian civilization. It emerged more than
5,000 years ago along the River Nile in the north-east of Africa. The Ancient Egyptians lived near
the River Nile because of its fertile land suitable for growing crops and domestication of animals.
Each year, water from the Nile rose and flooded the area. When the water went back, it left mud
that made the fields fertile.
 Egyptians called their king a pharaoh. The pharaoh was all- powerful: He passed laws, He ruled
the country, He owned most of the land, and He controlled trade and led the armies. Egyptians
believed that the pharaohs were gods.
Modern State and Civilization

 In the European continent, several states and civilization grew tremendously over centuries. In
England, around 1500s, most of the people lived in small villages. They paid tithes to their
feudal landlords. Henry VII won the War of the Roses in England, which led into what is known
as the Tudor dynasty, and begun the development of the English nation-state.
 In Spain in the year 1492, Spanish monarchs Ferdinand and Isabella took Spain back from the
Muslim. It became the era of Spain as a global power.
 In France, Louis XIV of France created an absolute monarchy. France became the dominant
power in Europe. When The French Revolution broke out, it created the modern French nation-
state, which sparked nationalism around Europe.
 In 1914, when various nation-states started to claim their power and superiority over all the
nations in the world, the World War I begun until 1918. In 1919, Treaty of Versailles ended the
World War I. It divided several multinational empires that led to the creation of several new
nation-states.
 In 1939, the World War II started until 1945. The end of World War II led to the formation of
United Nations in 1945.
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 The State of the People: Democratic State
In the recent decade after the two World Wars, people are becoming more active in their
government and state affairs, in which people become the source of political power and
government rules. This evolution in the government is known as the process of
democratization, or simply democracy – the rule of the people.
Democratization is the transition to a more democratic political regime, including

substantive political changes moving in a democratic direction. It may be the transition from an
authoritarian regime to a full democracy, a transition from an authoritarian political system to a
semi-democracy or transition from a semi-authoritarian political system to a democratic political
system.
Moreover, a democracy is a form of government where the citizens of the nation have the
power to vote. There are several different types of democracies;
(1) a representative democracy-- is a system where citizens choose government
representatives among their citizens,
(2) direct democracy-- is when the citizens form a governing body and vote directly on issues,
(3) constitutional democracy-- limits the powers of government through the nation’s
constitution
References:
GRADE 11: UNDERSTANDING CULTURE, SOCIETY AND POLITICS
SECOND QUARTER
CHAPTER: I Becoming a member of society
The Learners:
 explain the development of one’s self and others as a product of socialization and enculturation
 identify the context, content, processes, and consequences of enculturation and socialization
 identifies the social goals and the socially acceptable means of achieving these goals
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 advocate inclusive citizenship
 promote protection of human dignity, rights, and the common good
____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
LESSON: 1 ENCULTURATION/SOCIALIZATION
Society is a group of individuals involved in persistent social interaction, or a large social group
sharing the same special or social territory, typically subject to the same political authority and dominant
cultural expectations. Culture provides everyone with norms, values, expectations, and other
information needed to live with other in the group. Values and norms of a society are passed on to or
acquired by its members through the process of socialization or enculturation.
Socialization is the process through which we are taught
the norms, values, and customs of our society or social group.
The process of socialization enables a person to gradually
become a self-aware and knowledgeable human being, and learn
the ways, values, rules, and culture of his or her society. The
development of the individual as a member of society is greatly
influenced by the context of his or her respective society, and the
social groups that he or she interacts with. Socialization is also
important in politics, and a citizen develops and acquires political
ideas, values, attitudes, beliefs, and opinions through political
socialization, a process which enables the development of citizens
to function effectively within a particular political system Another
term for socialization is enculturation.
Values, norms, status, and roles

Through socialization, individuals learn the norms and values of their society. Values are
culturally defined standards that people use to decide what is desirable, good, and beautiful and that
serve as broad guidelines for social living. Norms are the rules and expectations by which a society
guides the behavior of its members. Socialization prepares individuals to occupy statuses and roles
(Macionis 2012: 127–128).
Status refers a social position that a person holds. An ascribed status is a social position a person
receives at birth or takes on involuntarily later in life. Examples of ascribed statuses include being a
daughter, a Filipino, a teenager, or a widower. Achieved status refers to a social position a person takes
on voluntarily that reflects personal ability and effort. Achieved statuses include honors student, athlete,
nurse, software writer, and thief. Role refers to behavior expected of someone who holds a particular
status.
We can distinguish three major aspects of socialization; the context in which it occurs, the actual
content and processes people use to socialize others, and the results arising from those context and
processes.
 CONTEXT of socialization is like the theatre or stage in which socialization occurs. Social context
includes culture, language, and social structures such as the class, ethnic, and gender hierarchies
of a society. Context also includes social and historical events, power and control in social life,
and the people and institutions with which individuals come in contact in the course of their
socialization.
 While context sets the stage of socialization, the CONTENT AND PROCESS compromise the
work of this undertakings. How parents assign chores or tell their children to interact with the
police are the examples of CONTENT and PROCESS, which are also defined by the span of
socialization, the methods used, the people involved, and the type of experience.
 RESULTS refer to the outcomes of socialization, and are evident when individuals begin to
practice the behaviors, attitudes, and values that society considers necessary for them to function
effectively as its members. An example of a result is the ability of an individual to speak his or her
native language, and understand and comply with basic rules and norms in his or her community.
A significant result of socialization is self-identity, which refers to the establishment of a unique
sense of identity and an awareness of how it relates to their society and the world.
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Concept of Socialization
Following are the socialism theories focused on how the self, as product of socialization, is formed
by famous researchers.
Freud’s model of personality. Sigmund Freud (1856–1939)

combined basic needs and the influence of society into a
model of personality with three parts: id, ego, and superego.
 The id represents the human being’s basic drives, or
biological and physical needs which are unconscious
and demand immediate satisfaction.
 In the human personality, the superego refers to the
cultural values and norms internalized by an
individual. Society, through its values and norms,
opposes the self-centered id.
 The ego is, thus, a person’s conscious efforts to
balance innate pleasure-seeking drives (id) with the
demands of society (superego).
Piaget’s theory of cognitive development. From his studies

of human cognition, or how people think and understand.
Jean Piaget (1896–1980) identified four stages of cognitive
development.
 Stage one is the sensorimotor stage (first two years
of life), the level of human development at which
individuals know the world only through the five
senses.
 Stage two is the preoperational stage (about age two
to seven) at which individuals first use language and
other symbols.
 Stage three is concrete operational stage (between
the ages of seven and eleven) at which individuals first see causal connections in their
surroundings.
 The last stage is the formal operational stage (about age twelve) at which individuals think
abstractly and critically.
Mead’s theory of the social self. George Herbert Mead (1863–1931) For Mead, the self is a part of our
personality and includes self-awareness and self-image. It is the product of social experience, and
is not guided by biological drives (see Freud) or biological maturation (see Piaget).
According to Mead, the key to developing the self is learning to take the role of the other.
Infants can do this only through imitation and, without understanding underlying intentions, have no self.
As children learn to use language and other symbols, the self emerges in the form of play. Play
involves assuming roles modeled on significant others, or people, such as parents, who have special
importance for socialization.
Then, children learn to take the roles of several others at once, and move from simple play
with one other to complex games involving many others. The final stage in the development of the self is
when children are able to not only take the role of specific people in just one situation, but that
of many others in different situations. Mead used the term generalized other to refer to widespread
cultural norms and values we use as references in evaluating ourselves.
Cooley’s Looking-glass Self. Charles Horton Cooley (1864–1929)

used the phrase looking-glass self to mean a self-image based on
how we think others see us. As we interact with others, the people
around us become a mirror (an object that people used to call
a “looking glass”) in which we can see ourselves.
What we think of ourselves, then, depends on how we
think others see us. For example, if we think others see us as
clever, we will think of ourselves in the same way. But if we feel
they think of us as clumsy, then that is how we will see ourselves.
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Gender role socialization.
Sex to the biological characteristics distinguishing male and female (Macionis 2012: 169). Sex
is based on chromosomes, anatomy, hormones, reproductive systems, and other physiological
components. Gender refers to those social, cultural, and psychological traits linked to males and
females through particular social contexts. Sex makes us male or female; gender makes us masculine
or feminine. All the major agents of socialization—family, peer groups, schools, and the mass media—
reinforce cultural definitions of what is feminine and masculine. (Dionisio 1992: 1-2; Macionis 2012: 170)
Agents of Socialization and Enculturation

The Family
The family is the primary agent of socialization of an individual
upon birth, throughout infancy, and up to childhood. Parents and other
family members are essential for the early care and development of the
child, and as the child matures, the family becomes an important venue
for social engagement and political socialization.
The family's social and cultural backgrounds are also significant
factors that define a child's social opportunities and experiences. The
family's social class, economic position, and ethnic background influence
the child in various ways. The unique context of families may lead them
to emphasize certain behaviors and values which they deem more
important.
For instance, a religious and conservative family may forbid their children from dating or having
relationships at a young age; while other families may have a more liberal view regarding relationships
and allow their teenaged children to engage in them.
Peer Groups
Peer groups also reinforce acceptable behaviors introduced by
the family and school, allow a certain degree of independence from
family and certain figures of authority, and are also a means for
socialization and involvement in social and political issues. Peer groups
refer to people who share the same interests or characteristics such as
age and social background.
For instance, children going to school form groups with other
children of their age. Through interaction, these children develop habits
such as sharing toys, food, and other resources; playing games; and
doing school work. By having a peer group, a child attains a sense of
belonging and a shared identity with other member the because of mutual support, shared activities, and
common interests.
Schools
Schools have a critical and active role in socialization, as their
various academic and social activities mold students' beliefs, values,
and attitudes. Schools teach students important values like
competitiveness, cooperation, conformity, innovation, punctuality,
orderliness, and respect for authority. In addition, students learn the
value of self-improvement and hard work through classroom activities
and learning tasks which give them opportunities to apply their
knowledge and skills. Students also benefit from the constant guidance
and evaluation provided by teachers.
All activities and elements experienced and encountered in school including classes, the
curriculum, values, the interaction with teachers and other members of the school administration,
extracurricular activities, and participation in student government influence one's views about society
and his or her role in it.
Mass Media
Mass media includes forms of communication such as books,
magazines, newspapers, other print materials, radio, television, and
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movies. It is a powerful agent of socialization which is widely used by many institutions and organizations
involved in the use of print and electronic communication.
Mass media functions as a socializing agent in the following ways: it is a source of information
regarding events in society; it presents various viewpoints regarding events and developments within
society; and it provides entertainment by showcasing other people's experiences. The prevalence of
mass media within society results in its enormous impact and influence on people's views, behavior, and
attitudes.
References:
https://studylib.net/doc/26000810/ucsp-module-5
https://www.studocu.com/ph/document/university-of-antique/understanding-society-culture-and-politics/chapter-3-of-ucsp-
becoming-a-member-of-society/19655208
https://pdfcoffee.com/stem-ucsp-week-5-pdf-free.html
LESSON: 2 CONFORMITY AND DEVIANCE
The Concept of Social Control

Social control is defined as any systematic means and practices
used to maintain norms, rules, and laws; regulate conflict; and discourage
deviant behavior. Sanctions are the most common means of social control,
and are often employed to address. conflicts and violations of social
norms. Sanctions can be formal or informal.
Formal sanctions are those provided for by laws and other regulations in
society. Laws formally designate certain deviant behaviors as crimes, and prescribe sanctions for such
acts. The adoption and enforcement of laws serve to reinforce accepted social norms, as well as define
deviant behaviors that merit punishment in society.
Each society has its own set of definitions regarding crime and the appropriate sanctions to be
applied. For instance, several states in the United States impose the death penalty on crimes such as
murder. Meanwhile, Philippine law provides for the imposition of the death penalty on certain crimes, but
the government has chosen to suspend the imposition of death penalty since 2006. Other sanctions
provided for crimes include imprisonment, banishment, fines, and corporal punishment.
Informal sanctions are most commonly imposed by smaller societies, communities, or groups. There
are no set laws or regulations that define the nature of these sanctions, and these are often randomly
agreed upon by members of the group or society.
Ostracism and social stigma are the most common forms of informal sanction. An ostracized
individual is forcibly isolated from the rest of society for a certain time. A stigmatized person, on the
other hand, still remains within society but is subject to isolation and rejection by other members of
society. Gossip is considered as another way of imposing informal sanctions, as it is an informal means of
monitoring and censuring the behavior of certain individuals.
Forms of deviance
There are people who do not conform to the standard norms. They have failed to choose an action
that is generally acceptable. Banaag (2012) refers social deviance as any behavior that differs or
diverges from established social norms. Some of its functions include the following:
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Baleña, E. et. al. (2016) cited the Strain Theory of Robert Merton which states that in an unequal
society the tension or strain between socially approved goals and an individual’s ability to meet these
goals through socially approved means will lead to deviance as the individual reject either the goals, the
means, or both. Palispis, E.S. (2007) enumerated the forms of deviance of Robert Merton that emerged
from Strain Theory:
A. CONFORMITY- involves accepting both the cultural goal of success and the use of legitimate means
for achieving that goal.
(Example: Norman is from a traditional family in the countryside who needs to finish senior high school.
He lives in the city with relatives and his daily life involves gadgets and city fashion. He goes with it but
he never forgets his positive family values.)
B. INNOVATION- accepts the goal of success but eliminating the use of socially accepted means of
achieving it.
(Norman does not take the usual 3day meal to save money. He only eats twice a day.)
C. RITUALISM- occurs when people deemphasize or reject the cultural goals but accept the
institutionalized means.
(Norman grew up being told that to be successful, he needs to master the skill of farming. Although he
wishes to push through it later, he believes that obtaining academic knowledge would greatly help in his
farming later on. He values success the way his community defines it but deviates and have it his way.)
D. RETREATISM- means withdrawal from society since both the cultural goals and the institutionalized
means are rejected.
(He realizes the need to detach himself from his community to reach his goals. Otherwise, he will stay
stagnant, as to his personal belief.)
E. REBELLION- occurs when people reject and attempt to change both the goals and the means
approved by society. (
His father believes that Norman needs to stop schooling and farm immediately because he will, in the
end, become one, anyway. He disagrees with it and pushes through with his plans.)
LESSON: 3 HUMAN DIGNITY, RIGHTS, AND THE COMMON GOOD
As citizens, we always think of the promotion of the common good or general welfare. To become
a responsible citizen, there is a need to promote the common good such as obeying the law,
volunteering in the community, paying taxes honestly, informing himself about important political issues,
and respecting the rights of others. He or she is willing to sacrifice his individual interests for the
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collective good of the nation. This is called inclusive citizenship in which the citizens are given a strong
feeling that they are a part of the overall society. By making the citizens feel that the government values
their viewpoints, the people are then motivated to participate in the elections, civic participation, and
military service.
Human rights are inalienable rights that protect

people’s dignity as human beings. These give them the rights
to choose, to live, to love, to property, to make their living, to
practice one’s profession, to vote and to be voted, among
others. These assure people the means to fulfill their basic
needs. By guaranteeing life, liberty, equality, and security,
human rights protect people against abuse by those who are
more powerful.
Human Dignity is referred to as an individual or

group's sense of self-respect and self-worth, physical and
psychological integrity and empowerment. It is stated in the
United Nations’ declaration of human rights the recognition of the inherent dignity and of the equal and
inalienable rights of all members in the society.
As cited by Saluba, Dennis J. et. al. (2016), deviance is inevitable. Henceforth, human dignity,
rights and common good should be righteously extended to deviants by the society itself. Even if the
person is a deviant and a criminal, he or she should be respected and treated justly as a human being.
Violating his or her rights means treating him or her inhumanely. Accordingly, the common good is
espoused with human rights that provides benefits to the society.
In the principles of Human rights, human dignity and common good advocate the belief in the
inherent dignity and worth of every human being.
Human rights are founded on natural rights, which are universal and inalienable, and are not
contingent on laws, customs, beliefs, or values of a particular culture. Examples of these rights are the
right to life and freedom. Human rights are considered to have the following characteristics:
 They are universal because they belong to all human beings regardless of race, religion, gender,
and other characteristics.
 They are fundamental since they cannot be taken away from any human being
 They are indivisible as various rights are interrelated and given equal importance.
 They are absolute since they cannot be qualified and are considered basic necessities for living a
genuine life
 Human Rights Education is a means towards social change; a tool to transform the theory and
practical applications into everyday social practice.
 Civil rights deal with standards of judiciary and penal systems.
 Political rights deal with specific components of participation in political power.
 Economic rights deal with the sphere of human beings working, producing and servicing.
 Social rights deal with standard of living and quality of life for all persons, including those not
participating in economic activities.
 Cultural rights deal with the cultural sphere of life including ethnic culture, subcultures, arts and
science
Human Rights Principles

The rights that someone has simply because he or she is a human being & born into this world.
CORE PRINCIPLES:
1. Human Dignity
2. Equality
3. Non-discrimination
4. Universality
5. Interdependency
6. Indivisibility
7. Inalienability
8. Responsibilities
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Three obligations of action
1. Respect
2. Protect
3. Fulfil
Four obligations of process:

1. Non-discrimination
2. Adequate progress
3. Participation
4. Effective remedy
Source: Universal Declaration of Human Rights
References:
https://studylib.net/doc/26000810/ucsp-module-5
https://www.studocu.com/ph/document/university-of-antique/understanding-society-culture-and-politics/chapter-3-of-ucsp-
becoming-a-member-of-society/19655208
https://pdfcoffee.com/stem-ucsp-week-5-pdf-free.html
The Learners:
 understand the meaning of social groups;
 examine the sociological perspectives about social groups;
 differentiate the various forms of social groups;
 analyze the functions of social groups
__________________________________________________________________________________________________________
LESSON: 4 HOW SOCIETY IS ORGANIZED
Forms of Social Group

Groups are formed as an assemblage of people who often
interact with each other on the basis of a common outlook concerning
behavior and a sense of common identity. A social group may consist
of two or more individuals who do things together with a common goal
and interest.
Examples:
family church mate neighborhood
relatives schoolmate organization
couples co-workers team mate
friends business clubs
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Group
 is any collection of people who interact on the basis of shared expectations regarding one
another’s behavior ( Kornblum, 2003).
 is consist of two or more people who are bound together in relatively stable patterns of social
interaction and who share a feeling of unity ( Hughes and Kroeler, 2009)
 is comprised of two or more persons who are in social interaction, who are guided by similar
norms, values and expectations, and who maintain a stable pattern of relationship over a period
of time.
 Is a specified number of individuals where each recognizes members from non-member;
 it is a collection of individuals characterize by:
a) Communication
b) Recognition
c) Specialized roles
Factors that influence Groups

1. Motivational base shared by individuals (based on needs, interests, desires, noble activities,
insecurities, or problems)
2. Size of the group
3. Type of group goals
4. The kind of a group cohesion/unity (the capability to function and interact collectively in the direction
of their goals
General Characteristics of a Group

Group is characterized by the following:
1. A group has identity identifiable by both its members and outsiders.
2. A group has a social structure in the sense that each part or member has a position related to other
positions.
3. Each member in a group has roles to play.
4. There is mutual reciprocity among members in a group.
Group as distinguished from other Collection of People like:
1. Aggregate - a simple collection of people who are in the same place at the same time without
interacting with each other
Eg. People inside the movie house, people riding in an LRT/MRT
2. Category - a simple collection of people who share distinctive characteristics (age, sex, race,
income/social class, occupation, religion, political beliefs, ethnicity
Eg. Males/females in the society; the infants; children; youth; adults/ the aged; slum dwellers; the
middle class; the millionaires
3. Collectivity - Collection of people in a given place and time
Eg. Crowds, masses, public and social movements are temporary groups
IMPORTANCE OF A GROUP
1. A group is a major source of solidarity and cohesion.
2. A group reinforces and strengthens our integration into society.
3. A group shares basic survival and problem-solving techniques to satisfy personal and emotional needs.
4. A group gives meaning and support to an individual.
Groups within society: Primary and Secondary

PRIMARY GROUPS SECONDARY GROUPS
 personal and intimate relationship  Large
 face to face communication  impersonal, aloof relationship
 permanence duration  indirect communication
 a strong sense of loyalty or “we” feeling  temporary duration
 small in size  weak group cohesiveness based on self-
 Informal structure interest
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 traditional or non-rational decision-making  rational decision-making
 formal structure
According to Charles Horton Cooley (1864-1929) groups can generally be classified into two main
types: (1) the primary group and (2) secondary group.
A primary group is just a small group with members engaged

in tight, private and lasting relationships. This group is noticeable by
the care the members have for each other as well as the common
activities and culture they share. This close-fitting interconnected
group is among the most significant groups in any society as
exemplified by the family. It also includes childhood friends and long-
lasting intimate relationships. Primary group members identify
themselves strongly within the group.
The secondary group can be a small or a big social group

usually formed for a short-term period. The members are not related
to one another and are not influenced by personal feelings.
Membership is founded on what a person can do for each other. This
group is commonly found in schools and at the workplace. The
members of this group follow a particular action with a common goal.
Among the members of this group are our co-workers and
schoolmates.
In-groups and Out-groups

Another conceptualization of the characteristics of social groups is the self-categorizing theory.
This theory explains that the importance a person gives to his/her group is influenced by his/her
perception of people who do not belong to his/her group. William Sumner (1840-1910), a sociologist,
coined the concepts of in-group and out-group. In essence, a person’s conceptualization of another
person as well as other groups depends on his/her perception of whether they are members or part of
his/her group or not.
An in-group is a social group to which a person identifies with. He or she may feel loyalty and
respect toward the other members of this group. This may include brotherhood or fraternity.
On the other hand, out-groups are groups to which a person does not identify with. He or she
may feel dislike or hatred toward a member of this group. This may include opponents and rivals of their
group.
Reference Group
With socialization, persons change necessarily to adjust to different groups of people in society.
Individuals evaluate their behavior and attitudes through their reference group which can be within their
primary or secondary group. Reference groups serve as an element or component that individuals use
as a standard towards the achievement of a desired behavior in making judgement about the quality of
life or things. It is not necessary that we become a member of a reference group; this can be a person’s
favorite fashion style, artist, pop idols, sports team, mentor, or a well know personality we admire and
want to emulate.
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Networks
Networks are created because of the need to establish
connection for some reasons like personal, economic, religious,
or political interests. These are collective individuals functioning
on similar undertaking unnecessarily known to one another. A
network is a group that includes individuals who come into
casual connection but who do not have enough sense of
belongingness. Other intellectuals assert that networks are
unstratified, unstructured, and free of value organizations.
References:
https://www.studocu.com/ph/document/western-mindanao-state-university/understanding-the-self/522789015-ucsp-q1-mod5-how-
society-is-organized/34762903
https://depedtambayan.net/understanding-culture-society-and-politics-quarter-1-module-6-how-society-is-organized/
Sociological Perspective of Society. Retrieved from
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/wmopenintrotosociology/chapter/sociological-perspectives/
The Learners:
 describe the organized nature of social life and rules governing behavior
 compare different social forms of social organization according to their manifest and latent functions
 analyze social and political structures
 analyze economic organization and its impacts on the lives of people in the society
 differentiate functions of nonstate institutions in society
 evaluate how functions of education affect the lives of people in society
 recognize the practice of medical pluralism in light of cultural diversity and relativism
____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
LESSON: 5 CULTURAL, SOCIAL AND POLITICAL INSTITUTIONS
\A. KINSHIP, MARRIAGE, AND THE HOUSEHOLD

Social Institutions are semi-permanent sets of relationships in society that last for a long period
of time. Social institutions are considered as cultural universal, since they are almost always present in
the different cultures and societies across time and space. A cultural universal is a common pattern or
feature present among societies, which may differ in form and dynamics. Examples of social institutions
include governments, education, religion, the
economy, and the family.
The family is the basic unit of society. It is defined by Kingsley Davis as a group of people related
by consanguinity that maintains close relationship to each other. The institution of the family is
responsible for taking good care of the future members of society. This includes attending to the needs
of the children from infancy until adulthood. It is also the first agent of socialization, which orients
children on how to be good members of society. Not all families are related by blood. A family of
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orientation is the type of family that one is born into and grows up with, usually as a child of two
parents. This is in contrast with the family of procreation, which is the type of family that one creates
through marriage, adoption, and other legal processes, usually as one of the parents.
Practices in Tracing Family Lineage

Unilineal system- a system of determining descent groups in which one belongs to one’s father’s
or mother’s line, whereby traced either exclusively through male ancestors (patriline), female
(matriline).
Patrilineal- relating to or based on relationship to the father or descent through the male line.
Matrilineal- refers to familial relationships that can be traced through a female. To follow the
matrilineal line in your family, start with your mom.
Bilateral-comes from Latin: bi means “two” and lateralis means “belonging to the side.” Debates
about issues can be described as bilateral — as long as people on both sides get to speak.
However, bilateral can describe anything with two sides, like some of the organs in the body: the
brain, heart and lungs all have two distinct sides
Kinship by Marriage
Different societies and cultures have their own rules when it comes to this very delicate social
phenomenon. Some social groups are very particular with regard to pairing with members from their own
affiliations. These groups prohibit their members to marry outside their circle. This is called ENDOGAMY.
One good example in the Philippines is the rules of marriage within the religious group, Iglesia ni Cristo.
Members of this church are not allowed to tie the knot with people who belong to other religious
denominations, unless he or she undergoes baptism before the wedding. On the other hand, the practice
of marrying someone from a different social group is called EXOGAMY.
Other cultures’ rules in marriage are manifested in terms of the number of partners one can
have.
POLYGAMY Is the practice of having more than one marital partner. Muslim men can marry up to
four women, if he is able to equally provide for the emotional and material needs of his partners and
their children. This practice comes from a very merciful teaching of Muhammad, which encourages the
provision of assistance to widows and orphans. The practice of having more than one wife is called
POLYGYNY. One the other hand, POLYANDRY is the tradition of females having multiple husbands.
This practice is common to areas with hostile environments. In this way, the population can also be
regulated. In Tibet, multiple brothers equally share a wife to preserve land ownership. Through this
means, a piece of land owned by the husband’s family will not be divided.
In contrast to polygamy, MONOGAMY is the practice of having only one partner. This practice is
supported by the Philippine Constitution. However, this is not applicable to Muslims, since they are
subject to the Sharia Law. The SHARIA LAW is a set of rules and regulations based onthe Islamic faith.
This set of laws is considered first before the constitution, in the case of practitioners of Islam.
Post-Marital Residence Rules

Guidelines set by the society do not end in mate selection and wedding ceremonies. Even before
the actual matrimony, couples decide where to live and where they can start their family. The decision is
usually rooted on the type of the lineage system their society follows. If the couple’s place of residence is
near the ancestral house of the groom, the system is called a PATRILOCAL RESIDENCE. This is one
reason for the migration of women, since tradition requires them to move to a house near the relatives of
her husband. Conversely, if they join the household of the bride or live near the bride’s relatives, it is
called a MATRILOCAL RESIDENCE. When the couple has the freedom to choose where to live, the
practice is called AMBILOCAL RESIDENCE. There are also instances when the couple does not consider
the distance of their home to the relatives of both parties. This is called NEOLOCAL RESIDENCE. In
more liberal societies, some factors that may affect the choice of the residence’s location are job
opportunities, safety from calamities, and accessibility to different establishments.
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B. KINSHIP BY RITUAL
Aside from the familial ties built through blood relations and marriage, familial ties can also be
formed through rituals. This is called FICTIVE KINSHIP. Through the rituals, people can form bonds and
treat each other like a family member. An exact depiction of this phenomenon is the compadrazgo
system. COMPADRAZGO is the Spanish term for “co-parenthood,” which is actualized by the
godparents after being part of rituals or ceremonies, like baptism, weddings, and religious confirmation.
This social phenomenon creates two types of relationships. First is the bond between the parents and the
godparents. Second is the relationship between the child or couple to the godparents. This practice
fosters social solidarity and integrating the community.
This practice is also evident in the Filipino culture, as an influence of Spanish colonizers. This is in
the form of compadre or ninong and ninang. They are considered as the second parents of the child.
They have the responsibility in guiding the child to be a good son or daughter, as well as inspire them in
their religious faith. In cases of the early death of the parents, they are expected to help in raising the
children. The have the same responsibility as the blood relatives of the child. Although they are not
related by blood, the connection created by this ritual is so strong that they are considered as family
member. In fact, this bond can be found in the workplace, where special treatment is given to
compadres
C. FAMILY AND THE HOUSEHOLD

Families from different parts of the world are facing unique situations and challenges. Families
usually live together in a single household. However, this is not always the case for all families. A
household is a group of people sharing a common house. When parents and their children occupy a
single house, it is called a nuclear family. On the other hand, an extended family includes other
relatives in the house, such as grandparents, aunts, and uncles. This type of household is common in the
Philippines. Unlike in Western societies, where grandparents are usually sent to homes for the aged,
Filipinos still live with their grandparents and care of them.
However, a household may not always contain a family. For instance, friends sharing an
apartment together are not tied by blood, marriage or ritual. These friends are considered as a
household. Another trend in contemporary households is composed of cohabiting couples. Cohabitation
is the act of sharing a household by unmarried couples. Cohabiting couples may share their household
with their children.
Types of Families in the Contemporary World
Not all families live in the same house. A good example of this are transnational families. A
transnational family is a type of family where one or more of its members live in different nations. This
social phenomenon is prevalent in Philippine society due to overseas employment. On the other hand,
not all families consist of two parents. Single-parent families only have one parent taking responsibility
for their children. According to the Federation of Solo Parents, there are around 20 million single parents
in the Philippines. There are also instances where a single parent marries another single parent, thus
joining their households together. This is called a reconstituted family or a type of family where at
least one of the parents has children from a previous relationship.
E. POLITICS OF KINSHIP
A family is described in the first lesson as the institution responsible for taking care of its
members. Close interpersonal relationships among family members are commonly present. However,
politics is also present between and among families in society.
Politics Among Family Members

Power is not equally distributed among members of the family. Parents, for instance, decide for
their children. They also set rules and regulations inside the home. However, power inequality can also
be present between parents. If the father has the final decision in the family, the family is described as a
PATRIARCHAL household. This is common in the Philippine context, where the father is known to be the
padre de pamilya. On the other hand, if the mother’s decision has a greater impact, the household is a
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MATRIARCHAL one. If the parents have equal power, then an EGALITARIAN household exists. The
family is seen by feminist advocates as the starting ground for women’s oppression. Cultural preference
for a baby boy can lead to infanticide of baby girls. This scenario happened in China after the
implementation of one-child policy. In addition, many working mothers suffer from a double shift, that is,
after a stressful day at work, mothers usually must work again by doing household chores. As a solution,
radical feminists aim for the abolishment of the family to free women from oppressive house duties.
Politics Among Families in Society

Rivalries between different families may be more familiar. Within Philippine politics, there are
family rivals campaigning for positions during local elections. POLITICAL DYNASTIES, or families that
hold political power for generations, are also present in the country. Political dynasties come in two
types. In VERTICAL POLITICAL DYNASTIES, politicians from the same family hold different positions in
the government at the same time. On the other hand, in HORIZONTAL POLITICAL DYNASTIES,
members of the same family hold the same position over time. This shows how family-centered Filipino
culture is in terms of politics. In addition, NEPOTISM or patronage towards family members is also
widespread. Cooperation among families, on the other hand, is also used to amass more power in
society. Alliances are made between families to further protect their wealth and power.
LESSON: 6 POLITICAL AND LEADERSHIP STRUCTURES
A. POLITICAL ORGANIZATIONS
As discussed earlier, societies need to be held together by a set of social norms or rules in order
to avoid chaos or competition. The system of rules and procedures organized to regulate society is called
social control. When social control is organized to enforce law and order among members of society, a
political organization ensues. Thus, political organizations force individuals to adapt to the rules for
the goodwill of society. According to Beals and Hoizer, political organizations are accomplished through
leaders who commit to the interest of the group and who work towards social welfare.
Classification of Societies
Societies could be classified in terms of political organization or their ability to employ an
organized political structure and authority. According to renowned anthropologist Elman Service, society
could be classified into four major categories based on political structure and authority: band, tribe,
chiefdom, and state.
 Bands
Among the four classifications, bands are considered to be the smallest and most primitive. They
live autonomously and are comprised of small kin groups or a pool of nuclear families to live together in
a common area. According to anthropologist Morton Fried in his book The Notion of the Tribe, bands
neither pay taxes nor support an army. Hunting and gathering is the typical way of life in bands. Social
order is achieved through informal public opinion in the forms of gossip and avoidance.
 Tribes
Similar to band societies, tribal societies do not have a formal and organized political structure.
They are usually bigger than bands and are primarily food producers. Tribes place great value on
agriculture and husbandry than hunting and gathering. Social order is maintained through a kinship and
family system led by a community head, the eldest person in the group who is considered the most
knowledgeable and experienced among the tribespeople.
 Chiefdoms
Chiefdom societies are more complex than tribes and bands. They already have a form of social
and political structure characterized by a community leader—the chief—whose position could be passed
on through his bloodline. However, there is no bureaucracy in a chiefdom. There is inequality in the
distribution of power, and there are definite differences among social classes. Social order is dependent
upon the judgment of chief. In some societies, there
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are a council of elders present to help the leader decide on appropriate sanctions, norms, and rules to
enforce to achieve order. Despite this, economic activities among chiefdoms are more advanced and
successful compared to that of tribes and bands.
 States
Being the most politically organized and structurally-developed among the classifications of
society, states take part in many political, cultural, and economic activities. States are self-governing
societies. This would mean that they have full control over their members through an organized political
structure, they participate in economic activities within and outside their group, they have political power
over their geographical territories, and they could enforce, enact, and change laws or norms according to
the needs of the society. Bureaucracy is heavily practiced by states. Its people and territories are
protected by its own military.
B. AUTHORITY AND LEGITIMACY
Authority
When there is power, authority could be upheld. Understanding authority could be done in a
theoretical or practical sense. Theoretically, authority could refer to an individual’s expertise in a
particular topic of interest. For instance, in order to fully understand anthropology, students could consult
with various experts in the field. Students believe them because they have proven their intellectual
prowess and expertise in their chosen fields. In practice, however, an authority is given the ability to
coerce people in social activities because of the power they hold. A state, for instance, has power and
exercises it through laws which citizens follow. Because society follows through with what the state
decides on, the state could be considered an authority figure.
Authority, in the political sense therefore, means that a certain political entity has the right to
use and exercise its power over a specific group or society. Sociologist MAX WEBER viewed authority as a
form of legitimate power. He implied that a political organization in authority is followed by members of
society because these people recognize its rights to govern the group. Based on his concept of legitimate
domination,
Weber came up with three distinct classifications of authority.
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Legitimacy
In our previous examples, you found out that societies follow authority figures because they
recognize the validity of the power that these figures hold. Legitimacy, according to Weber, is the belief
that a certain entity has a right to rule or to be in authority. As such, in cases where people follow the
rules set by the authority figure, they also recognize that the authority’s power is legitimate. This would
imply that power and authority is seen as something that is rightful and acceptable to be upheld by the
governing body.
LESSON: 7 ECONOMIC INSTITUTIONS
Economic institutions
 are those that are involved in the production and distribution of the goods and services that
members of a society need. Economic exchanges, which are an important part of a functioning
economy, happen for different reasons and through different ways. Because societies greatly
differ from each other in terms of culture, their systems of economic exchange may also vary.
Reciprocity
 refers to the voluntary giving or taking of objects without the use of money in the hopes that, in
the future, they could be given back. Reciprocity could take the form of barter, hospitality, gift-
giving, and sharing. You might not realize it, but people engage in reciprocity most of the time.
Simple activities like borrowing and returning a pen could be categorized as reciprocity. In
societies, however, reciprocity means more than just a simple social activity. The aim of engaging
in reciprocity is to build and strengthen social relationships as well as acquire more means or
favors. As you may recall from earlier lessons, social relationships are needed to expand personal
and cultural development at the macro and micro level. Gaining more favors through reciprocity
contributes to this development by allowing people to maximize their options in times of need.
Redistribution
 It occurs when individuals’ goods or services are pooled together by a central authority to be used
at a later time. The central authority may refer to a regional collection point, a storehouse, or the
national capital. Note that the main difference between redistribution and reciprocity is that the
latter refers to an exchange where goods are passed back and forth from one group to another.
Understanding Market Transactions

Over a long period, many societies have evolved and have adopted a capitalist economy where
the market principle dominates. This principle implies that the market is responsible for the sale and
distribution of goods and services. A prominent concept in discussing market transactions is market
exchange which refers to the organized process of sale and distribution at money price. This would
imply that for all forms of transactions within a market, money is heavily utilized. Note, however, that a
market, in this sense, does not just refer to a physical structure (such as a public market) where local
goods are sold to consumers.
A market, in economic terms, refers to a bigger setting where buyers or sellers simultaneously
trade or exchange goods or services. Markets could imply a global setting where states engage in market
transactions to exchange goods or services. In a market exchange, at least two people should be
involved: one who has a product and another who has the money. Using a system of barters and
bargaining, the two individuals agree upon a specific price for a specific quantity of the product. To
further understand this concept, let us use your personal experience as an example. Dining out at
restaurants by yourself or with your family is an example of market exchange. When you eat out, you
allot a specific amount of money to buy food. The same amount of money you have allotted could buy
specific quantities of products from the menu. When you pay for your food at the cashier, you are
already engaging in a market transaction because you gave up your money in exchange for goods or
services, which in this case, is food. Thus, all forms of market exchange would require the following: a
medium of exchange, a rate at which products are exchanged for money, and parties who are involved in
the exchange (i.e., buyers or sellers)
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Elements of Market Transactions
In understanding market transactions, it is important to also familiarize yourself with the elements
that
make up market exchanges. Note that these elements are also important in balancing the economy.
Element Description
 Money-It consists of objects that serve as means of exchange for goods and services.
 Prices-It is the amount required or agreed upon by the exchanging parties. It is the amount of
money used in exchange for a certain product.
 Supply-It refers to the quantity of goods or services that are available to sell at a given price and
period of time.
 Demand-It refers to the quantity of goods or services that consumers are willing to purchase
at a given price and time period.
The Interaction of States and Markets

Providing an in-depth concept of the state requires a look at markets and vice versa. States need
to
foster economic growth to provide a good standard of living to its citizens. At the same time, markets
exist because of the economic activities done by the state. As such, we could easily conclude that
markets and states are dependent on each other. This interaction between states and markets opens
up the field of international political economy. This phenomenon also drives changes to the holistic
development of a nation. One prominent example of the effects of the interactions between states and
markets is the case of China where developments on both their market and state needs were
emphasized and utilized in their reform programs.
As an effect, the country developed societal and economic growth over the past two decades. The
market-based and state-based reforms and developments that China implemented rested highly upon
the transformation of people’s communes, state-owned enterprises, decentralization, price reform, and
capital market development.
LESSON: 8 NONSTATE INSTITUTIONS
Non-state institutions are groups and organizations which operate outside the support of any
state or government. They are referred to be ‘stateless’ since they are considered to be independent of
any state, although, they usually collaborate with the government in implementing projects. Non-state
institutions assume different functions and focus on a specific objective. In general, they develop certain
services needed by members of the society for their progress.
There are different non-state institutions that operate in society. Two of them are banks and
corporations.
 Banks
The term ‘bank’ has no single definition for many authors have provided their own definition of
it. For the purposes of uniformity, we define a bank as a financial institution licensed to provide
several financial services to different types of customers. Banks are in operation mainly for their
deposit and lending function. Customers are allowed to deposit their money to banks which grow
through an interest rate. Banks also provide loans, at a higher interest rate, to customers who need
money either for personal consumption or for investment and businesses. This process of taking in
deposits and lending them to customers in need is called financial intermediation. This means that
the bank serves as a connecting link between its depositors and borrowers of money.
Banks also act as a custodian of customer’s money, which help guarantee the safety of each
deposit. When a person puts his money in a bank, the amount given is maintained in a deposit or
savings account which prevents the risk of theft and robbery. Certain types of bank accounts also make
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it possible for customers to withdraw money as needed. This ensures a more secured transaction of
funds.
Due to the countless services that banks provide, there are types of bank which only specialize in a
specific bank function. However, there is no clear line categorizing banks to a classification since one
bank may engage itself in several functions. In this case, a specific bank can be classified into two or
more bank types.
Some of the most common types of banks are as follows:
 A retail bank is a type of bank that focuses on consumers or the general public as its customers.
One’s personal bank account, like checking and savings account, are usually in a retail bank.
Retail banks can be considered to be the most common and widespread of all the types of banks.
 A commercial bank also provides the same services as a retail bank; however, it focuses on
businesses and businessmen as its main customers. Commercial banks provide short term loans
for businessmen to be used for investment purposes.
 An investment or an industrial bank provide medium and long-term loans and deposits to
business industries.
 Agricultural banks, as the name suggests, caters to the financial needs of farmers and the
farming industry. They provide short-term and long-term loans to facilitate agricultural activities.
Loans from this type of bank is used for buying seeds, fertilizers, land, or any materials needed for
farming. An agricultural country such as the Philippines is unsurprisingly abundant of agricultural
banks. Examples of which are the Agricultural Bank of the Philippines and Land Bank of the
Philippines.
 The central bank is the main financial institution in a country since it supervises the monetary
system in the country. It functions as a regulating institution to all other banks in a country and it
issues all the bank notes (or money bills) and coins of the country in which it operates. The
Bangko Sentral ng Pilipinas is the central bank of the Philippines. A central bank is the only
banking institution established through a special law of the government, which makes the
government of great influence to its central bank.
 Corporation
is an organization, created by a group of people known as shareholders, which is legally
recognized to act as a single person in carrying out certain goals and objectives. As a ‘legal person’, a
corporation is mandated to enjoy the rights, privileges, and responsibilities of an individual. Using its
own name, a corporation has the right to enter into contracts, to hire employees, and to loan and
borrow money. It is also authorized to have its own assets. Any corporation-owned property belongs
to the corporation itself and not to the owners of the corporation. Like most individuals, a corporation
is also obligated to pay taxes. This non-state institution is created to operate businesses and to
pursue a common objective, may it be profit-oriented or not. Although, many corporations are usually
set up for profit. It is important to take note that a corporation is a distinct and separate entity from
the people who own it. This enables the corporation to have powers and liabilities of its own. Any debt
of the corporation is the responsibility of only the corporation itself; shareholders cannot be
personally held accountable for these debts. This feature also enables the corporation to sue and be
sued in behalf of its name. Any lawsuits directed to the corporation is solely the responsibility of the
corporation itself and not of its owners.
There are different types of corporations that are classified based on specific factors like the
corporation’s purpose, manner of taxation, and number of shareholders.
• A business corporation is created to operate and to generate profit. Companies like McDonald’s and
Starbucks are examples of a business corporation.
• A non-profit corporation is established with a purpose of serving the public rather than pursuing
profits.
• A corporation whose income is taxed through the corporation itself is a C-corporation.
• An S-corporation is taxed through its shareholders. An S-corporation can only have less than 100
shareholders, unlike a C-corporation which can have an unlimited number of shareholders.
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Cooperatives
According to the International Labor Organization (ILO), a cooperative is “an autonomous
association of persons united voluntarily to meet their common economic, social, and cultural needs and
aspirations, through a jointly owned and democratically controlled enterprise”. Members of a cooperative
usually joins together in order to achieve a specific objective, an objective which usually benefits the
members of the organization itself. In short, cooperatives are mainly structured to benefit its members
and to satisfy its members’ needs. In a cooperative, the people who use its products or services are the
same people who own and control the organization. Cooperatives exist among different industries and
are composed of different types of people, may it be farmers, consumers, or workers.
The International Cooperative Alliance also came up with seven principles to characterize a
cooperative. These principles are as follows: (a) voluntary and open membership, (b) democratic
member control, (c) member economic participation, (d) autonomy and independence, (e) education,
training and information, (f) cooperation among cooperatives, and (g) concern for the community.
There are several types of cooperatives, depending on its specific function and purpose.
 A credit cooperative provides financial services to its members, including securing savings and
creating funds to be used for issuing loans.
 A consumer cooperative operates mainly to obtain and distribute products and commodities to its
customers, both members and non-members.
 Producer cooperatives aids those in the sector of production, either agricultural or industrial. A
subtype of a producer cooperative is agricultural cooperatives which help producers or farmers in
marketing their crops as well as in purchasing supplies needed for further production.
 A service cooperative (or a worker cooperative) concentrates on helping workers in the service-
oriented occupations (i.e. health care, transportation, labor) by creating employment
opportunities and other benefits to its members.
 A multi-purpose cooperative undertakes two or more functions of different cooperatives. For
example, multi-purpose cooperative could act as a consumer cooperative and establish a
supermarket. At the same time, it could also provide financial services like a credit cooperative.
Trade Unions
Part of the universal human rights of every individual is his right to organize and form
associations that would protect his rights as a worker; the embodiment of this right is trade unions. A
trade union or labor union is an organization with a membership composed of workers or employees
from related fields, which aim to represent the interests and rights of its members, both in the workplace
and in the society.
While an individual has the capacity to demand better conditions from his employer, trade unions
recognize that a unity of several employees would act as a more powerful tool in advancing these
interests. This is how trade unions became the voice of the workers to the management; they serve as
link between employees and their employers. Trade unions work to improve certain issues like wage
adjustment, good working environment, and rewards and other benefits.
There are different types of trade unions according to its members.

 A general union represents workers with a range of jobs and skills, from different industries and
companies. An example of this type of union is a trade union of drivers, janitors and office
workers.
 Industrial unions are composed of workers from one particular industry, across different levels of
the hierarchy. A trade union of all employees who work in the mining industry (with different
levels and positions) is an example of an industrial union.
 A craft union seeks to represent skilled workers doing the same work who may be employed in
different industries. A craft union of carpenters is one example.
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 A white-collar union is composed of professionals doing similar jobs across different industries. A
trade union of teachers and professors is an example of a white-collar union.
Although there are many types of trade unions, these classifications still perform the same functions
expected from a trade union. In addition, a trade union may not only be limited to a particular company.
here are unions in the Philippines which are composed of several workers from different companies.
Defining Transnational Advocacy Groups

To have a general understanding of what a transnational advocacy group is, it is better to first
individually define terms that make of it. The word ‘transnational’ denotes something that goes
beyondone’s national borders. ‘Advocacy’ can be defined as issues or causes that are being defended or
supported by a certain group of people known as advocates. A ‘group’, as you were familiarized in
previous lessons, is generally defined as a collection of individuals with significant relations among each
other.
Combining these terms and definitions, we may define a transnational advocacy group as a
collection of actors (individuals or groups) characterized by their fluid and open relations with each other,
united by their commitment to work on and defend certain issues and causes that are relevant across
several nations. They “use the power of information, ideas, and strategies to influence the valuecontext
within which states make policies”.Transnational advocacy groups are also referred to as “transnational
advocacy networks” due to the nature of actors’ connection with each other.
Development Agencies
The establishment of development agencies can be found in history. In the Second World War,
many countries had been grounds for attacks and bombings which resulted to crises such as starvation
and food scarcity, among others. Because of these, many European countries saw the need for the
creation of an organization that would attend to the crises brought about by the war. Development
agencies were formed as a response to crises like war damage and industrial decline. In some countries,
such agencies were established with the hope of stimulating economic development, post- war.
Development agencies have come a long way since they were first established, as thousands of them are
currently operating within the globe. Nonetheless, there is still no solid formula to create this type of non-
state institution since different development agencies across the world have a range of specific functions
and roles. This lack of common understanding about development agencies makes it more difficult to
define it. In general, we refer to development agencies as groups or entities that are tasked and
committed to pursue certain developmental agendas of a state. They are an institution that provides
help in support of a state’s economic growth and social progress.
INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATION
is an umbrella term used to refer to institutions established by three or more states as voluntary
members, formed through a formal agreement or treaty, in order to promote cooperation and
coordination among them. Members of an international organization work together for the development
and management of their common interests.
The main feature and characteristic of an international organization which distinguishes it from
other non-state institutions, is that its membership is entirely composed of national states or
governments. These member states give power to the international organization which gives the
institution some degree of authority to manage and govern the same member states. International
organizations tend to focus on different agendas. The decision of what agendas to pursue by an
organization exclusively depends on the interests of its members. Some agendas may be economic (e.g.
finance and
investments), humanitarian (e.g. human welfare, human rights), or environmental (e.g. global warming,
climate change, biodiversity) in nature.
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Significance of International
Organizations
International organizations provide an
avenue for different countries and
states to connect. This
connection among countries help form
international laws, norms, and ideas,
which in turn strengthen
the relationship among member
states. These norms also serve as
guides on how toregulate and
manage these member states
Significance of International Organizations International organizations provide an avenue for

different countries and states to connect. This connection among countries help form international laws,
norms, and ideas, which in turn strengthen the relationship among member states. These norms also
serve as guides on how to regulate and manage these member states
LESSON: 9 EDUCATION
Education
It refers to the various ways through which knowledge is passed on to the other members of the
society. This knowledge can be in the form of factual data, skills, norms, and values. On the other hand,
schooling refers to the formal education one receives under a specially trained teacher.
Education is an important factor in maintaining the stability of a society. Note, however, that
education can happen on various fronts. There is formal education (or schooling) which refers to the
complete educational ladder all children must go through from childhood up to adulthood. And then
there are the alternative forms which are not controlled by the government (often called private
education, indigenous education, informal learning, and self–directed learning). With the
advance of the internet, a new form of education has emerged: open education through online courses.
Regardless of these developments in education, formal education remains to be of paramount
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importance. Every child, in every country, has to go through it. As such, its functions remain the same.
Formal education performs the following functions: socialization, social integration, social placement,
cultural innovation, and latent functions such as childcare and the establishment of lasting social ties.
The Five Functions of Formal Education

 Socialization
As has been discussed above, education is used to promote the norms and values of a society
from one generation to the next. In some countries, the transmission function of education is taken on by
families. However, in more advanced countries, social institutions such as schools become important as
the family can no longer provide the tools and important knowledge needed by the young student. This is
the reason why formal education was developed.
From early childhood, students in formal education learn their native language, as well as the
mathematical skill they will need to function in society. Such learning expands in secondary and tertiary
education, as students are prepared to adapt to his changing realities.
 Social Integration
Because education is used to transmit norms and values, it can also be regarded as a unifying
force. It
promotes desired values and ensures conformity. In cases of deviance, it provides widely known
approaches to convert. For example, mandatory education laws in the US ensured that all immigrants
to the country knew what was desirable and undesirable in the US society because they had to be
educated in the US schools.
 Social Placement
Formal education helps students to discover approved statuses and roles that will help the
society’s
longevity. Educational systems consider the various talents and interests of students and attempt to
provide opportunities that provide a good fit for these talents and interests. Formal education, in a
way, is an equalizer. It focuses on achievement, rather than educational.
 Cultural Innovation
Educational institutions are the center of cultural innovation because they stimulate intellectual
inquiry
and promote critical thinking. It enables new ideas to develop, as well as provide bases for new
knowledge to become accepted in the mainstream. Through schools, theories are proven; technologies
are improved; and cultures can adapt to the changing society.
 Latent Functions of Formal Education
As more families have both parents working at the same time, schools tend to become an
institution of child care. As children have to be in school, parents can have time to perform their
economic duties
without being burdened with childcare duties. Another latent function of formal education is the
establishment of social relationships that would have a lasting impact on the life of a child.
We have heard of students ascribing their success to their teachers or successful business people
who
rely on their social networks to promote their businesses. Many of the social ties a child forms in the
course of their schooling are lasting social networks and would impact various aspects of their lives.
Education as a Human Right

The status of education as a human right is no new thing. Many international conventions such as
the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, the Convention on the
Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women, and the Convention on the Rights of
Persons with Disabilities have reaffirmed this right. Despite the consensus on the importance of
education, human rights advocates continue to campaign for it due to two reasons:
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• When children receive basic primary education, they will be able to learn the basics of literacy and
numeracy, and hence, gain the basic social and life skills they need to be an active member of society
and live a fulfilling life; and
• Many children around the world still do not have access even to basic primary education.
Three Facets of the Right to Education

The right to education goes beyond having the capacity to go to school. Article 26 of the Universal
Declaration of Human Rights underscores three basic rights in relation to education.
1. Education enables individuals to exercise all their rights.
Through basic education, individuals are able to know about their rights and are able to assert
them. They are able to get good paying jobs, participate fully in the political process, care for their
environment, cooperate with their fellow men, and fight for equality and justice.
2. All children have a right to quality education.

It is not enough that children are able to access education. Instead, they must be afforded with an
education that meets their needs and prepares them for future challenges in their adulthood. In this
aspect, learning outcomes are important indicators of success.
3. All children must be given the same educational opportunities.

Socio-economic background, capacities, and location should not be a factor in a child’s education.
Wherever the child is living, there should be schools that are able to provide him or her with an
education that is at par with international standards. Children with disabilities should be allowed to go to
school. The curriculum, their teachers, and class activities have to be adapted to fit their needs.
LESSON: 10 RELIGION AND BELIEF SYSTEMS
A belief system is a set of beliefs regarding what is true and false, what is good or bad, what is
beautiful and ugly, what is acceptable by society and what is considered as unacceptable. A belief
system usually possesses the foundational principles on which a religion, a science, a culture, or a
philosophy is based but may not necessarily be the religion, the science, the culture, or the philosophy
itself.
Meanwhile religion is a belief system that relates humanity to the transcendental, and just like
culture, it has its own set of rules, norms, values, and rituals, which are generally accepted by its group
of believers. To better understand the concept, we must first trace the origin of the term. The word
religion comes from the Latin word religionem which means “respect for what is sacred, reverence for
the gods”. It also comes from the Latin word re which means again and ligare which means to connect.
Put together, re–ligare therefore means “to reconnect”, in this sense, to the to the divine, the sacred, the
supernatural, and the spiritual. According to Emile Durkheim, “Religion answers all the unanswered
questions of human existence.” Most of the things that human reason cannot comprehend as of the
moment can find answers in transcendental ideas such as religion.
What is Animism?
During the old days when science was not yet dominant, our ancestors could not understand
many things in nature. When the lightning struck or when the volcanoes erupted, there were no
reasonable or scientific explanation available to them.
Thus, our primitive ancestors were compelled to come up with mythical explanations to many
things they saw in nature. Most, if not all, of ancient cultures are animistic, that is, the belief that all
things found in nature are guided and inhabited by spirits and deities. Basic questions such as: how does
the sun rise? Where do the rains come? How far is the sea? What is thunder? are all answered by spirits
residing in those elements in nature. Thus, primitive cultures attribute the rising of the sun to the sun
Page | 45
god; that the lightning and thunder are ruled by deities and gods; that the trees and the land are all
animated by spirits. In order for nature to be kind to them, our human ancestors performed sacrifices
and rituals to ensure the good favor of the gods. The common features of animism include:
 The existence of souls or spirits which are viewed as the life-force of all things – from human
beings, animals, plants, and even non-living things and phenomena;
 The souls and spirits are found in nature. They may take the form of plants, animals, trees;
 There exists a spirit world. There is a world where unattached spirits dwell. Such spirits may be
evil and may bring chaos, hunger, death in the world of humans;
 There are human beings in the community who have the capacity to access the spirit world in
order to communicate and control the evil spirits;
 The spirit of human beings survive physical death. Their spirits may go back to the world in the
form of natural objects, or they can become one of the unattached spirits that bring evil to the
world.
In the olden times, people had to contend with many spirits, gods, and deities. This is the reason
why animism is usually polytheistic or the belief in many gods. Our ancestors usually had a hierarchy or
a pantheon for gods and goddesses. In Ancient Egypt, their highest god is Ra or Re. Meanwhile, in
ancient Greece, their highest god among many gods is Zeus. In early Philippines, we have Bathala as the
highest god even as we have Diwata’s (goddesses of the land) and anitos (spirits of nature) all around.
While animism is often attributed to primitive societies, the truth is that many animistic practices still
survive today. For example, we offer flowers and candles to the dead in the hopes of helping them reach
the afterlife peacefully. We wish upon a star in order for our dreams to come true. At closer inspection,
many of the rituals and belief systems developed by religions today have been based from animism.
The Concept of Monotheism and Polytheism

Monotheism is the belief in one god while polytheism is the belief in many gods. The
foundation of polytheism is the belief that there are different gods and goddesses that typically have
physical bodies, and have human characteristics. Such deities are representations of forces of nature,
and are accorded with their own supernatural capacities. For example, in the Hindu story above, there is
a god of creation, and a god of destruction.
In most polytheistic traditions, some gods are important than others. For instance, among the
Greeks, Zeus has always been regarded as the lord of all gods, though not exactly the most powerful of
them all. Meanwhile, in the Hindu tradition, Brahma has always been the chief god, and all the others
have emanated from him. Some examples of polytheism that is still present today include Shintoism,
Buddhism, and Hinduism. The following are the characteristics of a polytheistic religion:
 Gods of polytheistic religions are many, with each one having their own personalities, needs, and
desires.
 These gods intervene in the daily life of people as each one governs various aspects of human
life
 Gods of polytheistic religions are thought to have the qualities, vices, and defects of human
beings, but their physical appearances are rarely human.
 Though human in their personalities and characteristics, but they have their divine characteristics
which belong to a different order of reality not attainable for man.
 Gods are immortal, but they are neither omnipotent nor omniscient.
 There is no single theory of belief because each god has the capacity to circumvent the other.
 Polytheistic religions are closely related to the cultural, social, and political conditions of the
society where it exists. Its forms, rituals and belief systems are typically representative of the
culture where it can be found.
Unlike polytheism, monotheism purposes that there is only one god who was all-powerful and who
had the capacity to intervene in the world. Monotheistic religions are believed to have developed out of
Abraham and his descendants. Some of the largest monotheistic religions today include Christianity,
Judaism, and Islam.
Page | 46
Some of the common characteristics of monotheistic religions include:
 God is omnipotent (all-powerful) and omniscient (all-knowing).
 God is a creator who sustain and maintain order in the world.
 God is incomparable to any image or representation
The Concept of Institutionalized Religion

An institutionalized or organized religion is called a church. Unlike religious traditions,
organized religions have beliefs and rituals which are formally established and systematically arranged.
Religions become institutionalized when they have the following elements, also referred to as the five Cs
of organized religion:
1. Cult
is the set of rituals and sacred places, items, and objects, religious practices that believers do
and adhere to. It usually refers to some supernatural, superhuman, or transcendental power or promise
that attracts followers. The beginning of religion usually starts with the cult.
2. Creed.
As the cult expands and develops, the members are questioned and challenged from the outside.
They also need to assure the next generations that their message will be transmitted in its original form.
Thus members of an organized religion are compelled to come up with a written set of beliefs that would
unite all members. This is their profession of their faith.
3. Code.
As the organization of the community of believers progress through time, it cannot be prevented
that some organizational issues and processes need to be systematized. They need to come up with a
set of standard processes, organizational procedures and laws that would govern the whole membership.
Questions pertaining to the organizational structure of the church, what constitutes the church hierarchy,
what constitutes the laity and other things need be answered in legal form. This is the code of the
church.
4. Community of Believers.
All individuals who adhere to the set of beliefs of a certain religion are members of that religion’s
community of believers.
5. Community Services
are the things that the church does for its members and for the outside world. These include such
activities as having regular services for the believers, putting up schools and hospitals, and doing
humanitarian services, among other things.
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References:
https://www.studocu.com/ph/document/urdaneta-city-university/tourism-management/module-ucsp/8070812
Page | 48

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GRADE 11: UNDERSTANDING CULTURE, SOCIETY AND POLITICS

Section I: THE DIVERSIFIED HUMAN SOCIETY

Sharing of Social and Cultural Backgrounds

Observations about social, political, and cultural behavior and phenomena

Observations on social, political, and cultural change

Section II: ANTHROPOLOGY, POLITICAL SCIENCE, AND SOCIOLOGY

2. Biological/ Physical Anthropology

The Different Fields in Political Science

2. Comparative Government and Politics

Sociology includes three major theoretical perspectives:

Goals of Anthropology, Sociology, and Political Science

The Importance of Studying Culture, Society and Politics

Section I: Doing Sociology and Anthropology

The Concept of Society

Definition of society has two types:

c. Specialization – Teachers, businessmen, students, physicians, nurses, lawyers, pharmacists, and

1. Pre-class Societies 1.Simple Societies 1.Food Gathering

The Concept of Culture

Two Components of Culture

3. Learned through socialization or 3. Systemic and integrated

- These varying systems of meanings, relations.

4. Patterned social interactions 4. Shared

- Societies do not always exist

Forms of Tangible and Intangible Heritage

Preserving Our Cultural Heritage

 trace the biological and cultural evolution of early to modern humans

Section I: BIOLOGICAL AND CULTURAL EVOLUTION

The Biological and Cultural Evolution

Cultural and sociopolitical evolution

Timeline of Agricultural Innovation and World Population –10,000 to 500 B.C.E:

Early civilization and the rise of the state

Location Social Class/ Architecture Religion Other

Ancient State and Civilization

Modern State and Civilization

Democratization is the transition to a more democratic political regime, including

GRADE 11: UNDERSTANDING CULTURE, SOCIETY AND POLITICS

CHAPTER: I Becoming a member of society

Values, norms, status, and roles

Freud’s model of personality. Sigmund Freud (1856–1939)

Piaget’s theory of cognitive development. From his studies

Cooley’s Looking-glass Self. Charles Horton Cooley (1864–1929)

Agents of Socialization and Enculturation

LESSON: 2 CONFORMITY AND DEVIANCE

The Concept of Social Control

LESSON: 3 HUMAN DIGNITY, RIGHTS, AND THE COMMON GOOD

Human rights are inalienable rights that protect

Human Dignity is referred to as an individual or

Human Rights Principles

Four obligations of process:

Source: Universal Declaration of Human Rights

Forms of Social Group

Factors that influence Groups

General Characteristics of a Group

Group as distinguished from other Collection of People like:

Groups within society: Primary and Secondary

A primary group is just a small group with members engaged

The secondary group can be a small or a big social group

In-groups and Out-groups

\A. KINSHIP, MARRIAGE, AND THE HOUSEHOLD