FEDERAL UNIVERSITY OF AGRICULTURE

COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURAL MANAGEMENT AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT

DEPARTMENT OF COMMUNICATION AND GENERAL STUDIES

LECTURE NOTES FOR GNS 201: WRITING AND LITERARY APPRECIATION

1. Course Requirements
This is a compulsory course for all 200-level students in the University. The course is
designed to enable students to write acceptable summaries, reports and essays with the aid of
relevant reference works. It will also enable the students to have a generalized but clear
awareness of the historical development of literature in the English Language. It will expose
students to relevance and classification of literature and literary appreciation. Students are
expected to participate in all the course activities and obtain a minimum of 75% class
attendance to be able to write the final examination.

2. Reading List
 Akeredolu- Ale, B. Bodunde, H., Sotiloye, B., Aduradola, R. R., Olaifa T. and
Adebiyi,
A. (2014), Studies in English Language and Literature.
 Bodunde H.,Aduradola, R. R., Akeredolu- Ale, B., Ayebola, Pat., Sotiloye, B., Azeez,
T. (2005), Communicative English Practice: A Referenceand Practice Book for
Students.
 Egbokhare, Olayinka A.Dazzling Mirage
 Okediran, A.After the Flood. Lagos:
 Olaifa, T.Echo of the Desolate Lagos:
 Lagunju,.A. Days of illusions. Ibadan: Tomio Publishing House. 2005.
 Osofisan, F.Women of Owu. Ibadan: University Press Plc. 2006
 A good dictionary (preferably a United Kingdom published dictionary) to be
downloaded into mobile phones or tablets for use during lectureswhenever it is
required.

NOTE: Two literary texts are usually selected for use every two sessions before
changes are made. The two comprises of a play and a prose in addition to the
approved course textbook.

3. Course Content
i. Identification and evaluation of common errors in students’ writing:
To bring out students’ errors and locate the sources of such errors.
ii. Writing Skills:
 To expose students to pre-writing exercises to prepare them to engage in good and
effective writing to develop their writing skills.
 To enable students to learn grammatical structures essential to building their writing
skills.
 To help students organise their ideas and write good outlines.
 To assist students to raise awareness of order in texts-coherence.
 To develop students ’abilities to write good paragraphs and essays with the
appropriate use of transitional/linking devices.
 To enable students to identify different kinds of writing as applied to their disciplines
and other situations.
 To raise students' awareness on the technicalities of different forms of letter- writing,
report and official correspondences.
 To expose students to writing formal, informal and semi-formal letters.
iii. Literary Appreciation
 To create general awareness of literature and genres of literature.
 To identify the relevance and classifications of literature.
 To study literary terms, their meanings, uses and examples in selected texts.
 To appreciate and differentiate between the three genres of literature by studying a
play, poem and a novel.
 To expose students to analysis of literary texts.

iv. Application of the various Acquired Skills

 To write projects that will integrate the taught/acquired literary skills.
 To integrate the use of information communication technology to build the skill of
making PowerPoint presentation during lectures.
 To encourage participatory learning atindividual and group levels.
 To promote in and out-of-class activities to boost reading culture and effective study
habits in students.

PART A: WRITING

What is writing?

Writing is a careful compilation of thoughts, ideas, information or speech presented

on paper. It uses language in a formal and meaningful way, applicable to both the writer and
the reader. Among the four skills of a language: listening, speaking, reading and writing;
writing is the most tasking and challenging aspect. Ability and intelligence of the writer are
clearly tested in writing. It is an important skill required in tertiary level of education.

Requirements for Effective writing

• Title/topic/subject matter

• Audience – decoder of a writer’s information or ideas.

• Correct use of grammatical structure.

 • Careful use of punctuation marks.

• Clarity of expression.

• Logical arrangement of points in sentences and paragraph formation

• Suitable style /manner of writing.

• Correct use of language to ensure communicative interaction between the writer and
the readers.

Three basic points to bear in mind for a good piece of writing include:

i. Composing

Getting and organizing suitable and relevant materials for writing. The testing ground for
composing is an intimate knowledge of context of writing (which considers the audience,
medium and occasion of writing).

ii. Crafting --- Concerns the structuring or logical arrangement of a piece of writing. This
relates to the use of words to form sentences and sentences to form paragraphs which are
logically crafted in a piece of writing or text. To do this effectively, a writer should:

• Identify and be familiar with various forms of writing.

• Ensure proper organisations of ideas into units of expressions (sentences and

paragraphs).

• Arrange information logically and coherently.

• Demonstrate accuracy in the use of words, sentences and paragraphs.

• Edit (proofread) the piece of writing to ensure correctness of language and clarity of
purpose or expression.

iii. Communicating

Both interactional and transactional aspects of writing are important for effective
communication between the writer and the reader. Therefore, the writer must ensure that:

• Choice of appropriate style and register should be used.

• Audience of a piece of writing must be united with the purpose, content and form of
writing.

The type of writing (essay or letter types) is determined when communicating.

Planning a piece of writing

A purposeful writing requires effective and adequate planning. An unplanned writing lacks
purpose, direction and organisation. Such a piece of writing may be boring, repetitious and
out of the writer’s control. A good writing must achieve the goal of communication. Effective
writing undertakes some pre-writing activities such as:

Adequate preparation to search and collect information through literary search, survey,
research interview, questionnaire, focus group discussion or through laboratory experiments

• Undertake a brainstorming exercise by analysing the requirements of a topic and how

to organise relevant information sequentially.

• Effective outlining done should be through jotting down of suitable/relevant points

and arranging them in the order of importance.

• Re-arrangement of relevant points to produce first draft. Thorough editing of

grammatical structures, spelling, punctuation marks and vocabulary are very essential
to the production of a second or final draft.

Parts of Essay writing

Essay writing can be divided into three main parts:

i. Introduction

The writer introduces the topic/subject in few sentences organised into a paragraph
which may contain general statement, question, definition or specific explanation.
Introductory part must be catchy to capture the attention of the readers.

ii. Body
This aspect should consist of more sentences arranged into paragraphs. Every relevant
point must be arranged in single paragraph with detailed explanation. A topic sentence
(conveying the main idea of the paragraph) may be written in the introductory part,
middle or concluding part of each paragraph.

iii. Conclusion

Expresses the summary, re-statement or emphasis of basic information or ideas in a

piece of writing. Conclusion can also include recommendations and suggestion for future
research or direction of a discourse.

Paragraph Development

A paragraph is a unit of expression. It consists of sentences expressing relevant ideas

or information about a subject or topic. A good paragraph must possess three basic features:

Unity

Every paragraph must comprise of sentences discussing same idea, information or

subject. To enhance unity, the rule is one topic or subject should be discussed in each
paragraph. An introduction of another subject destroys the unity of a paragraph. The
use of topic sentence promotes the unity in a paragraph. It is both restrictive and
 precise by discussing a single subject and at the same time, providing information on
the writer’s intention about the topic. For example, the paragraph below illustrates the
use of a single idea:

The Locust

The locust is a species of grasshopper. Locusts are found in all continents of the world
except Antarctica. In Africa, there are ten species of locusts. They are very common in
tropical areas, except where it is wet. Locusts live in two forms or phases as they are
called: the solitary phase, and the gregarious phase. In the solitary phase, they live alone
like any other grasshopper, and cause little damage. But if their numbers increase, they
enter the gregarious phrase and they can become swarms big enough to darken the sky,
and they are very dangerous.

Compare and contrast the paragraph above with the one below:

The Locust

The locust is a species of grasshopper. Locusts are found in allcontinents of the world
except Antarctica. In Africa, there areten species of locusts. They are very common in
tropical areas,except where it is wet. Bees are also very dangerous and theycan, as they
are said to have done before, wipe off a generationof farmers. Locusts live in two forms,
or phases as they are called:the solitary phase, and the gregarious phase. In the solitary,
they live alone like any other grasshopper, and cause little damage. But if their numbers
increase, they enter into the gregarious phrase and they become swarms big enough to
darken the sky, and the they are very dangerous.

Transitional phrases/words/devices

To achieve coherence in paragraph development, transitional words/phrases are

employed. Sentences are linked together through the use of transitional words to form a
paragraph and to link one paragraph to another. Linking words are also used to put ideas
together and properly connect parts of a sentence. Their uses establish coherence in a piece of
writing. For example, because, as if, for, as, though, since, for the purpose, as though, are
used to indicate relationship of causes or reason(s). Moreover, also, at the same time, in the
same vein, show a relationship of addition.

Types of Letter-writing

There are three types of letters: formal, semi-formal and informal.

• Formal writing - application for job placements, invitation letters, report writing,
articles for publication, letters to the Editor. etc

• Semi-formal – articles or letters to acquaintances or distant relations.

• Informal letter – letters to parents, friends, family members.

Note: Basic differences between the three types of letter feature under organization,
opening/salutation, body, conclusion and closing.

Types of Essay Writing

A consideration of the content of writing relates significantly to types. There are five
types of essay/composition. These are:

1. Definitive Writing

A type of writing which provides meaning(s) of words, phrases or sentences used in a

piece of work/work of art.

 It defines clearly technical/specialised terms for reader(s) to understand.

 A good definition must contain:

• a concept

• the use of article a/an/the

• a class/device

• feature of the concept e.g.

A square is a figure which has four equal sides and four right angles.

an atom is the smallest piece which has the same qualities and can combine with other
substances.

NOTE:

Wh-words (e.g which, who, whom, where) are used in writing definitions. Who is used
for persons; which for animals and inanimate objects; where for places/locations; when
for time period.

2. Descriptive Writing

A good descriptive piece creates precise mental picture of events. It is imaginative and it
appeals to the intellect of the reader. To write a good description:

 Provide accurate details related to the topic/subject matter.

 Present ideas/information/facts that are verifiable objective not points coloured by

author’s feelings.

 Arrange ideas or events as they occur chronologically.

 Use present passive verb forms e.g. are made, are refined, are established, are
formed, are looked.
Use sequence markers/linking.

3. Narrative Writing

Provide an account of events or story in chronological order. It is interesting and close to

reality. A good narrative piece uses apt descriptions and expositions.

• It uses transitional devices for proper sentence and paragraph developments.

• It is commonly used in prose writing (fiction).

• It creates vivid, clear, accurate and imaginative writing. E.g. Bayo Adebowale’s Out
of His Mind, gives lucid and vivid description of events and story line

• The simple past tense is used (e.g. failed, opted, ended, wanted and prepared, etc).

• The active form of a verb is mostly used.

4. Argumentative Writing

It is based on intelligent and clear/logical reasoning to influence/convince the reader.

• It presents balanced views on the two sides to an argument.

• It advances logical reasons in favour (support) or against a topic with supporting

evidences leading to meaningful conclusion.

• It considers advantages and disadvantages of an idea.

• It evaluates action through comparison and contrast.

• It is concerned with honest presentation of facts and arguments for a proposition or

opposition.

• Note: There are certain pitfalls to avoid in argumentative piece. These include;
tautology, - unnecessary repetition; over simplification which may lead to distortion
of facts; false comparison; attack on personality rather than ideas; over/sweeping
generalisation

Writing Instructions

It gives direction about a particular thing. It can also give information on how to carry out
task or gives a recipe on how to cook a particular meal, how to bake etc.

• The instruction /direction must be clear and concise

• Use time linkers such as first, then, next, after, etc.

• Use the imperative form.

• Include only information needed.

• Use simple language.

• Do not use subject pronouns e.g. you

Report Writing

Gives accounts of events, investigations, research and incidents.

It requires effective communication.

Simplicity and coherence are its focus.

Types of Report Writing

• Eye witness accounts to the police, report of burglar or fire incident.

• Work reports, may be progress, final or one-time report. Investigative reports

are divided into technical and non- technical reports. Under technical type, we have
(1) Laboratory report and (2) Project report e.g. Dissertation or Thesis writing, while
term paper is a type of non-technical report.

• Features of Report Writing

• Introduction gives the background of the topic, aims and objectives of the report,
limitations of study, methodology and arrangement of topics/chapters in the report.

• Body contains sections and sub-sections of materials gathered and organized to

support the writer’s point of view. Transitional devices are used to connect sentences
and paragraphs together.

• Recommendations are the writer’s suggestions based on observations made on the

field or in the laboratory.

• Conclusion– a brief summary of the report stating the main points of the findings.

• Contents of Report writing

• Term paper

• Preliminaries

• Title page
• Dedicate page
• Table of contents
• Acknowledgements
• Preface
• Abstract

• Body
• Introduction
• Background
• Body of the work divided into chapters.

• Ending Part

• Conclusion
• Bibliography/References
• Appendices.

• LABORATORY REPORT

• Preliminaries
• Title page
• Table of contents
• Abstract
• Body
• Introduction, Background, materials, Results, Discussion.
• Ending Part -Conclusion, References.
• Project Report

• Preliminaries
Title
Dedication
Table of contents
Acknowledgements
Preface
Abstract.

• Body
Introduction, Body divided into chapters, sections and sub-sections.

• Ending Part
Recommendation, Conclusion, Bibliography/ References, Appendices.

PART B LITERARY APPRECIATION

What is Literature?

• There are many definitions/ meanings of the word “literature.”

• Any printed/written work on any subject is literature. For example, English/French

Literature, history of the Yoruba people, works of Shakespeare etc.
• Imaginative work of art which may be oral, written or dramatized.

• Creative (artistic) and aesthetic use of words. e.g. poetry, drama or prose.

• Recreates life through an invention of characters and events. For example, Animal
Farm by George Orwell is concerned with human behaviour characterised by animals.

Relevance/Benefits of Literature

• Literature is a subject on the curriculum/syllabus.

• It expresses ideas and information on every subject area. For example, religion,
philosophy, culture, morality, marriage, health. etc.

• It performs aesthetic function (relates significantly with beauty, entertainment and

pleasure).

• It performs didactic function (useful in teaching morals) e.g. children

literature/stories.

• It performs ideological function by projecting political views/policies through the

medium of literature. E.g. Orwell’s Animal Farm satirizes communist “principle of
equality”.

• It uses language in a special way and enhances improvement for effective

communication.

• It aids the development of critical thinking.

Classification of Literature

• Kind:

(i) Popular literature is a kind of literary work which develops from folk tradition/culture
and meant for entertainment e.g. Mills and Boon, Pacesetters.

(ii) Canonical/Serious Literature is a kind of scholarly work. It engages the mind of the
reader with issues relating to humanity e.g. Kongi’s Harvest by Wole Soyinka.

• Medium- speaks of the presentation of literature through oral, written or dramatized

form.

i. Oral literature- (orature) is a spoken or unwritten form e.g. “oriki” (praise name),
poetry, proverbs, folktales, myths, incantations.
ii. Written literature- refers to literary expressions codified graphically into prose, drama
and poetry e.g. Chinua Achebe’s Things Fall Apart and Arrow of God; Lekan
Oyegoke’s Broken Ladders and Ill Winds are all prose forms.
iii. Dramatized form may be spoken, written or mimed e.g. Soyinka’s The Trials of
Brother Jero and Jero Metamorphosis are dramatized forms of literature.
 Region: classifies literature into geographical (regional) location e.g. African literature
embraces works written by either Africans or non-Africans about Africa e.g. Walter
Rodney’s How Europe Underdeveloped Africa is a regional literature written by a non-
African person; South African literature is a literary work written about South Africa.

NOTE:

There is a difference between Literature–in–English and English literature. The former

is referred to as any literary piece written in the English language, while the latter is a
literature of the British people.

Genres/forms:

The three literary forms/structures are:

 Prose - narrates or describes events or character in written or oral expressions.

 Drama – presents a story through action by actors.

 Poetry – uses figurative language to create emotion and imagination.

Elements of Literature

• Plot – sequence of events through exposition, complication, climax and

resolution. Types of plot include:
comic/satirical/tragic/loose/connected/complex/romantic.
• Subject matter – what the story is all about (summary of events)
• Theme – central idea presented in a literary work.
• Characters represent human qualities or persons in a dramatic or narrative
piece. There are different types of characters –flat, stoic, round,
protagonist, antagonist, major, minor and deuterogamistcharacters.
• Characterization – the act of assigning roles or human qualities to
characters in a literary piece. e.g. Achebe assigned certain roles to
Okonkwo in Things Fall Apart, which reveal his human qualities and
eventually lead to his rise and fall.
• Point of View/Narrative Technique is the mode of presenting the events
of a story. There are four types of point of view: The Omniscient point of
view, First person point of view, Third person point of view, and
Limited point of view.
• Style – the artistic expression or manner of presentation peculiar to a
writer and the period of writing. The writer’s peculiarity is shown in his
diction, tone and mood.
• Setting refers to the place and time where events of a story take place e.g.
The setting (place) of Wale Okediran’s After the Flood is Ibadan.
• Language – a medium of expressing literature. Some writers use simple
language comprehensible to all literate minds, while some other use
language in a specialised way. Language of poetry is usually symbolic and
 a vehicle of imagination. A prose writer also uses language to create vivid
narration or description of events.
• Other elements of literature include atmosphere, tone, vision, allegory
and structure.

Literary Terms

 Prose can be classified into:

i. Size – the novel is a narrative with sufficient length to make up a volume or
series of events. For example, Novelette – a short novel not more than
30,000 words; Novella is an Italian term for a piece of novel with same
size and a short story which contains 1,000 to 1,500 words equally
expressed in anthologies.
ii. Fiction – imaginative stories which are usually untrue.
iii. Faction – blends real events and characters with untrue/imagined types.
iv. Non-fiction are real or true stories /events e.g. biography, autobiography,
diary, memoir.
 Drama has three major types:

 Comedy - has a happy ending e.g. The Trials of Brother Jero.

 Tragi-comedy - a serious drama which ends happily e.g. After the Flood.

 Tragedy - a serious drama that ends sadly e.g. Shakespeare’s Romeo and Juliet.

Minor types of drama include:

 Travesty is a humorous play which contains exaggeration.

 Character drama focuses on character in a play rather than events e.g. Shakespeare’s
Macbeth.

 Situation drama concentrates on events with few characters e.g. Melodrama

(sensational play which ends happily) and Farce, a funny play which evokes laughter.

 Mime – gestural play without words.

 Dance drama – uses dances and songs to communicate.

 Pantomime Christmas play accompanied with dances and silent songs e.g. “Father
Christmas” shows are used to express narrative situations.

 Other types of drama also include: morality plays, mystery plays(religious

type),opera(musical drama) e.g. soap opera – serialised radio or television drama
presented in episodes e.g.Super Story and Binta and Friends are television drama
pieces.
  Poetry uses figurative language to express feelings or experiences, written in verses or
metrical patterns. There are different forms of poetry e.g. narrative poems, dramatic
poems, dramatic monologue, lyrical poems and free verse.

 Poems come in different types. For example:

 Epic poem – imaginary/historic/legendary poems

 Folk epics are oral poems of traditional societies. For example,Ijala, hunters’ poetic
rendition/ Incantation.

 Literary epic – a written form of epic divided into cantos - major division.

 Ballad – a poem that tells a story and can be sung.

 Folk Ballad is oral/ indigenouspoem without specific number of persons.

 Literary ballad – a written poem credited to a particular person/poet.

 Sonnet - a poem of fourteen lines, sung in a rhyme.

 Elegy/dirge– a poem that expresses sorrow or lamentation.

 Ode – a long lyrical poem.

 Lullaby - a song rendered to lull children to sleep.

 Panegyric/Eulogy – a poem of praise or celebration.

Features of Poems

i. Rhythm – a wave-like sound.

ii. Metre – syllables divided into sounds.

iii. Alliteration – repetition of an initial sound (consonant or vowel).

iv. Assonance repetition of similar sounds in the middle or at the end of a line

v. Consonance – repetition of consonant sounds.

vi. Rhyme – identical sounds.

vii. Verse – metrical line written in regular metre and end rhyme (rhymed verse), in ten
syllables lines which runs without end rhymes (blank verse) or in polyrhythmic verse
(free verse) without recurrent or regular metrical form.

viii. Stanza – recurring group of lines. E.g. couplet (two rhyming lines with equal length),
septet – a stanza of seven lines; triplet/tercet three rhyming lines; Quintet – stanza of
five lines, Quatrain a stanza of four lines; sestet and octave
 ix. Figurative expressions – Simile likening of two things using like: Metaphor direct
likening of a person with an object. Personificationassigning human qualities to
inanimate objects. Hyperbole exaggeration or overstatement.

x. Euphemism – a mild expression used to pass unpleasant information. Irony opposite

of what is intended.

xi. Synecdoche -a part representing a whole. Litotes is an understatement which avoids

the affirmative.

xii. Metonymy is calling a thing by a name related to it.

xiii. Allusionis an indirect reference to something that is popularly known.

xiv. Oxymoron relates totwo opposite words placed side by side.

xv. Antithesis is a contrast created by the use of two opposing words or ideas.

xvi. Paradox is anabsurd but truthful assertion.

xvii. Epigramdescribes a witty saying.

xviii. Pun refers to a play of words with a satirical/ironic intention.

xix. Allegory - symbolic meaning.

xx. Others include Innuendo (insinuation); Onomatopoeia (use of sounds),Sarcasm,

Anti-climax, Rhetorical question, Analogy Epithet.

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