Results in Engineering 22 (2024) 102005

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Results in Engineering
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The potential of biochar derived from banana peel/Fe3O4/ZIF-67@K2CO3

as magnetic nanocatalyst for biodiesel production from waste cooking oils
Rauf Foroutan a, Seyed Jamaleddin Peighambardoust a, *, Reza Mohammadi b,
Seyed Hadi Peighambardoust c, Bahman Ramavandi d, *
a
Faculty of Chemical and Petroleum Engineering, University of Tabriz, Tabriz, 5166616471, Iran
b
Polymer Research Laboratory, Department of Organic and Biochemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Tabriz, Tabriz, Iran
c
Department of Food Science, College of Agriculture, University of Tabriz, Tabriz, 5166616471, Iran
d
Systems Environmental Health and Energy Research Center, The Persian Gulf Biomedical Sciences Research Institute, Bushehr University of Medical Sciences, Bushehr,
Iran

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Using biomass-based catalysts in biodiesel production can make the process more economical and environ­
Biochar mentally friendly. In this study, a new magnetic nanocatalyst was developed using banana peel biochar, ZIF-67,
Methanol Fe3O4, and K2CO3, and then utilized in a catalytic transesterification process to convert waste cooking oils (WCO)
Edible waste oil
into biodiesel. The level of free fatty acids of the treated WCO (WCOT) was reduced to generate a biodiesel with
Transesterification
more suitable characteristics. The physicochemical aspects of the magnetic nanocatalyst were characterized by
Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), vibrating sample magnetometer (VSM), X-ray diffraction (XRD),
scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and energy dispersive X-ray (EDX) and map techniques. In the trans­
esterification process, the effect of temperature, methanol-to-oil ratio, process time, and nanocatalyst weight on
the potential of nanocatalyst to produce biodiesel from WCO and WCOT was explored. The highest yield of
biodiesel from WCO (96.82%) and WCOT (99.18%) was attained at 65 ◦ C, nanocatalyst weight of 3 wt %,
methanol-to-oil ratio of 19:1, a processing time of 3 h, and a mixing rate of 600 rpm. Based on thermodynamic
studies, the biodiesel production process was endothermic and non-spontaneous. The regeneration of the
nanocatalyst was studied using various solvents and n-hexane had a good ability to recover the catalyst (90% up
to 5 stages). The results of the 1H NMR test revealed that the desired nanocatalyst had a high potential to
generate biodiesel from WCO and WCOT. The properties of produced biodiesel met ASTM D6751 and EN 14214
standards.

1. Introduction characteristics of fossil fuel with biodiesel, there is no need for funda­
mental changes in car engines [6]. Therefore, biodiesel is becoming an
Fossil fuel consumption is facing concerns for reasons like their ideal fuel for supplying energy in transportation, and the amount of
depletion [1], air pollution, and global warming [2]. Due to these biodiesel consumption is expected to reach >2.3 × 108 L by 2025 [7].
challenges and the increasing energy demand, extensive research has In the biodiesel process, the high cost of the primary source is one of
been focused on producing energy from renewable sources. Biodiesel is the most vital factors in biofuel development [8,9]. The primary source
one of the most popular sources because it reduces the consumption of constitutes >70% of the economic price of biodiesel [10]. To produce
fossil fuels and protects the environment [3]. Biodiesel has the proper­ biodiesel, edible and inedible oils like the oil of sunflower, corn, neem,
ties of fossil fuels (in terms of energy production) and at the same time rubber, edible waste, and algae are utilized [11]. The use of edible oils is
does not have pollution because it does not contain impurities like sulfur not much considered nowadays as a biodiesel source because they have
[4]. In addition, this type of fuel has advantages such as biological de­ a high cost and cause a decrease in food supply and social problems [4].
gradability, lower toxicity, higher cetane number, proper combustion, Recently, the use of low-cost primary resources like waste oils in bio­
and high oxygen content [5]. Furthermore, due to the common diesel generation has received much attention because it decreases the

* Corresponding authors.
E-mail addresses: [email protected] (S.J. Peighambardoust), [email protected] (B. Ramavandi).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rineng.2024.102005
Received 8 December 2023; Received in revised form 24 February 2024; Accepted 8 March 2024
Available online 16 March 2024
2590-1230/© 2024 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-
nc/4.0/).
R. Foroutan et al. Results in Engineering 22 (2024) 102005

expenditure of biodiesel [12,13] and decreases the ecological problems (WCO) and treated WCO (WCOT), which has not yet published an article
due to waste oil disposal. The consumed edible waste is disposed of in in this field. Various techniques were used to characterize the desired
sewage [14]. According to reports [15], 16.5 million tons of edible oil catalyst, and the properties of biodiesel were analyzed based on stan­
are annually produced, and due to improper waste disposal manage­ dards. The thermodynamic and kinetic study of converting edible waste
ment, these oils enter the environment and affect public health and oil to biofuel through the desired nanocatalyst was also determined.
living organisms. Thus, converting waste edible oils to biodiesel is a
good strategy to reduce pollutants and produce a green product. 2. Experimental
To produce biodiesel from various oil sources, different methods
such as direct method, pyrolysis, microemulsion, and transesterification 2.1. Materials
have been utilized [16]. The mentioned methods aim to decrease the
viscosity of the target oil because high viscosity can negatively affect the Waste cooking oil with an acid value of 4.18 mg KOH/g oil, kine­
fuel quality and the engine performance. Transesterification is a suitable matic viscosity of 35.63 mm2/s (at 40 ◦ C), saponification value of
technique for generating biodiesel from inedible oils, in which homo­ 184.63 mg KOH/g oil, free fatty acid (FFA) of 2.1 wt%, and average
geneous, heterogeneous, and enzymatic catalysts could be applied to molecular weight of 932.668 g/mol was obtained from local restaurants
increase the reaction rate [17,18]. Biodiesel production is usually done and used for biodiesel production. Methanol (purity: 99.9%), n-hexane
using homogeneous acidic and alkaline catalysts (H2SO4, HCl, KOH, and (purity: 99%), acetone (purity: 99.8%), 2-Methylimidazole (2-MIM),
NaOH) [19]. Enzyme catalysts for biodiesel production have slow speed sodium hydroxide (NaOH, purity ≥99%), hydrochloric acid (HCl, pu­
and high cost [20]. Moreover, homogeneous catalysts are almost rity: 37%), ferric chloride hexahydrate (FeCl3⋅6H2O, purity ≥99%),
expensive, toxic, and corrosive, which prevents their use on an industrial potassium carbonate (K2CO3, purity: 99.99%), ferric chloride tetrahy­
scale [21]. Key points like non-toxicity, ease of use, recyclability, and drate (FeCl2⋅4H2O, purity ≥99%), and cobalt nitrate hexahydrate (Co
tolerance at high temperatures have led to the use of heterogeneous (NO3)2⋅6H2O, purity ≥99%) were purchased from Merck Company.
catalysts in biodiesel generation [16,22]. However, the disadvantages of
these catalysts are microporosity, leaching of their components, and a 2.2. Nanocatalyst synthesis and properties
small number of active sites [23].
Recently, biomass-derived heterogeneous catalysts have been widely The banana peels were provided from the market, rinsed with
studied to overcome the main obstacles of classical catalysts. New in­ deionized water, and then dehydrated for one day at 100 ◦ C. Dry banana
sights into the potential of heterogeneous carbon (C)-based catalysts peels were placed in an oven (400 ◦ C) for 2 h with a temperature slope of
have prompted researchers to look for the best option from natural 5 ◦ C per minute to carry out the carbonization process. A ball mill
biomass. Biochar as a C-based material, is obtained from the thermal powdered the carbonized banana peels and then used as a base in
decomposition of biomass, which can be used as catalysts or catalyst catalyst synthesis. Biochar/Fe3O4 (BPB/Fe3O4) and biochar/Fe3O4/ZIF-
supports in energy storage and biofuel generation [24]. The production 67 (BPB/Fe3O4/ZIF-67) were produced similarly to the method reported
of biochar from waste as a catalyst base makes the production of bio­ in our previous work [36]. To modify BPB/Fe3O4/ZIF-67 using K2CO3,
diesel more economical and is also important in terms of waste man­ 50 mL of an aqueous media containing 4 M K2CO3 was provided, and 1 g
agement [25]. Therefore, the study on the production of biochar from of BPB/Fe3O4/ZIF-67 was poured into it and kept for 24 h at ambient
abundant wastes like banana peels (with a yearly production of 10.6 temperature. The desired catalyst was then isolated from the water
million metric tons) continues [26]. Biochar has been used as the base of media using a magnetic field and was placed at a temperature of 105 ◦ C
catalysts such as K2CO3/Orange peel hydrochar [27] and bio­ for 24 h to dry. After that, BPB/Fe3O4/ZIF-67@K2CO3 was put at 300 ◦ C
char-Fe2O3/Fe2K6O5 [25] in biodiesel production. Furthermore, for 2 h to calcine fully. A schematic of the catalyst synthesis process and
metal-organic frameworks (MOF) are materials that are applied in its use in biodiesel production is depicted in Fig. 1.
various fields like energy storage and catalytic activities because of their Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR, BRUKER TENSOR
crystalline structure and cavity [28]. The cobalt-based imidazole zeolite 27, Germany) was done employing KBr pellets in the glove box to pro­
framework (ZIF-67) has strong Lewis acid-base active sites [29] due to hibit the humidity impact. The specific surface area of the catalysts was
specific Co–N coordination, which may synergize with the catalytic quantified by Brunauer–Emmett–Teller (BET) analyzer using a BELSORP
process. To increase the catalytic properties of ZIF in transesterification MINI II, BEL, Japan instrument. The morphological images were pro­
reactions and increase Lewis and Brønsted’s active sites, they can be vided by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and energy dispersive X-
composited with metal oxides like TiO2 [30] and SnO2 [31]. So far, ray (EDX) using TESCAN FEG SEM-Mira3, Czech Republic with an
various catalysts based on ZIF and metal oxide compounds have been accelerating voltage of 15 kV. The X-ray diffraction (XRD, Siemens,
used for biodiesel synthesis [32–35]. Still, few reports have been found D5000, Germany) of BPB, Fe3O4, ZIF-67, BPB/Fe3O4, BPB/Fe3O4/ZIF-
on converting oily sources to biodiesel using ZIF-67-based catalysts. 67, and BPB/Fe3O4/ZIF-67@K2CO3 were obtained at the scan interval of
Moreover, it is unknown whether the synergy of the components (bio­ 5◦ < 2θ < 80◦ , time per step of 0.01 s, and angular pitch of 0.02◦ .
char, Fe3O4, and K2CO3) of the target catalyst with ZIF-67 is strong Further, the radiation was Cu Kα (1.541 Å) with 30 mA and 40 KV. A
enough to protect the active sites and whether the target catalyst can be transmission electron microscope (TEM, Philips EM208S 100 KV,
recycled in the biodiesel production process. In addition, it should be Netherlands) was used to determine and distribute the size of particles in
mentioned that in the production of biodiesel, the use of heterogeneous the matrix. Other characteristics of the samples were examined using a
catalysts should be economical. Therefore, magnetizing the catalyst vibrating sample magnetometer (MDKB, Magnatis Kavir Company,
eliminates the cost of separation with a centrifuge and filter, while Kashan, Iran), and atomic force microscopy (AFM, Nanosurf Mobile S,
facilitating its reusability. Furthermore, the use of magnetic metal ox­ Switzerland).
ides in the catalyst structure can increase the active sites [28]. Various
ZIFs have been magnetized and used for biodiesel production [30,34], 2.3. Biodiesel production
but little information is available regarding the magnetization of ZIF-67.
Our previous study showed that potassium carbonate (K2CO3) has a Waste cooking oil (WCO) was obtained from a kitchen at Tabriz
suitable transesterification activity and can be supported on a solid base University, Iran, and used as a source in biodiesel generation. The pre­
and act as an activating agent [10]. pared WCO was first purified to separate the impurities and other sus­
Accordingly, in this paper, a new magnetic heterogeneous nano­ pended components using filtration. The exact amount of free fatty acid
catalyst based on banana peel biochar, ZIF-67, Fe3O4, and K2CO3 was (FFA) in edible waste oil was determined by the following formulas,
synthesized and utilized to produce biodiesel from waste cooking oil which showed that the amount of free fatty acid in WCO is more than

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R. Foroutan et al. Results in Engineering 22 (2024) 102005

Fig. 1. Schematic of BPB/Fe3O4/ZIF-67@K2CO3 synthesis and its use in biodiesel production.

1%. To determine FFA in the waste cooking oil, first, the amount of acid the biodiesel phase was distilled and purified to separate the unreacted
value (AV) was determined using titration and the following equation methanol. In the transesterification process, each test was repeated three
(Eq. 1) [37]. times. In evaluating the effect of each variable, the maximum yield was
considered the optimal response. Biodiesel yield (%) in each stage was
M×N×V
AV = (1) quantified using Eq. (3) [43,44]:
W
Weight of biodiesel
here, AV denotes the acid value in mg KOH/g, N reflects the normality of Yield (%) = × 100 (3)
Weight of oil
KOH, V implies the volume of titrant, M is the molecular weight of KOH,
and W is the weight of the sample. Free fatty acid (FFA) content was To produce biodiesel from WCO, the transesterification process was
computed using Eq. (2): accomplished similarly to the mentioned method, except that the
amount of FFA in WCO was not reduced.
AV
FFA (%) = (2)
2
Therefore, based on the obtained results, the amount of AV and FFA 2.4. Analyzing the properties of biodiesel
in the WCO sample was 4.18 mg KOH/g and 2.09%, respectively.
The presence of excess FFAs can cause the production of undesirable To explore the characteristics of biodiesel, first, the trans­
side products [38] and the reaction does not proceed in the direction of esterification process was investigated at optimum parameters, and then
transesterification [39]. Therefore, it is necessary to reduce the amount the product properties were analyzed based on ASTM standards. Kine­
of FFA to <1% in the WCO sample. The reduction of FFAs was done matic viscosity analysis (DP, Petrotest, Germany), density (DA600, KEM,
based on the method described in the previous study [40]. Briefly, the Japan), flash point (Abl8a, TANAKA, Japan), clouding point (HS/1400,
WCO sample was first passed through a filter to eliminate impurities. SDM, Italia), and drop point (HS/1400, SDM, Italia) were used to
The oil and methanol were agitated with a molar ratio of 6:1, and a given investigate the characteristics of biodiesel. In addition, the amount of
value of HCl (5 wt%) was added and mixed at 65 ◦ C for 60 min. Then, higher heating value (HHV) of the produced biodiesel was determined
some distilled water was added to the mixture of oil and methanol and by the following equation (Eq. 4) [45].
rinsed several times to remove residual HCl. The oil was separated from HHV = 79.014 − (43.126 × ρ) (4)
the mixture and incubated in a rotary distiller for 60 min at 85 ◦ C, Then,
the amended oil phase was agitated with Na2SO4 for 0.5 h until the where ρ is the density of produced biodiesel.
water in the oil was fully extracted and dried. Finally, the modified WCO In addition, the Hydrogen Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (1H NMR,
(WCOT) with free fatty acids content of 0.86 mg KOH/g oil was Bruker Advance-II 400 MHz NMR spectrometer) test was utilized to
obtained. characterize the desired biodiesel. The 1H NMR was performed on a 30
After reducing the acidity of WCO, the transesterification process mg sample dissolved in dimethyl sulfoxide and operating at a frequency
was done in a round bottom flask (250 mL) connected to a thermometer of 300.13 MHz [46].
and a condenser with a magnetic stirrer. The impact of temperature
(50–70 ◦ C), nanocatalyst amount (1–5 wt% oil), process time (0.5–6 h), 3. Results and discussion
methanol to oil ratio (10:1–22:1 mol) on biodiesel generation from
WCOT using BPB/Fe3O4/ZIF-67@K2CO3 was investigated at the mixing 3.1. Characteristics of the nanocatalyst
speed of 600 rpm. The range of the variables was determined based on
previous studies [21,41,42]. At first, a given amount of methanol and Fig. 2a shows the FTIR findings for the BPB, BPB/Fe3O4, BPB/Fe3O4/
nanocatalyst was stirred for 30 min at 40 ◦ C, and then a desired value of ZIF-67, and BPB/Fe3O4/ZIF-67@K2CO3 samples. Vibrations have
WCOT was added to it. After the transesterification reaction, the nano­ appeared in the ZIF-67 sample in the wave numbers 600-1450 cm− 1,
catalyst was isolated from the reaction mixture by a simple magnet, and 1582 cm− 1, and 2927-3134 cm− 1, which can be linked to the tensile and
the biodiesel phase (methyl ester) and glycerol were set in the decanter bending modes of imidazole rings, C=N in 2-MIM structure, and C–H in
for one day until two phases were separated from each other. After that, the aromatic rings and aliphatic chains of 2-MIM, respectively [47]. In

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R. Foroutan et al. Results in Engineering 22 (2024) 102005

Fig. 2. (a) FTIR, (b) XRD, and (c) VSM tests for the desired samples.

addition, an absorption peak has been observed in ZIF-67 at 429 cm− 1, crystallized silica) [55] or (002) planes associated with graphite [56,
which can be attributed to the stretching state of Co–N in the sample 57]. In addition, other peaks in BPB can be caused by the amorphous
[48]. Moreover, vibrations have appeared in the BPB in the peak of carbons, quartz, and calcite crystal structure in the sample [36]. The
3430 cm− 1, 2859-2924 cm− 1, 1750 cm− 1, 1565 cm− 1, 1452 cm− 1, 1284 XRD spectrum for the ZIF-67 sample was performed based on the CCDC
cm− 1, and 1049-1120 cm− 1. These wavenumbers can be corresponded #82–3083 standard pattern and showed that in the 2θ range of 7–18◦ ,
to –OH [49], C–H [50], C=C or C=O [51], C=C [52], C=C, C–O, and peaks with different intensities appeared, indicating the crystal phases
C–O–C [53], respectively. Low-intensity vibrations have appeared in the (011), (002), (112), (022), (013), and (222) [58]. There are peaks in the
wavenumbers of <1000 cm− 1, which can be attributed to C–O, C–C, and 2θ value of 29–65◦ in Fe3O4, which correspond to the crystal phases
C–H in the BPB [51]. After amendment of BPB using Fe3O4 and in the (220), (311), (400), (422), (511), and (440). Previous studies have re­
magnetic nanocomposite of BPB/Fe3O4/ZIF-67 and BPB/Fe3O4/­ ported that Fe3O4 nanoparticles have a cubic spinal shape [59,60]. After
ZIF-67@K2CO3, a high-intensity peak was detected in 576–599 cm− 1, modification of BPB using Fe3O4, ZIF-67, and K2CO3, the peaks linked to
which linked to Fe–O vibrations [50,54] and confirms that Fe3O4 has the components of the desired samples are observable. This indicates
been successfully placed in the desired samples. After the synthesis of that the components have reacted with each other and the catalyst has
BPB/Fe3O4, BPB/Fe3O4/ZIF-67, and BPB/Fe3O4/ZIF-67@K2CO3 mag­ been successfully made.
netic nanocomposites, changes in the number and intensity of functional The VSM analysis was investigated for the desired samples and the
groups in the BPB and ZIF-67 samples have appeared. These alterations results are presented in Fig. 2c. Based on the VSM test, the magnetic
may be due to the interaction between the components of the saturation value for Fe3O4, BPB/Fe3O4, BPB/Fe3O4/ZIF-67, and BPB/
nanocomposites. Fe3O4/ZIF-67@K2CO3 samples were reported as 84.283, 35.004,
In Fig. 2b, the spectrum of the XRD test is presented to check the 29.964, and 20.715 emu/g, respectively. The reduction in the magnetic
crystalline and amorphous regions and phases in the desired samples. In saturation number of magnetic nanocomposites can be caused by the
the structure of BPB, Fe3O4, ZIF-67, and the desired magnetic nano­ presence of non-magnetic materials like BPB, ZIF-67, and K2CO3, as well
composites, peaks with different intensities have appeared, which shows as the increase in particle size. In addition, the VSM spectrum presented
that the samples are crystalline. In the BPB at 20–30◦ , sharp peaks are for the mentioned samples showed minimal coercivity and remanence,
observed, which can be caused by crystobalite (composition of and the said samples have superparamagnetic properties [61] and are

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R. Foroutan et al. Results in Engineering 22 (2024) 102005

quickly recovered using a magnetic field. Furthermore, it should be nanocatalyst, its separation is quickly done using a magnetic field, and it
mentioned that the VSM analysis for the BPB/Fe3O4/ZIF-67@K2CO3 can be used in biodiesel generation after regeneration several times.
catalyst was evaluated after the first stage of biodiesel production, and Fig. 3a–f shows the N2 adsorption-desorption isotherm for ZIF-67,
the magnetic saturation value for it was determined to be 13.771 emu/g. Fe3O4, BPB, BPB/Fe3O4, BPB/Fe3O4/ZIF-67, and BPB/Fe3O4/ZIF-
The decrease in the magnetic property of the desired nanocatalyst after 67@K2CO3 samples, which are used to determine the value of the spe­
biodiesel production can be caused by covering the surface of the cific area, pore volume, and average pore diameter. The BET surface and
nanocatalyst with biodiesel and non-magnetic glycerol [62]. Although total pore volume of BPB have been improved by modification by Fe3O4
the amount of magnetic saturation is reduced for the desired and ZIF-67, which may be a good place for transesterification reaction

Fig. 3. N2 adsorption-desorption isotherm for (a) ZIF-67, (b) Fe3O4, (c) BPB, (d) BPB/Fe3O4, (e) BPB/Fe3O4/ZIF-67, and (f) BPB/Fe3O4/ZIF@K2CO3.

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R. Foroutan et al. Results in Engineering 22 (2024) 102005

and placing the active phase (K2CO3) in the catalyst. In addition, it N2 adsorption-desorption isotherm of type I, in which the microporous
should be mentioned that the BET analysis showed that the N2 pores are saturated at low relative pressures, and at higher pressure
adsorption-desorption isotherm for Fe3O4, BPB, BPB/Fe3O4, and BPB/ values, the adsorption value has remained fixed [65]. The average
Fe3O4/ZIF-67 are type IV, which shows that the samples are mesoporous particle diameter in the samples of Fe3O4, BPB, BPB/Fe3O4,
[63,64]. Still, the magnetic nanocomposite of BPB/Fe3O4/ZIF-67 has a BPB/Fe3O4/ZIF-67, and BPB/Fe3O4/ZIF-67@K2CO3 are within the span
combined isotherm of type I and IV. Moreover, the sample ZIF-67 has an of 2 < d < 50 nm, which confirms that the mentioned samples are

Fig. 4. Sem and EDX-Map for (a–c) ZIF-67, (d–f) BPB, (g–i) BPB/Fe3O4, (j–l) BPB/Fe3O4/ZIF-67, and (m–o) BPB/Fe3O4/ZIF-67@K2CO3.

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R. Foroutan et al. Results in Engineering 22 (2024) 102005

mesopore, while ZIF-67 is micropore. According to the results, there are pores of different sizes on the BPB
The findings of SEM and Map-EDX analysis are depicted in Fig. 4 to surface, which can be caused by the release of volatile components and
check the morphology and determine the compounds in the ZIF-67, BPB, carbon dioxide during the carbonization process (Fig. 5c). It should be
BPB/Fe3O4, BPB/Fe3O4/ZIF, and BPB/Fe3O4/ZIF@K2CO3 samples. As mentioned that the pores on the BPB surface is essential for placing
can be seen in Fig. 4a, ZIF-67 has a 12-sided rhomboidal structure that is nanocatalyst components. After the modification of BPB by Fe3O4
well formed with particles next to each other and has an almost smooth (Fig. 5d) and then ZIF-67 (Fig. 5e), particles with different sizes and
surface and dimensions of approximately 0.5–1 μm, which has been spherical morphologies have been observed around a dark mass. The
confirmed in previous studies [66]. Moreover, Map-EDX analysis formed particles might be Fe3O4 and the dark spots are BPB and ZIF-67
revealed that there are elements like carbon (69.88 wt %), oxygen in the structure of the samples. It is worth noting that the dark areas
(11.15 wt %), Co (14.16 wt %), and N (4.81 wt %) in the ZIF-67 struc­ formed in the desired samples can be due to the BPB thickness and 12-
ture, which is due to the presence of 2-MIM and cobalt in the structure of sided rhombic ZIF-67 is very thick to penetrate electrons from it [66].
ZIF-67. Their distribution is homogenous throughout the sample surface After placing K2CO3 in BPB/Fe3O4/ZIF-67, changes in the accumulation,
(Fig. 4b and c). Fig. 4d–f shows the morphology of BPB and the size, and pores of the sample were observed, which can confirm the
composition of the elements in its structure, which shows the presence of placement of K2CO3 in BPB/Fe3O4/ZIF-67 (Fig. 5f). The acquired results
depressions and pores on the BPB surface. The presence of carbon, ox­ are consistent with the results of BET and SEM tests.
ygen, silicon, potassium, phosphorus, and calcium in BPB plays a sig­ The results of the AFM analysis for the studied samples are presented
nificant role in biodiesel production. After modifying BPB using Fe3O4 in Fig. 6. The roughness number for the ZIF-67 was calculated to be
nanoparticles (Fig. 4g–i) and then BPB/Fe3O4 by ZIF-67 (Fig. 4j-l), the 579.76 p.m., which confirms the smoothness of the 12-sided rhombic
spherical particles and 12-sided rhombic morphology can be seen in the surface (Fig. 6a) and is consistent with the SEM test. The BPB roughness
BPB surface. In addition, Fe, N, and Co elements also appeared in BPB, number was quantified as 5.46 nm, which shows that there are pores and
indicating the presence of Fe3O4 and ZIF-67 nanoparticles. After placing unevenness on the sample surface, which is the same direction as the
K2CO3 in the BPB/Fe3O4/ZIF-67 sample, significant alterations were earlier tests (SEM and BET) (Fig. 6b). After modifying BPB using Fe3O4
seen on the sample’s surface. The 12-sided rhomboidal structure related magnetic nanoparticles (Fig. 6c) and then with ZIF-67 (Fig. 6d), signif­
to ZIF-67 and the pores in the construction of BPB/Fe3O4/ZIF-67 almost icant changes were made in the BPB roughness, and the roughness value
disappeared, which can be caused by the occupation of K2CO3 (Fig. 4m). increased to 7.071 and 9.136 nm, respectively. The increase in the
Furthermore, in BPB/Fe3O4/ZIF-67, after modification using K2CO3, the roughness value shows that the amendment of BPB using Fe3O4 and ZIF-
value of K element increased from 0.23 wt% to 34.33 wt%. This shows 67 has been done successfully, and the desired components have been
that K2CO3 has been effectively incorporated into the sample and the placed in BPB. After modification of BPB/Fe3O4/ZIF-67 magnetic
active phase of the nanocatalyst for biodiesel production has formed nanocomposite using K2CO3, the surface roughness decreased to 3.776
(Fig. 4n-o). nm (Fig. 6e), which can be caused by placing K2CO3 in the pores and
TEM images for ZIF-67 are presented in Fig. 5a. In this image, ZIF-67 layers of the nanocomposite. This result confirms the BET results.
has a 12-sided rhombic morphology. There are interconnected pores on
its surface with a size of approximately less than 100 nm, which is co­
ordinated with the BET test (Fig. 3). Moreover, TEM images showed that 3.2. Effect of parameters
Fe3O4 particles have a spherical structure with a size of >100 nm
(Fig. 5b) and it is in good agreement with the findings of Fig. 3g. The effect of temperature on the yield of biodiesel from WCO and
WCOT was explored (Fig. 7a). By increasing the temperature from 50 to

Fig. 5. TEM images of (a) ZIF-67, (b) Fe3O4, (c) BPB, and magnetic nanocomposites of (d) BPB/Fe3O4, (e) BPB/Fe3O4/ZIF-67, and (f) BPB/Fe3O4/ZIF-67@K2CO3.

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R. Foroutan et al. Results in Engineering 22 (2024) 102005

Fig. 6. AFM test for (a) ZIF-67, (b) BPB, and magnetic nanocomposite of (c) BPB/Fe3O4, (d) BPB/Fe3O4/ZIF-67, (e) BPB/Fe3O4/ZIF -67@K2CO3.

65 ◦ C, the yield increased from 61.35 to 94.14% (for WCO) and 67.58%– the catalyst active sites [67]. Increasing the yield by growing the tem­
98.28% (for WCOT), which reveals that the process is endothermic [32]. perature can be justified by the fact that high temperatures change the
It should be mentioned that no significant alteration in the biodiesel thermodynamic balance [68] and reduce the penetration resistance and
yield was recorded after the temperature of 65 ◦ C. So, this temperature stability between the constituents of the transesterification reaction
was determined as the optimal value. At low temperatures, the yield was (oil-methanol-catalyst). This would improve the catalyst performance
typical for both types of oil, which could be due to the weak fluidity of and lead to an elevation in biodiesel generation [69]. At the temperature
triglycerides and the limitation of the mass transfer of triglycerides to of 70 ◦ C, the yield did not change widely, which can be due to the

8
R. Foroutan et al. Results in Engineering 22 (2024) 102005

Fig. 7. Influence of (a) temperature (catalyst quantity: 2.5 wt %, process time; 3h, methanol to oil: 16:1), (b) methanol to oil ratio (catalyst amount: 3 wt %, process
time: 3h, temperature: 65 ◦ C), (c) catalyst amount (temperature: 65 ◦ C, process time: 3h, methanol to oil: 16:1), and (d) process time (catalyst amount: 3 wt %,
methanol to oil: 19:1, temperature: 65 ◦ C) on the biodiesel production from WCO and WCOT.

evaporation of methanol and weak interactions between methanol-oil processing time did not have a prominent impact on biodiesel produc­
and the catalyst, which has been shown in previous studies that tion, which indicates that the transesterification reaction was finished or
increasing the temperature decreases the biodiesel yield [70,71]. the biodiesel was hydrolyzed and produced fatty acids [75]. Notably, the
The impact of the ratio of methanol to WCOT and WCO on the biodiesel production using WCO and WCOT was completed in 3 h
production of biodiesel was examined (Fig. 7b). Based on the results, by (99.18%) and 4 h (96.82%), respectively, which shows that modification
increasing the proportion of methanol to oil from 10 to 19 mol, the of WCO has reduced the value of free fatty acids and, thus, the duration
biodiesel production from WCO and WCOT increased from 73.43 to of the reaction.
79.35% to 96.82 and 99.18%, respectively, and then decreased. The
decrease in the yield with an increase in the ratio can be attributed to
3.3. Catalyst recovery
various factors like the interference and separation of glycerol with an
excess amount of methanol [72], the formation of a reactive emulsion
To check the ability and reuse of the BPB/Fe3O4/ZIF-67@K2CO3
due to the polar nature of methanol, the dilution of the reaction medium,
catalyst in the biodiesel yield from WCO and WCOT, the trans­
and as a result, the reduction of reactants (methanol and desired oil) was
esterification process was done in up to 8 steps (Fig. 8). To regenerate
attributed to the nanocatalyst active sites [73].
the catalyst after the transesterification process, the desired nano­
The effect of nanocatalyst quantity and contact time on the trans­
catalyst was separated from the reaction medium and washed using
esterification process was explored (Fig. 7c and d). By increasing the
organic solvents methanol, n-hexane, and acetone and dehydrated at
nanocatalyst quantity up to 3 wt%, the yield for both oil sources was
105 ◦ C, and used again in the process. The transesterification process for
grown, which can be due to the increase of the catalytic sites and their
WCOT and WCO was carried out under optimal parameters such as a
availability [63]. Increasing the catalyst quantity by more than 3 wt%
methanol to oil ratio of 19:1, a temperature of 65 ◦ C, catalyst quantity of
did not affect the yield, which can be caused by the saturation of the
3 wt%, and duration of 3 and 4 h, respectively. As the results have
catalytic sites and the increase in the viscosity of the reaction mixture
shown, by increasing the number of regeneration cycles of BPB/Fe3O4/
[74], the collision of catalyst particles with each other, and reduce the
ZIF-67@K2CO3, the production efficiency for WCOT and WCO
speed of their movement [18].
decreased. The decrease in the efficiency with the increase in the value
Based on the findings, by increasing the contact time from 0.5 to 4 h,
of reduction steps-reuse can be caused by the decline in catalytic ac­
the yield of production using WCO and WCOT increased from 73.28 to
tivity, an increase in accumulation of catalyst particles [76], poisoning
76.36% to 98.36 and 99.23%, respectively. After 4 h, improving the
of active sites in the catalyst [77], the saturation of catalyst active sites

9
R. Foroutan et al. Results in Engineering 22 (2024) 102005

Fig. 8. Reusability of BPB/Fe3O4/ZIF-67@K2CO3 in the biodiesel production from (a) WCOT and (b) WCO.

by large molecules of moisture, glycerol, and oil [78], destruction of pseudo-second-order equations were used [90], but some hypotheses
active catalyst sites [79], and releasing potassium [80]. In addition, show that the kinetic behavior of the transesterification process follows
washing the catalyst using different solvents showed that compared to the pseudo-first-order kinetic model [77]. Eq. (5) and Eq. (6) were used
methanol and acetone solvents, n-hexane solvent has a better ability and to determine the reaction constant (k, min− 1) and activation energy (Ea,
performance in regenerating the catalyst’s active sites and can remove kJ/mol) of the process, respectively:
glycerol and biodiesel present on the surface. It can separate glycerol
− Ln (1 − XME ) = k × t (5)
and biodiesel on the surface and layers of the catalyst well.
The catalyst of the current study was compared with other catalysts Ea
to investigate its activity in the biodiesel generation from WCOT and Ln k = Ln k0 − (6)
RT
WCO (Table 1). The results showed that the BPB/Fe3O4/ZIF-67@K2CO3
nanocatalyst can be used in the transesterification process, and To determine the reaction constant and activation energy, the linear
compared to many catalysts applied to produce biodiesel from waste relationship -Ln(1-XME) vs. 1/T and Ln k vs. 1/T were used, respectively
cooking oils, it has higher performance. Therefore, the BPB/Fe3O4/ZIF- (Fig. 9a and b).
67@K2CO3 magnetic nanocatalyst can be promising and suitable in The k parameter for the transesterification process of WCO and
biodiesel production from WCO and WCOT. WCOT at 50, 55, 60, 65, and 70 ◦ C was quantified as ‘0.0044, 0.005,
0.0061, 0.0087, and 0.0106 min− 1’ and ‘0.0055, 0.006, 0.0081, 0.0114,
and 0.0115 min− 1’, respectively. With the increase in temperature, the
3.4. Kinetic and thermodynamic study value of k has increased, which is due to the decrease in oil viscosity and
better mixing of reactants, which has led to an increase in the rate of
The purpose of studying the kinetics of biodiesel production using transesterification reaction [91]. It should also be noted that based on
heterogeneous catalysts can include a better understanding of the the results of the Arrhenius relationship (Fig. 9c), the value of Ea for
behavior of the transesterification reaction, predicting the reaction rate, biodiesel production from WCOT and WCO using BPB/Fe3O4/­
and determining the reaction speed parameters [45]. To investigate the ZIF-67@K2CO3 was determined to be 38.739 and 42.547 kJ/mol,
kinetics of the transesterification process, pseudo-first-order and respectively. These numbers are in the range of activation energy

Table 1
Comparing the ability of BPB/Fe3O4/ZIF-67@K2CO3 with catalysts used in biodiesel production from waste cooking oil.
Catalyst Feedstock Catalyst (%) Transesterification Yield of biodiesel (%) Ref.

M/O time Temp. (oC)

RS-SO3H WCO 10 20:1 6h 70 97.71 [14]

Waste chicken bones WCO 5 15:1 4h 65 89.33 [81]
Hydroxyapatite WCO 5 15:1 4h 60 90.56 [82]
CaO/Al2O3 WCO 1 11:1 4h 65 89.9 [83]
ZnCuO/N-doped graphene WCO 10 15:1 8h 180 97.1 [19]
GO@ZrO2–SrO WCO – 4:1 1.5 h 120 91 [37]
MoO3/SrFe2O4 WCO 10 40:1 4h 164 95.4 [38]
CaO-based catalyst WCO 6 9:1 3h 65 87.3 [39]
Kaolinite/K+ WCO 15 14:1 3h 70 94.76 [21]
Zn–MgO–ZrO2 WCO 4 12:1 4h 80 92.3 [41]
CaO WCO 1 10:1 30 min 50 88 [84]
Cork biochar/H2SO4 WCO 1.5 25:1 6h 65 98 [42]
KOH/Clinoptilolite WCO 8 2.25:1 13.4 min 65 97.45 [85]
LaPO4 supported nickel WCO 2.5 5:1 2h 90 91 [86]
ostrich-eggshell derived CaO WCO 1.5 12:1 2h 65 96 [87]
calcium from natural seafood WCO 5 12:1 8h 60 99 [88]
CaO-Egg Shell Waste WCO 3 30:1 3h 65 96.11 [89]
BPB/Fe3O4/ZIF-67@K2CO3 WCO 3 5:1 2h 90 96.82 Current study
BPB/Fe3O4/ZIF-67@K2CO3 WCOT 3 19:1 3h 65 99.18 Current study

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R. Foroutan et al. Results in Engineering 22 (2024) 102005

Fig. 9. Linear relationship of -ln(1-XME) vs. 1/T for the transesterification process of (a) WCO and (b) WCOT using BPB/Fe3O4/ZIF-67@K2CO3, (c) Linear rela­
tionship of ln k vs. 1/T, and (d) linear relation of ln k/T vs. 1/T for the transesterification process of WCOT and WCO using BPB/Fe3O4/ZIF-67@K2CO3.

reported for biodiesel production using other heterogeneous catalysts factors such as primary oil source, catalyst characteristics like pores
[92], which shows that this catalyst can be effective in biodiesel characteristics, and active sites play a role. Based on the BET analysis,
production. the nanocatalyst of this study is in the category of mesoporous materials.
Eyring-Polany equation (Eq. 7) was used to determine the value of Among other influential factors in biodiesel production are the mono-
ΔH◦ and ΔS◦ and its linear regression is presented in Fig. 9d: and bi-functional active sites of the nanocatalyst structure. These may
( ) ( ◦) [ ( ) ] play a role in transesterification and esterification and cause maximum
k ΔH kb ΔS◦
Ln =− + Ln κ + Ln + (7) biodiesel production. The general form of BPB/Fe3O4/ZIF-67@K2CO3
T RT h R
nanocatalyst is shown in Fig. 10a, which consists of four components,
and each of its features can be effective in biodiesel production. The
here, k denotes the reaction rate constant (min− 1), T reflects the absolute
outer part of the desired nanocatalyst structure contains K2CO3, which
temperature (K), R implies the universal gas constant (8.314 J/mol.K),
produces methoxide ions (CH3O− ) due to contact with methanol
kb represents Boltzmann’s constant (1.38 × 10− 23 J/K), h denotes
(CH3OH). The methoxide attacks the carbonyl carbons in the triglycer­
Planck’s constant (6.63 × 1034 J s), and κ denotes the transmission co­
ide to produce a tetrahedral intermediate that then contains the di-
efficient, which is usually taken as one.
glyceride and biodiesel (Fig. 10b) [94]. If the process is repeated two
Based on the results, the values of ΔH◦ and ΔS◦ for the trans­
more times, three molecules of biodiesel (FAME) and one molecule of
esterification process of WCO and WCOT were determined as ‘39.779
glycerol are produced. Another part of the nanocatalyst that plays a
kJ/mol and − 168.123 J/mol.K’ and ‘35.972 kJ/mol and − 177.842 J/
significant role in biodiesel production is the Fe3O4 magnetic nano­
mol.K’, respectively. The positive value of the parameter ΔH◦ indicates
particles. In the mentioned magnetic nanoparticles, the positive metal
that the process is endothermic and requires energy in the form of heat
ions produced by the double metal oxide system have the role of Lewis
to produce products [93]. The value of ΔG◦ (=ΔH◦ – T.ΔS◦ ) for the
acidity, and the oxygen in the mentioned magnetic nanoparticles has the
production of biodiesel from WCOT and WCO using the catalyst was
function of Brønsted bases. The active sites in the Fe3O4 nanoparticles
determined to be 96.998 and 97.470 kJ/mol, respectively, which in­
attack methanol and convert it into H+ and CH3O− , which CH3O− can
dicates that the transesterification process is not spontaneous.
attack triglyceride chains and lead to the production of biodiesel and
glycerol (Fig. 10c) [95]. ZIF-67 plays a significant role in biodiesel
3.5. Mechanism of the transesterification process production using the BPB/Fe3O4/ZIF-67@K2CO3 nanocatalyst. ZIF-67
has acidic and basic sites that can perform transesterification and
In biodiesel generation using the transesterification method, various esterification reactions. For this purpose, first, the acidic sites in the

11
R. Foroutan et al. Results in Engineering 22 (2024) 102005

Fig. 10. (a) BPB/Fe3O4/ZIF-67@K2CO3 structure and role of (b) K2CO3, (c) Fe3O4, (d) acidic sites in ZIF-67, and (e) alkaline sites contained in ZIF-67 in the
biodiesel production.

12
R. Foroutan et al. Results in Engineering 22 (2024) 102005

Fig. 10. (continued).

ZIF-67 structure react with the carbonyl carbon in the triglyceride which are related to glyceride in the triglyceride [98] and contain four
structure (transesterification reaction) and fatty acid (esterification re­ hydrogens [99]. In addition, signals at 5.35–5.39 ppm and 5.33–5.38
action) to form carbo-cations (Fig. 10d). It should be mentioned that ppm have appeared in the structure of the mentioned oils, which are
during the process of methanol nucleophilization using methoxide in related to the presence of olefin compounds (-CH=CH) in the mentioned
carbocation, a tetrahedral molecule is produced, which finally, this oils. It should be noted that signals in the range of 0.85–1.60 ppm have
tetrahedron rearranges by removing the water molecule (esterification) appeared in the structure of the oils, which are attributed to methylene
and di-glyceride (transesterification) and causes the formation of bio­ protons and terminal methyl (C–CH3) [100]. After the biodiesel pro­
diesel and catalyst regeneration [96]. Fig. 10e shows the role of alkaline duction using the BPB/Fe3O4/ZIF-67@K2CO3 nanocatalyst, the signals
sites in the ZIF-67 in the transesterification process, which is the same as related to glyceride in the structure of the oils disappeared. A single sign
the K2CO3 and Fe3O4 parts. The functional groups (C–O and C=O) in appeared at 3.6 ppm and 3.58 ppm is related to methyl ester protons
BPB can react with methanol, form methoxide ions, and continue the (-CO2CH3) [101,102] and confirms that biodiesel has been effectively
transesterification reaction, which has been proven in the literature fabricated.
[97]. After optimizing the effective parameters in the biodiesel production
from WCO and WCOT using BPB/Fe3O4/ZIF-67@K2CO3, the fuel char­
acteristics of the biodiesel at optimal conditions were examined based
3.6. Investigating the characteristics of biodiesel
on ASTM D6751 and EN 14214 standards, and the results are presented
in Table 2. The density of biodiesel produced from WCO and WCOT was
The 1H NMR analysis is one of the most valuable methods for
determined to be 878 and 870 kg/m3, respectively, compatible with the
explaining chemical compounds’ structure. For this purpose, after pro­
European standard (EN 14214). The kinematic viscosity of biodiesel
ducing biodiesel from raw and refined edible waste oils in optimal
produced from WCO and WCOT sources was 4.5 and 3.9 mm2/s,
conditions, this technique was used to check the structural characteris­
respectively, compatible with American and European standards. The
tics of used oils and produced biodiesel (Fig. 11a and b). As shown in
flash point is another feature of biodiesel that affects the portability and
Fig. 11, signals in the range of 2.03–2.7 ppm and 2.012–2.76 ppm have
safety of fuels. The ignition point value for produced biodiesel has been
appeared in WCO and WCOT, respectively, which are related to
determined to be more than 130 ◦ C, more than the value determined
α-methylene protons of fatty acids. Moreover, signals in the range of
using biodiesel and petro-diesel standards (ASTM D975), which shows
4.15–4.33 ppm and 4.14–4.27 ppm have appeared in WCO and WCOT,

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R. Foroutan et al. Results in Engineering 22 (2024) 102005

Fig. 11. 1H NMR spectra for WCO and WCOT and biodiesel generated from them.

4. Conclusions
Table 2
Properties of produced biodiesel using BPB/Fe3O4/ZIF-67@K2CO3.
In the current work, biodiesel was produced from waste cooking oil
Property ASTM EN 14214 Biodiesel from (WCO) and treated WCO (WCOT) using a new nanocatalyst of BPB/
D6751
WCO WCOT Fe3O4/ZIF-67@K2CO3. Various techniques were used to characterize the
o
Flash point ( C) 130 min 120 min 154 142
physicochemical properties of the nanocatalyst. The maximum yield of
Kinematic viscosity (mm2/s)@ 1.9–6.0 3.5–5.0 4.5 3.9 biodiesel production from WCO (96.82 %) and WCOT (99.18 %) using
40 ◦ C BPB/Fe3O4/ZIF-67@K2CO3 was obtained at 65 ◦ C, the nanocatalyst
Cloud point (oC) NS NS 1 − 1 weight of 3 wt%, the molar ratio of methanol to oil of 19:1, and the
Pour point (oC) NS NS − 1 − 4
process time of 3 h for WCOT and 4 h for WCO. The nanocatalyst was
Density (kg/m3), 15 ◦ C NS 860–900 878 870
Acid value (mg KOH/g) maximum maximum 0.145 0.124 regenerated up to 8 stages using different solvents (including n-hexane
0.8 0.5 as an efficient solvent). The positive value of ΔH◦ showed that the
Oxidation stability (h), 110 ◦ C >3 >6 18.34 14.86 biodiesel production process is endothermic. According to the 1H NMR
Cetane number minimum 47 minimum 53 59.6 5857 analysis, biodiesel was effectively synthesized from the WCOT source
Higher heating value (HHV) NS NS 41.14 41.49
NS: No standard
without glycerol. Based on the available standards (ASTM D6751 and
EN 14214), the generated biodiesel had appropriate properties to use as
fuel. Therefore, the generated biodiesels can be utilized as a good fuel
that the produced biodiesel is safer than petro-diesel. In addition, other source in various industries and diesel engines.
characteristics of the biodiesel produced from WCO and WCOT clearly
showed that the produced biodiesel complies with international stan­ CRediT authorship contribution statement
dards and can be used as an appropriate and safe fuel source in various
industries. Rauf Foroutan: Writing – original draft, Investigation, Formal
analysis. Seyed Jamaleddin Peighambardoust: Supervision, Method­
ology. Reza Mohammadi: Validation, Investigation, Conceptualization.
Seyed Hadi Peighambardoust: Validation, Resources, Investigation.

14
R. Foroutan et al. Results in Engineering 22 (2024) 102005

Bahman Ramavandi: Writing – review & editing, Supervision, Data [20] M. Helmi, K. Tahvildari, A. Hemmati, A. Safekordi, Phosphomolybdic acid/
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[21] M.R. Abukhadra, M.A. Sayed, K+ trapped kaolinite (Kaol/K+) as low cost and
Declaration of competing interest eco-friendly basic heterogeneous catalyst in the transesterification of commercial
waste cooking oil into biodiesel, Energy Convers. Manag. 177 (2018) 468–476,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2018.09.083.
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial [22] P. Prajapati, S. Shrivastava, V. Sharma, P. Srivastava, V. Shankhwar, A. Sharma,
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence S.K. Srivastava, D.D. Agarwal, Karanja seed shell ash: a sustainable green
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