Kingdom of Saudi Arabia

Ministry of education
King Khalid University
College of Engineering

Ethics and Professional Practice

411GE-2
Dr. Ibrahim Elseesy
Prof. Ass. Mechanical Engineering Depart.
College of Engineering

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 Contents

Chapter 1: The concept of professional ethics and the definition of

engineering practice.

Chapter 2: Regulation of Saudi Council of Engineers for Ethics and

Professional Practice

Chapter 3: Rules of Practice and Professional Obligations (NSPE Code)

Chapter 4: Environmental Ethics

Chapter 5: Computer Ethics and intellectual property

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 Chapter 3
Rules of Practice and Professional Obligations
(NSPE Code)
Introduction:
Engineering is an important and learned profession. As members of this profession, engineers are
expected to exhibit the highest standards of honesty and integrity. Engineering has a direct and vital
impact on the quality of life for all people. Accordingly, the services provided by engineers require
honesty, impartiality, fairness, and equity, and must be dedicated to the protection of the public
health, safety, and welfare. Engineers must perform under a standard of professional behavior that
requires adherence to the highest principles of ethical conduct.

I. Fundamental Principles
Engineers, in the fulfillment of their professional duties, shall:
1. Hold paramount the safety, health, and welfare of the public.
2. Perform services only in areas of their competence.
3. Issue public statements only in an objective and truthful manner.
4. Act for each employer or client as faithful agents or trustees.
5. Avoid deceptive acts.
6. Conduct themselves honorably, responsibly, ethically, and lawfully so as to enhance the honor,
reputation, and usefulness of the profession.

II. Rules of Practice Ethics

1. Engineers shall hold paramount the safety, health, and welfare of the public:
a. If engineers’ judgment is overruled under circumstances that endanger life or property, they
shall notify their employer or client and such other authority as may be appropriate.
b. Engineers shall approve only those engineering documents that are in conformity with
applicable standards.
c. Engineers shall not reveal facts, data, or information without the prior consent of the client or
employer except as authorized or required by law or this Code.
d. Engineers shall not permit the use of their name or associate in business ventures with any
person or firm that they believe is engaged in fraudulent or dishonest enterprise.
e. Engineers shall not aid or abet the unlawful practice of engineering by a person or firm.

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 f. Engineers having knowledge of any alleged violation of this Code shall report thereon to
appropriate professional bodies and, when relevant, also to public authorities, and cooperate
with the proper authorities in furnishing such information or assistance as may be required.

2. Engineers shall perform services only in the areas of their competence.

a. Engineers shall undertake assignments only when qualified by education or experience in the
specific technical fields involved.
b. Engineers shall not affix their signatures to any plans or documents dealing with subject matter in
which they lack competence, nor to any plan or document not prepared under their direction and
control.
c. Engineers may accept assignments and assume responsibility for coordination of an entire project
and sign and seal the engineering documents for the entire project, provided that each technical
segment is signed and sealed only by the qualified engineers who prepared the segment.

3. Engineers shall issue public statements only in an objective and truthful manner.
a. Engineers shall be objective and truthful in professional reports, statements, or testimony. They
shall include all relevant and pertinent information in such reports, statements, or testimony,
which should bear the date indicating when it was current.
b. Engineers may express publicly technical opinions that are founded upon knowledge of the facts
and competence in the subject matter.
c. Engineers shall issue no statements, criticisms, or arguments on technical matters that are inspired
or paid for by interested parties, unless they have prefaced their comments by explicitly
identifying the interested parties on whose behalf they are speaking and by revealing the existence
of any interest the engineers may have in the matters.

4. Engineers shall act for each employer or client as faithful agents or trustees.
a. Engineers shall disclose all known or potential conflicts of interest that could influence or appear
to influence their judgment or the quality of their services.
b. Engineers shall not accept compensation, financial or otherwise, from more than one party for
services on the same project, or for services pertaining to the same project, unless the
circumstances are fully disclosed and agreed to by all interested parties.
c. Engineers shall not solicit or accept financial or other valuable consideration, directly or
indirectly, from outside agents in connection with the work for which they are responsible.

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d. Engineers in public service as members, advisors, or employees of a governmental or quasi-
governmental body or department shall not participate in decisions with respect to services
solicited or provided by them or their organizations in private or public engineering practice.
e. Engineers shall not solicit or accept a contract from a governmental body on which a principal or
officer of their organization serves as a member.

5. Engineers shall avoid deceptive acts.

a. Engineers shall not falsify their qualifications or permit misrepresentation of their or their
associates’ qualifications. They shall not misrepresent or exaggerate their responsibility in or for
the subject matter of prior assignments. Brochures or other presentations incident to the
solicitation of employment shall not misrepresent pertinent facts concerning employers,
employees, associates, joint ventures, or past accomplishments.
b. Engineers shall not offer, give, solicit, or receive, either directly or indirectly, any contribution to
influence the award of a contract by public authority, or which may be reasonably construed by
the public as having the effect or intent of influencing the awarding of a contract. They shall not
offer any gift or other valuable consideration in order to secure work. They shall not pay a
commission, percentage, or brokerage fee in order to secure work, except to a bona fide employee
or bona fide established commercial or marketing agencies retained by them.

III. Professional Obligations

1- Engineers shall be guided in all their relations by the highest standards of honesty and
integrity.

a. Engineers shall acknowledge their errors and shall not distort or alter the facts:

b. Engineers shall advise their clients or employers when they believe a project will not be
successful.
c. Engineers shall not accept outside employment to the detriment of their regular work or interest.
Before accepting any outside engineering employment, they will notify their employers.
d. Engineers shall not attempt to attract an engineer from another employer by false or misleading
pretenses.
e. Engineers shall not promote their own interest at the expense of the dignity and integrity of the
profession.
f. Engineers shall treat all persons with dignity, respect, fairness, and without discrimination.

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2. Engineers shall at all times strive to serve the public interest:

a. Engineers are encouraged to participate in civic affairs; career guidance for youths; and work for
the advancement of the safety, health, and well-being of their community.
b. Engineers shall not complete, sign, or seal plans and/or specifications that are not in conformity
with applicable engineering standards. If the client or employer insists on such unprofessional
conduct, they shall notify the proper authorities and withdraw from further service on the
project.
c. Engineers are encouraged to extend public knowledge and appreciation of engineering and its
achievements.
d. Engineers are encouraged to adhere to the principles of sustainable development1 in order to
protect the environment for future generations.
e. Engineers shall continue their professional development throughout their careers and should
keep current in their specialty fields by engaging in professional practice, participating in
continuing education courses, reading in the technical literature, and attending professional
meetings and seminar.

3. Engineers shall avoid all conduct or practice that deceives the public:
a. Engineers shall avoid the use of statements containing a material misrepresentation of fact or
omitting a material fact.
b. Consistent with the foregoing, engineers may advertise for recruitment of personnel.
c. Consistent with the foregoing, engineers may prepare articles for the lay or technical press, but
such articles shall not imply credit to the author for work performed by others.

4. Engineers shall not disclose, without consent, confidential information concerning the
business affairs or technical processes of any present or former client or employer, or public
body on which they serve:
a. Engineers shall not, without the consent of all interested parties, promote or arrange for new
employment or practice in connection with a specific project for which the engineer has gained
particular and specialized knowledge.
b. Engineers shall not, without the consent of all interested parties, participate in or represent an
adversary interest in connection with a specific project or proceeding in which the engineer has
gained particular specialized knowledge on behalf of a former client or employer.

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5. Engineers shall not be influenced in their professional duties by conflicting interests:
a. Engineers shall not accept financial or other considerations, including free engineering designs,
from material or equipment suppliers for specifying their product.
b. Engineers shall not accept commissions or allowances, directly or indirectly, from contractors or
other parties dealing with clients or employers of the engineer in connection with work for which
the engineer is responsible.

6. Engineers shall not attempt to obtain employment or advancement or professional

engagements by untruthfully criticizing other engineers, or by other improper or questionable
methods:
a. Engineers shall not request, propose, or accept a commission on a contingent basis under
circumstances in which their judgment may be compromised.
b. Engineers in salaried positions shall accept part-time engineering work only to the extent
consistent with policies of the employer and in accordance with ethical considerations.
c. Engineers shall not, without consent, use equipment, supplies, laboratory, or office facilities of an
employer to carry on outside private practice.

7. Engineers shall not attempt to injure, maliciously or falsely, directly or indirectly, the
professional reputation, prospects, practice, or employment of other engineers. Engineers
who believe others are guilty of unethical or illegal practice shall present such information
to the proper authority for action:
a. Engineers in private practice shall not review the work of another engineer for the same client,
except with the knowledge of such engineer, or unless the connection of such engineer with the
work has been terminated.
b. Engineers in governmental, industrial, or educational employ are entitled to review and evaluate
the work of other engineers when so required by their employment duties.
c. Engineers in sales or industrial employ are entitled to make engineering comparisons of
represented products with products of other suppliers.

8. Engineers shall accept personal responsibility for their professional activities, provided,
however, that engineers may seek indemnification for services arising out of their practice
for other than gross negligence, where the engineer’s interests cannot otherwise be
protected:
a. Engineers shall conform with state registration laws in the practice of engineering.

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b. Engineers shall not use association with a nonengineer, a corporation, or partnership as a “cloak”
for unethical acts.

9. Engineers shall give credit for engineering work to those to whom credit is due, and will
recognize the proprietary interests of others:
a. Engineers shall, whenever possible, name the person or persons who may be individually
responsible for designs, inventions, writings, or other accomplishments.
b. Engineers using designs supplied by a client recognize that the designs remain the property of the
client and may not be duplicated by the engineer for others without express permission.
c. Engineers, before undertaking work for others in connection with which the engineer may make
improvements, plans, designs, inventions, or other records that may justify copyrights or patents,
should enter into a positive agreement regarding ownership.
d. Engineers’ esigns, data, records, and notes referring exclusively to an employer’s work are the
employer’s property. The employer should indemnify the engineer for use of the information for
any purpose other than the original purpose.

- Reference:
"Code of Ethics for Engineers" , NATIONAL SOCIETY OF PROFESSIONAL
ENGINEERS ( NSPE), USA.

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 Chapter 4

Environmental Ethics

- Environmental ethics is the study of:

(a) Moral issues concerning the environment, and

(b) Moral perspectives and attitudes concerning those issues.
- Engineers in the past are known for their negligence of environment, in their activities. It has
become important now that engineers design ecofriendly tools, machines, sustainable products,
processes, and projects.
- These are essential now to:
(a) Ensure protection (safety) of environment.
(b) Prevent the degradation of environment.
(c) Slow down the exploitation of the natural resources, so that the future generation can survive.
- Engineers shall hold paramount the safety, health, and welfare of the public and shall strive to
comply with the principles of sustainable development in the performance of professional duties.
- The term sustainable development emphasizes on the investment, orientation of technology,
development and functioning of organizations to meet the present needs of people and at the same
time ensuring the future generations to meet their needs.
- Compaq Computer Corporation (now merged with HP) was the leader, who exhibited their
commitment to environmental health, through implementation of the concept of ‘Design for
environment’ on their products, unified standards all over the world units, and giving priority to
vendors with a record of environmental concern.
- Engineers have certain duties towards environmental ethics, namely:
1. Environmental impact assessment: One major but sure and unintended effect of technology is
wastage and the resulting pollution of land, water, air and even space. Study how the industry and
technology affects the environment.
2. Establish standards: Study and to fix the tolerable and actual pollution levels.
3. Counter measures: Study what the protective or eliminating measures are available for immediate
implementation
4. Environmental awareness: Study on how to educate the people on environmental practices, issues,
and possible remedies.
- Disasters Environmental
1. Plastic Waste Disposal.
2. Electrical Waste Disposal
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3. Industrial Waste Disposal
4. Depletion of Ozone Layer
5. Global Warming
6. Acid Rain

1. Plastic Waste Disposal

- Several years of plastic bottles are used as containers for water daily, and plastic bags are used to
pack different materials ranging from vegetables to gold ornaments. Hardly any of these are
recycled. The worse still is the burning of plastic materials, since they release toxic fumes and
threaten seriously the air quality.
- Cities and local administration have to act on this, collect and arrange for recycling through
industries.

2. Electrical Waste Disposal

- The parts of computers and electronic devices which have served its useful life present a major
environmental issue for some of the countries. This scrap contains highly toxic elements such as
lead, cadmium, and mercury.
- Even the radioactive waste will lose 89% of its toxicity after 200 years, by which time it will be no
more toxic than some natural minerals in the ground.
- It will lose 99% of its remaining toxicity over the next 30,000 years. The toxic chemical agents
such as mercury, arsenic, and cadmium retain toxicity undiminished forever.
- Instead of spending and managing on the scrap, unethical organizations sell them to the poor
countries. This is strictly in violation of the Basel Convention of the United Nations Environment
Program, which has banned.
- A recent report of the British Environment Agency has revealed that the discarded computers,
television sets, refrigerators, mobile phones, and electrical equipments have been dispatched to the
poor countries in large quantity, for ultimate disposal in environmentally-unacceptable ways and at
great risk to the health of the labour. Even in the West, the electronic junk has been posing
problems.
- To treat this problem including:
(a) Pressure on industries to set up disassembling facilities,
(b) Ban on disposal in landfill sites,
(c) Legislation for recycling requirements for these junk.
(d) Policy incentives for eco-friendly design are essential for every country.

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(e) Every country needs regulations to define waste, measures to stop illegal imports and
institutional structures to handle safe disposal of domestic industrial scrap.

3. Industrial Waste Disposal

The industrial waste can be classified into hazardous and non-hazardous waste coming from
industries like dairy, sugar mills, and paper factories, poultry, slaughterhouses, tanneries, etc.

To better handle the existing waste, industries need to be sensitized to various industrial waste
disposal methods and which is best for the economy, society, and environment. It will review
multiple methods to handle industrial waste.

1. Source Reduction

- This should be the most preferred step in reducing any type of waste by:

(a) Reducing of the amount of waste your company produces by choosing source reduction. To
achieve this, you can upgrade raw materials or the supply. The reason for this might be that higher-
quality materials generate less waste.

(b) Avoid errors by adding quality checks and catch them quickly if they occur. As a result, rework
and scrap are reduced. Audit your supplier as well and find out how they source their materials.

(c) After receiving the packaging, speak with vendors about reusing the packaging. Don’t use large
boxes for tiny items, instead, use bins or tubs since they’re reusable. Ensure that your employees
receive ongoing training to make sure that there are no delays in production.

(d) Consider tracking your output. This will let you find areas for improvement. Incorporate well-
timed deliveries with suppliers to have fewer packaging requirements. This will protect against
aging, damage, etc.

(e) Consider buying new equipment that’ll produce less scrap.

2. Reusing Waste

Reusing is the best way to conserve material.

- Reusable absorbents are the way to go to help prevent industrial drips and leaks. Absorbent pads
can be used for this, which offers a more sustainable solution compared to single-use products.
Doing so offers more environmental protection while still providing the required protection.
- For the most cost-effective and eco-friendly way to clean filter bags and PPE gloves, opt for a
laundering service. You can also educate your employees on conserving resources like boxes &
bubble wrap, not just for business purposes but for their own personal use too.
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- For sustainable shipping, it is important to switch to reusable pallets while sending items. Let your
vendors know that you prefer them to be used to ship products to you.
- If your organization produces wastewater, think about engaging in its own treatment process.
Additionally, hosting a rummage sale to sell things like mats and uniforms can be an excellent way
to earn extra funds for charity. You can then donate the proceeds from this sale to charity
organizations.
- Reusable shop towels are a great way to reduce waste, improve air quality and save energy. While
laundering the towels uses up some energy & water, it is still more eco-friendly than creating new
rags from scratch. By using reusable towels instead, you're also reducing the amount of packaging
and solid waste created.

3. Recycling and Composting

- Instead of disposing of industrial waste in the ground, recycling and composting waste are much
better solutions. Although some waste needs to be disposed of, such as toxic, hazardous waste,
there is an opportunity to transform materials into something useful!

- You can participate in the fight against waste and make a difference. Motivate your employees to
either reuse or recycle the materials generated by your company or industry. Incentivize or reward
sustainable initiatives or actions taken by the employees.

4. Segregation

- If you have any construction materials such as glass, building materials, waste & plastics, it's wise
to use separate container units for them. This is because these types of items take longer to
decompose & so keeping them in different containers helps manage the waste better.

5. Plasma Gasification

-Plasma gasification is a technique that takes recyclables from landfills and turns them into energy,
ensuring nothing goes to waste. Heating up carbon-based materials results in syngas production.
This gas can be processed into top-notch fuels or chemicals, and it can also be used for direct
combustion.

-Plasma gasification is an efficient waste management solution to convert non-organic material

parts into slag. It is cost-effective and produces solid, bound residue that can be used as a raw
material for construction projects. Furthermore, this process helps achieve a zero-waste
environment, but it is better to understand the toxicity of your material before burning it so that
you are not polluting the air.

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 6. Incineration

This should be the least preferred step of industrial waste disposal.

- The incineration of waste releases energy from heat and breaks down the combustible material into
its basic components. Reducing waste this way is an inexpensive method but it produces inert ash
particles and gases that can pollute the air. The extent of pollution is determined by variables such
as incineration/combustion methods or natural factors. Filters can be used to check for pollution.

-The energy produced from burning waste can be used for heating, cooking, and supplying power to
turbines. To avoid the accidental leak of micro-level contaminants like dioxins, you must watch it
closely.

7. Landfill

-Along with incineration, landfilling should be the least preferred step in material disposal.
However, it is the most common waste disposal method. Items are appropriately buried in the land,
and only those that can’t be composted or recycled should be placed there.

4. Depletion of Ozone Layer

- The ozone layer protects the entire planet from the ill-effects of ultraviolet radiation and is vital for
all living organisms in this world. But it is eaten away by the Chloro-fluro-carbons (CFC) such as
Freon emanating from the refrigerators, air conditioners, and aerosol can spray.This has caused also
skin cancer to sun-bathers in the Western countries. Further NO and NO2 gases were also found to
react with the ozone.
- Apart from engineers, the organizations, laws of the country and local administration and market
mechanisms are required to take up concerted efforts to protect the environment.

5. Global Warming
- Over the past 30 years, the Earth has warmed by 0.6 °C. Over the last 100 years, it has warmed by
0.8 °C. It is likely to push up temperature by 3 °C by 2100, according to NASA’s studies.
- The U.S. administration has accepted the reality of global climate change, which has been
associated with stronger hurricanes, severe droughts, intense heat waves and the melting of polar
ice.
- Greenhouse gases, notably carbon dioxide emitted by motor vehicles and coal-fired power plants,
trap heat like the glass walls of a greenhouse, cause the Earth to warm up.

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- Delegates from the six countries — Australia, China, India, Japan, South Korea and US met in
California in April 2006 for the first working session of the Asia- Pacific Partnership on Clean
Development and Climate.
- The six countries account for about half of the world’s emissions of climate-heating greenhouse
gases.

6. Acid Rain
- Large emissions of sulphur oxides and nitrous oxides are being released in to the air from the
thermal power stations using the fossil fuels, and several processing industries.
- These gases form compounds with water in the air and precipitates as rain or snow on to the earth.
- The acid rain in some parts of the world has caused sufficient damage to the fertility of the land
and to the human beings.

Human- Centered Environmental Ethics:

- This approach assumes that only human beings have inherent moral worth duly to be taken care of.
- Other living being and ecosystems are only instrumental in nature. Utilitarianism aims to maximize
good consequences for human beings. Most of the goods are engineered products made out of
natural resources.
- Human beings have also (a) recreational interests (enjoy leisure through mountaineering, sports,
and pastimes), (b) aesthetic interests (enjoy nature as from seeing waterfalls and snow-clad
mountains), (c) scientific interests to explore into nature or processes, and (d) a basic interest to
survive, by preservation as well as conservation of nature and natural resources.
- Rights ethicists favor the basic rights to live and right to liberty, to realize the right to a live in a
supportive environment. Further, virtue ethics stresses importance of prudence, humility,
appreciation of natural beauty, and gratitude to the mother nature that provides everything.
- However, the nature-centered ethics, which ensures the worth of all living beings and organisms,
seems to be more appropriate in the present-day context.

- Write in any international Disasters Environmental with ethics issues?

Reference:

- ‘Introduction To Engineering Ethics’; Mike W. Martin and Roland Schinzinger; Second

Edition, McGraw-Hill, 2010
- https://moef.gov.in/en/service/environment/waste-management/
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 Chapter 5
Intellectual property and Computer Ethics
The Ethics of Technology is a sub-field of Ethics and generally sub-divided into two areas:
- The ethics involved in the development of new technology – whether it is always, never, or
contextually right or wrong, to invent and implement a technological innovation.
- The ethical questions that are exacerbated by the ways in which technology extends or curtails the
power of individuals – how standard ethical questions are changed by the new powers.

In 1998 UNESCO set up its Ethics of Science and Technology Program which aims to:
1- Promote consideration of science and technology in an ethical framework by initiating and
supporting the process of democratic building.
2- Stimulate and undertake interdisciplinary and applied research in the field of ethics and
technology.
3- Stimulate and undertake fundamental research in ethics relevant for the field of ethics and
technology.
4- Stimulate and undertake activities in the field of teaching in ethics and technology.

Intellectual property:
Intellectual property (IP) is a legal concept which refers to creations of the mind for which
exclusive rights are recognized. Under intellectual property law, owners are granted certain
exclusive rights to a variety of intangible assets, such as musical, literary, and artistic works;
discoveries and inventions; and words, phrases, symbols, and designs. Common types of intellectual
property rights include copyright, trademarks, patents, industrial design rights, trade dress, and in
some jurisdictions trade secrets.
Objectives:
The stated objective of most intellectual property law (with the exception of trademarks) is to
"Promote progress." By exchanging limited exclusive rights for disclosure of inventions and creative
works, society and the patentee/copyright owner mutually benefit, and an incentive is created for
inventors and authors to create and disclose their work. Some commentators have noted that the
objective of intellectual property legislators and those who support its implementation appears to be
"absolute protection." "If some intellectual property is desirable because it encourages innovation,
they reason, more is better. The thinking is that creators will not have sufficient incentive to invent
unless they are legally entitled to capture the full social value of their inventions." [22] This absolute
protection or full value view treats intellectual property as another type of 'real' property, typically
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adopting its law and rhetoric. Other recent developments in intellectual property law, such as the
America Invents Act, stress international harmonization.
Computer Ethics:
Computer ethics is defined as:
(a) Study and analysis of nature and social impact of computer technology,
(b) Formulation and justification of policies, for ethical use of computers.
- This subject has become relevant to the professionals such as designers of computers,
programmers, system analysts, system managers, and operators.
- The use of computers have raised a host of moral concerns such as free speech, privacy, intellectual
property right, and physical as well as mental harm.
- There appears to be no conceptual framework available on ethics, to study and understand and
resolve the problems in computer technology.

-Different types of problems are found in computer ethics.

1. Computer as the Instrument of Unethical Acts
2. Computer as the Object of Unethical Act
3. Problems Related to the Autonomous Nature of computer

1. Computer as the Instrument of Unethical Acts

(a) The usage of computer replaces the job positions. This has been overcome to a large extent by
readjusting work assignments, and training everyone on computer applications such as word
processing, editing, and graphics.
(b) Breaking privacy: Information or data of the individuals accessed or erased or the ownership
changed.
(c) Defraud a bank or a client, by accessing and withdrawing money from other’s bank account.

2. Computer as the Object of Unethical Act

The data are accessed and deleted or changed.
(a) Hacking: The software is stolen or information is accessed from other computers. This may cause
financial loss to the business or violation of privacy rights of the individuals or business. In case
of defense information being hacked, this may endanger the security of the nation.
(b) Spreading virus: Through mail or otherwise, other computers are accessed and the files are
erased or contents changed altogether. ‘Trojan horses’ are implanted to distort the messages and
files beyond recovery. This again causes financial loss or mental torture to the individuals. Some

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 hackers feel that they have justified their right of free information or they do it for fun.
However, these acts are certainly unethical.
(c) Health hazard: The computers pose threat during their use as well as during disposal.

3. Problems Related to the Autonomous Nature of computer

)a) Security risk: Recently the Tokyo Exchange major embarrassment. A seemingly casual mistake
by a junior trader of a large security house led to huge losses including that of reputation. The
order through the exchange’s trading system was to sell one share for 600,000 Yen. Instead the
trader keyed in a sale order for 600,000 shares at the rate of one Yen each. Naturally the shares
on offer at the ridiculously low price were lapped up. And only a few buyers agreed to reverse
the deal! The loss to the securities firm was said to be huge, running into several hundred
thousands. More important to note, such an obvious mistake could not be corrected by some of
the advanced technology available. For advanced countries like Japan who have imbibed the
latest technology, this would be a new kind of learning experience.
)b) Loss of human lives: Risk and loss of human lives lost by computer, in the operational control of
military weapons. There is a dangerous instability in automated defense system .An unexpected
error in the software or hardware or a conflict during interfacing between the two, may trigger a
serious attack and cause irreparable human loss before the error is traced. The Chinese embassy
was bombed by U.S. military in Iraq a few years back, but enquiries revealed that the building
was shown in a previous map as the building where insurgents stayed.
)c) In flexible manufacturing systems, the autonomous computer is beneficial in obtaining.

The Ten Commandments of computer ethics are defined:

1) It is not use a computer to harm other people
2) It is not interfere with other people's computer work
3) It is not snoop around in other people's files
4) It is not use a computer to steal
5) It is not use a computer to bear false witness
6) It is not use or copy software for which you have not paid
7) It is not use other people's computer resources without authorization
8) It is not appropriate other people's intellectual output
9) It thinks about the social consequences of the program you write
10) It is use a computer in ways that show consideration and respect.

- Write in the importance of intellectual property and its role in various scientific fields.
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