Embedded Robotics

Thomas Bräunl

EMBEDDED ROBOTICS
From Mobile Robots
to Autonomous Vehicles
with Raspberry Pi
and Arduino
Fourth Edition

123
Thomas Bräunl
School of Engineering
The University of Western Australia
Perth, WA, Australia

ISBN 978-981-16-0803-2 ISBN 978-981-16-0804-9 (eBook)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-0804-9
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4th edition: © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer
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PREFACE

T
his book gives a practical, in-depth introduction to embedded
systems and autonomous robots, using the popular Raspberry Pi
and Arduino microcontrollers. We demonstrate how to build a
variety of mobile robots using a combination of these controllers,
together with powerful sensors and actuators. Numerous application examples
are given for mobile robots, which can be tested either on the real robots or on
our freely available simulation system EyeSim.
This book combines teaching and research materials and can be used for
courses in embedded systems as well as in robotics and automation. We see
laboratories as an essential teaching and learning method in this area and
encourage everybody to reprogram and rediscover the algorithms and systems
presented in this book.
Although we like simulations for many applications and treat them in quite
some depth in several places in this book, we do believe that students should
also be exposed to real hardware in both areas, embedded systems and robotics.
This will deepen their understanding of the subject area and, of course, create a
lot more fun, especially when experimenting with small mobile robots.
We started this robotics endeavor over twenty years ago, when we first
interfaced a digital image sensor to our own processor board. The EyeBot-1
was based on a Motorola 68332 and our own operating system RoBIOS. The
controller was soon followed by a variety of driving, walking, flying,
swimming and diving robots that we called the EyeBot family. More powerful
(and more expensive) controller architectures followed, until the availability of
cheap, powerful boards like the Raspberry Pi and the Arduino Uno let us
reconsider our approach. We redesigned our robot family around these popular
controllers, but maintained the look and feel of our easy-to-use operating
software.
Even on the simulation side, we have gone new ways. Our original
stand-alone robot simulation has now been replaced by our new EyeSim VR
package, which uses the Unity game environment with a much more realistic
physics engine. The companion book Robot Adventures in Python and
C (Springer 2020) concentrates on the software aspect of mobile robots and
extends the hardware/software approach of this book.

V
 Preface

For any embedded application, the processor power (and cost) needs to
match to the given problem. For low-level control of a mobile robot with two
DC motors and a few simple sensors, an 8-bit controller such as the Arduino
might be sufficient. However, if we want to do image processing or learning,
we need a more powerful controller like the 32-bit Raspberry Pi.
The EyeBot family consists of mobile robots with all sorts of propulsion
systems. We and numerous other universities use these robots and simulation
systems for laboratory experiments in embedded systems as part of the
computer engineering, electrical engineering and mechatronics curriculum.

Acknowledgements
A number of colleagues and students contributed to the chapters, software
systems and robotics projects presented in this book.
Working on the RoBIOS robot operating system were Remi Keat (base
system), Marcus Pham (high-level control), Franco Hidalgo (low-level control)
and Klaus Schmitt (driving routines).
The EyeBot controller board layout was done by Ivan Neubronner, and the
EyeSim VR simulator was implemented by Travis Povey (Unity), Joel Frewin
(robot models and applications), Michael Finn (terrain, underwater, swarms)
and Alexander Arnold (VR).
The following colleagues and former students contributed to this book:
Adrian Boeing on the evolution of walking gaits, Mohamed Bourgou on car
detection and tracking, Christoph Braunschädel on PID control graphs, Louis
Gonzalez and Michael Drtil on AUVs, James Ng on Bug and Brushfire
algorithms, David Venkitachalam on genetic algorithms, Joshua Petitt on DC
motors, Bernhard Zeisl on lane detection, Alistair Sutherland on balancing
robots, Jordan King on traffic sign recognition and Nicholas Burleigh on deep
learning for autonomous driving.

Additional Materials
All system software discussed in this book, the RoBIOS operating system,
C/C++ compilers for Windows, MacOS and Linux, system tools, image pro-
cessing tools, simulation system, and a large collection of example programs
are available free from:
http://robotics.ee.uwa.edu.au/eyebot/
http://robotics.ee.uwa.edu.au/eyesim/
Software specific to the Raspberry Pi and Arduino (Nano) controllers can be
downloaded from:

VI
Preface

http://robotics.ee.uwa.edu.au/rasp/
http://robotics.ee.uwa.edu.au/nano/
As further reading, please refer to our companion book on programming of
mobile robots: Robot Adventures in Python and C. This book makes heavy use
of the EyeSim simulator, so it can be used for practical experiments without the
need for a physical robot.

Perth, Australia Thomas Bräunl

January 2022

VII
CONTENTS

PART I: EMBEDDED SYSTEMS

1 Robots and Controllers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.1 Mobile Robots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.2 Embedded Controllers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.3 Robot Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.4 Operating System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.5 Simulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.6 Tasks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2 Central Processing Unit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.1 Logic Gates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.2 Function Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.3 Registers and Memory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.4 Retro . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.5 Arithmetic Logic Unit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
2.6 Control Unit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
2.7 Central Processing Unit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
2.8 Structured Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
2.9 Tasks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
3 Arduino . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
3.1 Arduino Hardware . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
3.2 Arduino Programming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
3.3 Arduino Interfacing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
3.4 Arduino Communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
3.5 Beyond Arduino . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
3.6 Tasks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
4 Raspberry Pi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
4.1 Raspberry Pi Operating System and Setup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
4.2 Raspberry Pi Tools and Programming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
4.3 Raspberry Pi Input/Output Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77

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4.4 Raspberry Pi Communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80

4.5 Integration Development Environments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
4.6 Tasks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
5 Sensors and Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
5.1 Sensor Categories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
5.2 Synchronous Serial and I2C Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
5.3 Binary Sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
5.4 Shaft Encoders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
5.5 A/D Converters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
5.6 Position Sensitive Devices—Sonar, Infrared, Laser . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
5.7 Lidar Sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
5.8 Orientation Sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
5.9 Inertial Measurement Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
5.10 Global Navigation Satellite Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
5.11 Digital Image Sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
5.12 Tasks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
6 Actuators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
6.1 DC Motors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
6.2 H-Bridge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
6.3 Pulse Width Modulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
6.4 Stepper Motors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
6.5 Servos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
6.6 Tasks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
7 Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
7.1 On-Off Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
7.2 PID Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
7.3 Derivative Controller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
7.4 Velocity Control and Position Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
7.5 Multiple Motors—Driving Straight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
7.6 V-Omega Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
7.7 Tasks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
8 Multitasking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
8.1 Preemptive Multithreading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
8.2 Synchronization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
8.3 Scheduling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
8.4 Interrupts and Timer-Activated Tasks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
8.5 Tasks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
9 Communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
9.1 Communication Channels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
9.2 File Transfer and Remote Access . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
9.3 Radio Library . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166

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9.4 Robot to Robot Communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166

9.5 Robot to PC Communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
9.6 Tasks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171

PART II: ROBOT HARDWARE

10 Driving Robots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
10.1 Single Wheel Drive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
10.2 Differential Drive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
10.3 Tracked Robots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
10.4 Synchro-Drive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
10.5 Ackermann Steering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
10.6 Omni-Directional Robots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
10.7 Drive Kinematics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
10.8 Tasks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
11 Walking Robots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
11.1 Balancing Robots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
11.2 Six-Legged Robots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
11.3 Biped Robots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
11.4 Static Balance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
11.5 Dynamic Balance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
11.6 Tasks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
12 Autonomous Boats and Planes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
12.1 Autonomous Boats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
12.2 Autonomous Underwater Vehicles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
12.3 Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
12.4 Tasks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
13 Robot Manipulators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
13.1 Homogeneous Coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
13.2 Manipulator Kinematics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
13.3 Manipulator Simulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
13.4 Teaching and Programming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
13.5 Industrial Manipulators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
13.6 Tasks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269

PART III: ROBOT SOFTWARE

14 Localization and Navigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
14.1 Localization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
14.2 Environment Representation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
14.3 Quadtree . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
14.4 Visibility Graph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
14.5 Voronoi Diagram and Brushfire Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286

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14.6 Potential Field Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289

14.7 Wandering Standpoint Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
14.8 Bug Algorithm Family . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
14.9 Dijkstra’s Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
14.10 A* Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
14.11 Probabilistic Localization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
14.12 SLAM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
14.13 Tasks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
15 Maze Navigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
15.1 Micro Mouse Contest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
15.2 Maze Exploration Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
15.3 Simulated Versus Real Maze Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
15.4 Tasks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324
16 Image Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
16.1 Camera Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
16.2 Image File Formats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
16.3 Edge Detection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330
16.4 Motion Detection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
16.5 Color Spaces. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338
16.6 RBG-to-HSI Conversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342
16.7 Color Object Detection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345
16.8 Image Segmentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
16.9 Image Coordinates Versus World Coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352
16.10 Tasks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355
17 Automotive Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357
17.1 Autonomous Automobiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358
17.2 Drive-By-Wire and Safety Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361
17.3 Computer Vision for Autonomous Driving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364
17.4 OpenCV and KITTI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366
17.5 ROS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367
17.6 Carla Simulator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370
17.7 Lane Detection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372
17.8 Vehicle Recognition and Tracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380
17.9 Automatic Parking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384
17.10 Autonomous Formula-SAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 388
17.11 Autonomous Shuttle Bus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392
17.12 Tasks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399

PART IV: ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE

18 AI Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403
18.1 Software Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403
18.2 Behavior-Based Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405

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18.3 Behavior Framework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406

18.4 Behavior-Based Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411
18.5 Tasks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419
19 Neural Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421
19.1 Neural Network Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421
19.2 Feed-Forward Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423
19.3 Backpropagation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 428
19.4 Neural Network Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 433
19.5 Neural Robot Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 435
19.6 Tasks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 437
20 Genetic Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 439
20.1 Genetic Algorithm Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 440
20.2 Genetic Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 442
20.3 Evolution Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 445
20.4 Implementing Genetic Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 448
20.5 Genetic Robot Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 453
20.6 Starman . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 455
20.7 Evolving Walking Gaits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 457
20.8 Tasks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 467
21 Deep Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 469
21.1 TensorFlow and Caffe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 471
21.2 Carolo-Cup Competition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 472
21.3 Traffic Sign Recognition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 474
21.4 End-To-End Learning for Autonomous Driving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 478
21.5 Tasks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 484
22 Outlook . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 485

APPENDICES
Appendix A: RoBIOS Library . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 489
Appendix B: EyeBot-IO7 Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 497
Appendix C: Hardware Description Table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 503
Appendix D: Robot Programming Projects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 507

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