FUNDAMENTALS OF

ELECTRIC VEHICLES

UNIT – II
Components of Electric Vehicles
KSR ASSOC PROF
• The Main Components of Electric Vehicles
• Electric vehicles consists of an electric motor
that is powered by a battery pack.
• The main advantage of electric vehicle
components is that they emit zero emissions
and are eco-friendly.
• They also do not consume any fossil fuels,
hence use a sustainable form of energy for
powering the car.
• The main components of electric vehicles
are
• Traction battery pack
• DC-DC Converter
• Electric motor
• Power inverter
• Charge Port
• Onboard charger
• Controller
• Auxiliary batteries
• Thermal system (cooling)
• Transmission
• 1. Battery Pack
• The battery pack, consisting of lithium-ion batteries, is the most
important and expensive component of an EV, storing energy
and giving power to the entire vehicle including the electric
motor that allows the vehicle to move.
• While these batteries have come a long way, according to the
Department of Energy, “research and development are ongoing
to reduce their relatively high cost, extend their useful life, and
address safety concerns in regard to overheating.” You can learn
more details about EV batteries in this Car and Driver article.
• Though battery packs are exclusive to EV vehicles, ICE vehicles
do have a much smaller battery present that both powers the
starter, as well as some of the electronic components while the
vehicle is off.
• The alternator takes over once the ICE vehicle is running.
Traction battery pack is also
known as Electric vehicle battery
(EVB).
It powers the electric motors of
an electric vehicle. The battery acts
as an electrical storage system.
It stores energy in the form DC
current. The range will be higher
with increasing kW of the battery.

The life and operation of the

battery depends on its design. The
lifetime of a traction battery pack is
estimated to be 200,000 miles.
Traction battery pack:
It is a high voltage
battery used to store
energy in the electric
car and provide
power for use by the
electric traction motor.
• 2. Electric Motor(s)
• EVs use an electric motor (or two, depending on
EV model or drive type), to drive the wheels,
similar to the engine of an ICE vehicle.
• Electrical energy is transferred from the battery
to the motor(s) and is then converted to
mechanical energy.
• The number of motors and their placement
determines whether the EV is front-wheel, rear-
wheel, or all-wheel drive. Electric motors are far
less complex than internal combustion engines
and do not require maintenance, contrary to
the latter.
Electric traction motor is the main
components of electric vehicles.
The motor converts the electrical
energy into kinetic energy.
This energy rotates the wheels.
Electric motor is the main components
of electric vehicle that differentiates an
electric car from conventional cars.
An important feature of an electric
motor is the regenerative braking
mechanism.
This mechanism slows down the
vehicle by converting its kinetic energy
into another form, and storing it for
future use. There are basically two
types of motors DC and AC motors.
It is the main propulsion
device in an electric car that
converts electrical energy from
the traction battery to
mechanical energy for rotating
the wheels.
 It also generates electricity
by extracting energy from the
rotating wheels while braking,
and transferring that energy
back to the traction battery
pack..
• 3. Power Electronics
• The power electronics in an EV are composed of
inverters, converters, controllers, and the onboard
charger.
• These components contribute to the flow of electricity
throughout the vehicle, primarily from the battery to the
electric motor, as well as other powered components of
the vehicle, such as the heating and ventilation system,
lighting, infotainment, etc.
• More specifically, power electronics are responsible for
converting direct current to alternating current (DC to AC
inverter) or the inverse (AC to DC converting), as well as
DC/DC converters which either increase battery voltage
(boost) or decrease battery voltage (buck).
Power electronic converter:
A power electronic converter is made of high
power fast-acting semiconductor devices,
which act as high-speed switches.
 Different switching states alter the input
voltage and current through the use of
capacitive and inductive elements.
The result is an output voltage and current,
which is at a different level to the input.
On-board charger:
It is an AC-to-DC power electronic converter
(often referred to as a rectifier) that takes
the incoming AC electricity supplied via the
charge port and converts it to DC power for
charging the traction battery.
Using the battery management system, it
regulates the battery characteristics such as
voltage, current, temperature, and state of
charge
DC-DC Converter
The traction battery pack
delivers a constant voltage. But
different components of electric
vehicle has different
requirements.
The DC-DC
convertor distributes the output
power that is coming from the
battery to a required level.
It also provides the voltage
required to charge the auxiliary
battery.
Battery power converter:
It is a DC-to-DC power
electronic converter that
converts the voltage of
the traction battery pack
to the higher-voltage of
the DC-bus used for
power exchange with the
traction motor
• Charging port or vehicle inlet:
 It is a connector present on the electric
vehicle to allow it to be connected to an
external source of electricity for charging
• Power Inverter
It coverts DC power from the batteries to AC
power.
 It also converts the AC current generated
during regenerative braking into DC current.

This is further used to recharge the batteries.

The inverter can change the speed of the
vehicle.
• Charging System
• The charging system is made up of the
charging port where the cable is plugged in,
the charging cable, and the onboard charger
that converts AC power from the electrical
grid into DC energy which is then sent to and
stored in the battery.
• DC fast charging means AC power is
converted to DC outside of the vehicle and
sent directly to the EV battery, bypassing the
onboard charger..
Charge Port
The charge port
connects the electric
vehicle to an external
supply.
It charges the battery
pack. The charge port
is sometimes located
in the front or rear part
of electricvehicle
components.
• Thermal Management System
 The thermal management system, comprising radiators,
fans, and coolant pumps, is a crucial component of EVs.
 This system helps regulate the temperature of the
battery pack, electric motor, and power electronics to
ensure they are operating at an optimal temperature for
the best performance as well as increasing longevity.
 Without a thermal management system, these
components would be susceptible to damage through
overheating or excessive cooler conditions.
 Not only does the regulation of temperature protect the
vehicle's most valuable parts, but it also helps maximize
efficiency and range by minimizing energy loss.
 While ICE vehicles may not be as greatly impacted by
extreme weather conditions, performance, and fuel
efficiency can still be reduced.
• Regenerative Braking System
• You may already be familiar with regenerative
braking as one of the key functionalities of a hybrid
vehicle. This system converts the kinetic energy
generated during braking into electrical energy that
is stored in the battery, which in turn reduces the
amount of energy required from the battery.
• Unlike traditional ICE vehicles, the regenerative
braking systems store energy back into the battery
that would otherwise have been lost.
• These systems also help reduce wear on the brakes
by leveraging the electric motor to slow down the
vehicle when activated, such as driving down a hill or
approaching a stop sign.
• 7. Electric Vehicle Control Unit (VCU)
• The vehicle control unit (VCU) is responsible for
controlling and coordinating processes relating to the
functional aspects of an EV.
• In other words, it acts as the brain of the vehicle. The
VCU receives information (such as battery
temperature, motor speed, vehicle speed, etc.) from
various sensors and systems, and ensures that the
vehicle operates efficiently and safely.
• Additionally, the VCU communicates with other
control units including the battery management
system (BMS) and motor controller to ensure all
systems are working together.
 Onboard charger

Onboard charger is used to

convert the AC supply received
from the charge port to DC supply.

The on-board charger is located

and installed inside the car.

It monitors various battery

characteristics and controls
the current flowing inside the
battery pack.
• Auxiliary batteries
Auxiliary batteries are the
source of electrical
energy for the accessories
in electric vehicles.
In the absence of the
main battery, the auxiliary
batteries will continue to
charge the car.
It prevents the voltage
drop, produced during
engine start from
affecting the electrical
system.
• Auxiliary(auxiliary):
Battery batteries
Battery
In (auxiliary):
an electric drive
In an electric drive
vehicle, the
vehicle,
auxiliary the
battery
auxiliary battery
provides electricity
provides electricity
to
to start
start thethe car car
before
before the
the traction
traction
battery
battery is
is engaged
engaged
and is
and is also
also used
used to to
power the
power the vehicle
vehicle
accessories.
accessories.
• Controller
• Power electronics controller
determines the working of an
electric car.
• It performs the regulation of
electrical energy from the
batteries to the electric
motors.
• The pedal set by the driver
determines the speed of the
car and frequency of
variation of voltage that is
input to the motor. It also
controls the torque
produced.
• Thermal system(cooling)
• The thermal management system is
responsible for maintaining an operating
temperature for the main components of
electric vehicle (EV) such as, electric motor,
controller etc.
• It functions during charging as well to obtain
maximum performance.
• It uses a combination of thermoelectric
cooling, forced air cooling, and liquid
cooling.
Transmission
The gearbox transfers
the mechanical power
from the electric motor to
the wheels.
The advantage of
electric cars is that they do
not require multi-speed
transmissions.
The transmission
efficiency should be high
to avoid power loss.
Transmission
For an electric car,
usually a single gear
transmission with
differential is used to
transfer mechanical
power from the traction
motor to drive the
wheels.
 Power Converter
A converter is an electrical circuit which accepts a DC
input and generates a DC output of a different
voltage, usually achieved by high frequency
switching action employing inductive and capacitive
filter elements.
A power converter is an electrical circuit that
changes the electric energy from one form into the
desired form optimized for the specific load.
A converter may do one or more functions and give
an output that differs from the input.
It is used to increase or decrease the magnitude of
the input voltage, invert polarity, or produce several
output voltages of either the same polarity with the
input, different polarity, or mixed polarities such as in
the computer power supply unit.
 Power Converter
A converter is an electrical circuit which accepts a DC
input and generates a DC output of a different
voltage, usually achieved by high frequency
switching action employing inductive and capacitive
filter elements.
A power converter is an electrical circuit that
changes the electric energy from one form into the
desired form optimized for the specific load.
A converter may do one or more functions and give
an output that differs from the input.
It is used to increase or decrease the magnitude of
the input voltage, invert polarity, or produce several
output voltages of either the same polarity with the
input, different polarity, or mixed polarities such as in
the computer power supply unit.
 Power Converter
The DC to DC converters are used in a wide range of
applications including computer power supplies,
board level power conversion and regulation, dc
motor control circuits and much more.
The converter acts as the link or the transforming
stage between the power source and the power
supply output.
There are several kings of converters based on the
source input voltage and the output voltage and
these falls into four categories namely the AC to DC
converter known as the rectifier, the AC to AC clyclo
converter or frequency changer, the DC to DC voltage
or current converter, and the DC to AC inverter.
• Power Converters
• The converter uses non linear components such as
the semiconductor switches, and linear reactive
components such as the inductors, transformers and
capacitors for intermediate energy storage as well as
current and voltage filtering.
• The size, weight and cost of the converter are largely
determined by these components.
• There three basic converter circuits that are widely
used in DC to DC converters are the buck, boost, and
the buck and boost.
• These configurations are the most used topologies
due to their simplicity and use of fewer components.
• Each has its advantages and drawbacks which
determines the suitability for any specific
application.
• Power Converters
• DC-DC converter is an essential component in
electric vehicles, where there are several electronic
circuits operating at different voltage levels.
• The DC-DC converter is an electromechanical device
or circuitry used to convert a DC voltage from one
level to another based on circuit requirements.
• Belonging to the electric power converter family, the
DC-DC converter can be operated for small voltage
applications like batteries, or high voltage
applications like HV power transmission.
When there were no semiconductors, a common
technique for converting DC voltage into higher
voltage for low-power projects was to transform it
into AC voltage by means of vibrator circuits.
Then, a step-up transformer was used to increase
the output voltage level, followed by a rectifier
circuit for performing the DC conversion.
A combination of motor and generator was
employed for applications where high power was
required. The motor operates the generator,
providing the required load voltage. These
techniques were expensive and less efficient but
used since no alternative method existed at that
time.
Bidirectional DC-DC converters are
essential components in electric vehicles
(EVs) and other applications where efficient
energy transfer between two DC voltage
sources in both directions is required.
Here’s an overview of bidirectional DC-DC
converters and their applications in EVs:
• Bidirectional DC-DC converters are designed to
handle power flow in two directions:
• Buck Mode: In this mode, the converter steps down
(or bucks) a higher voltage from one source to a
lower voltage at another source. This is typically used
to charge the EV battery from a higher voltage
source like the traction battery or regenerative
braking system.
• Boost Mode: Conversely, the converter can step up
(or boost) a lower voltage to a higher voltage. This
mode is useful when power needs to be transferred
from a lower voltage source, such as the 12V
auxiliary battery, to a higher voltage bus like the
traction battery or other high-voltage systems in the
EV.
Buck converter,
DC-DC converters, often called Choppers,
include the Buck converter, which steps down
a higher input DC voltage to a lower specified
output voltage.
A typical Buck converter is shown below.
Buck converter,
 The input v voltage source connects to a
controllable solid-state device like a Power
MOSFET or IGBT, which acts as a switch. Unlike
Thyristor, which require complex additional
circuitry to turn off, MOSFETs and IGBTs simply
need zero voltage across specific terminals to
deactivate
A long side the main switch, a diode serves as
the secondary switch. Both are linked to an LC
filter, meticulously designed to minimize ripples
in current and voltage, with the circuit
completed by a purely resistive load
Buck converter,
• The Buck converter has two modes of
operation. The first mode is when the switch is
on and conducting.
• Mode I : Switch is ON, Diode is OFF
Buck converter,
• The voltage across the capacitance in steady
state is equal to the output voltage.
Let us say the switch is on for a time TON and is
off for a time TOFF. We define the time period, T,
as and the switching frequency
Buck converter,
•
Buck converter,
•
Figure 1 shows the circuit diagram of the
buck converter, which consists of a source of
DC power supply E, a switch S (typically a
MOSFET or IGBT), a diode D, low frequency
bandpass LC filter and load R.

The transistor is represented by a switch S

with a small arrow, which marks the direction
of the current that can be established through
the switch.
When the switch S is turned on, the diode D
becomes inversely polarized by the supply
voltage E, and the voltage across the inductor
becomes equal to the difference between the
supply voltage and the load voltage (see Figure
2):
• uL=E−U
The current flowing through the inductor will
increase linearly from the minimum to the
maximum value
The inductor current is continuous and, this
is made possible by selecting an appropriate
value of L.
The inductor current in steady state rises
from a value with a positive slope to a
maximum value during the ON state and
then drops back down to the initial value
with a negative slope.
Therefore the net change of the inductor
current over anyone complete cycle is zero.
Mode II: Switch is OFF, Diode is ON
Here, the energy stored in the inductor is
released and is ultimately dissipated in the
load resistance, and this helps to maintain
the flow of current through the load.
 But for analysis we keep the original
conventions to analyse the circuit using KVL.
Let us now analyse the Buck converter in
steady state operation for Mode II using KVL
Since the switch is open for a time we can
say that Δt = (1- D)T.
It is already established that the net change
of the inductor current over anyone
complete cycle is zero.
• Boost converter
A boost converter, also called step-up
converter, has the exact opposite function of a
buck converter.
The boost converters job is to increase the
voltage on the output side. Looking at Fig. this
would mean (v1 < v2).
A good example where a boost converter can
be used is in battery powered applications
where space is limited so batteries cannot be
couple in series to achieve a higher voltage.
Instead the converter can boost the batteries
voltage to a desired level.
The topology of the boost
converter can be seen in Fig.
As shown, the boost converter
is design quite similar to the
buck converter in Fig. with
the differences being: the
transistor and the diode
swapped places, the inductor
changed polarity because of
the current now flowing in the
opposite direction.
The inductor and the
capacitor is in the circuit for
the same reason as in the
buck converter, to reduce
current and voltage ripple.
• Same as with the buck converter, an
equation (3) can be derived that describes
the correlation between the input voltage
and the output voltage dependent on the
duty cycle.

• Looking at equation (3) it is clear that Vd will be

bigger than Vo in every case except when D = 0,
giving: V o = V . This is due to the duty cycle, D,
varying d between 0 ≤ D ≤ 1 . In reality the
converter has a minimum and a maximum duty
cycle dependent on the input and output voltage
• The operation of the boost converter is based on the
same principle as buck converter, using the fact that
an inductor can not stop its current from flowing
instantly.
• Also same as in the buck converter, the inductance
reduces current ripple in the circuit and the
capacitance reduces output voltage ripple. During
TON when the transistor M2 is closed, the
inductance L is charged.
• Then when M2 is open, during TOFF , the inductor
will release its charge through M1.
• The longer the transistor is on (closed) the higher the
voltage over the inductor will grow and theoretically
with ideal components, it could grow to infinity. In
reality this is not the case since the inductance will
eventually get saturated.
The operation of the boost converter is based on the
same principle as buck converter, using the fact that
an inductor can not stop its current from flowing
instantly.
• Also same as in the buck converter, the inductance
reduces current ripple in the circuit and the
capacitance reduces output voltage ripple. During
TON when the transistor M2 is closed, the
inductance L is charged.
• Then when M2 is open, during TOFF , the inductor
will release its charge through M1.
• The longer the transistor is on (closed) the higher the
voltage over the inductor will grow and theoretically
with ideal components, it could grow to infinity. In
reality this is not the case since the inductance will
eventually get saturated.
Buck-boost converter
• In some applications, like the one this thesis
work is researching, it is necessary to be able to
push current in both directions.
• For example in an electric powered vehicle
where the converter have to be able to run in
motoring mode where it powers the motor and
generator mode where its charging a battery
pack.
• This can be achieved by combining a buck
converter and a boost converter. The result is a
two quadrant buck-boost converter that can
operate either in buck mode or boost mode
depending on the situation.
The topology in Fig. is almost
the same as the ones
described in fig.
It is basically just a
combination of the two
topologies which makes it
possible for current to flow in
both ways in one converter,
thus making it bidirectional.
Note that swapping position
of M1 and L makes the buck-
boost converter become a
boost-buck converter.
• This device is less expensive and easy to
handle. It varies the voltage that again
converts into DC through rectifiers.
• This device is less expensive and easy to
handle. It varies the voltage that again
converts into DC through rectifiers.
• Operation of a DC-DC
Converter
The switching technique
is commonly used for the
operation of converters.
Switched-operated DC-DC
converter transforms DC
voltage from one level to
another based on
applications demands;
the output voltage can
thus be higher or lower
than the input value.
• During conversion, the converter stores
energy for some time and provides the
output at different levels.
• The energy is stored in conductors’
transformers in form of a magnetic field and
in capacitors in form of an electrical field.
• Switching voltage conversion is easier to
process and more energy efficient than
linear voltage conversion, where power is
dissipated in heat
• DC-DC converter characteristics
• The main characteristics of the converter are
described here.
• Current rating
• It is the highest value of current that the
converter can provide to the load.
• Temperature rating
• It is the highest temperature value that the DC-
DC converter must withstand during full-load
operation. The operating temperature must be
set according to the ratings, otherwise, the
converter can be damaged and overheated
• Ripple voltage
• This value defines the ripple voltage on the output of
the converter. Must be careful about these ratings
during operations.
• Voltage rating
• DC-DC converter comes with some limits that define
the voltage transformation ability of the converter.
• Converter size and weight
• Since switching converters can work at higher
frequencies, they can be designed with a small
footprint. During the design of the converter, a
compromise between the size of the circuitry and its
efficiency shall be found.
• DC-DC Converters for Electric Vehicles
• Many different types of vehicles moving
around us generate air pollution, global
warming, and depletion of the earth’s
resources.
• To solve these issues, a solution is to replace
conventional vehicles with EVs, Hybrid
vehicles, and fuel-cell electric vehicles.
• Electric and hybrid vehicles use two types of
energy storage devices.
• The first one is MES (Multi-Function Energy
Storage), used to store high energy, while the
second one is a rechargeable energy storage
system (RESS) which provides high power
capability ad reversibility.
• MES provides a high driving range and RESS
has fine regenerative braking and
acceleration system.
• Energy storage device changes output
voltage based on load and the high voltage
of the DC link creates problems for vehicle
engineers during the configuration of energy
storage components with traction drive.
• DC-DC converters can be used for interfacing
components in electrical power trains.
• Automobile converters must be light, small,
reliable, effective, and produce low
electromagnetic interference.
• Types of DC-DC converters for electric vehicle
• In Figure, we can see the different types of
converters used in electric vehicles.
• It shows how at least one DC-DC converter
interfaces the DC link with the fuel cell battery or
super capacitors module.
• Electric vehicles have different energy sources, like
fuel cells and battery super capacitors.
• In EVs, one or more energy storage devices are
used.
• That reduces the overall cost and volume and
provides good operation.
• Commonly used energy storages are batteries and
super capacitors
• These devices are configured with fuel cell
stacks in different configurations.
The normal configuration is a direct
connection of two modules in parallel
combination: fuel cell or battery, fuel cell
or super capacitors, or battery or super
capacitors.
In this method, power is used not in
control but can be measured through
component impedance value.
Impedance depends on different
parameters such as efficiency and device
health condition.
• The voltage parameters also match the two
components’ specifications.
• This is the case of a fuel cell/battery combination,
where the fuel cell must have the same power during
the complete time due to the fixed voltage of the
battery.
• In the case of a battery or super capacitors
combination, only very small energy exchange
features of capacitors can be used.
• This is all about the constant value of battery voltage.
• The DC-DC converter output voltage can be selected
and the power of every device can be regulated
• DC-DC converter is a power conversion circuit that
transforms energy at different levels and stores
energy in magnetic and electrical fields. Here,
different types of DC-DC converters applied to EVs
will be discussed.
• Non-isolated converters
• The non-isolated converters are used for applications
where voltage is increased or decreased in a ratio of
4:1. With that, the output and input have no
dielectric isolation.
• Non-isolated converters also have sub-types: charge
pump, buck, cuk, buck-boost, buck, and boost.
• Buck is used for voltage decrease and boost for
voltage increase, or step-up.
• Buck-boost and Cuk converters are used for voltage
increase and decrease.
• The charge pump converter is used for voltage step-
up and voltage inversion and is part of some projects
• Magnetic Converters
• DC-DC converters store energy periodically and
release it as a magnetic field in inductors or
transformers with a frequency value of three
hundred kilohertz to ten-kilo megahertz.
• Through stability, the duty cycle of charging the
amount of power required to transmit the load can
be controlled.
• With that control can be used across the input and
output current and for maintaining the constant
power through circuitry.
• A converter having a transformer can provide the
operation between input and output
• Isolated converters
• In these converters, the high-frequency transformer
is used.
• For applications where output is completely
separated from input, this converter is used.
• There are different types of isolated converters such
as half-bridge, full-bridge, fly black forward, and
push-pull DC-DC converters.
• These converters can be used as a bi-directional
converter
Properties of EV DC-DC converter
• The efficiency of the converter used for the vehicle
must be high
• The converter must have a small size and less weight
• There is less electromagnetic interference
• There is less ripple drawn from the fuel cell
• The function must provide the voltage rise or step-up
function
• The regulation of the converter flow of power
provides the different voltage changes in the
converter input
• Advantages of DC-DC converter
• The use of converters simplifies the circuitry of the
power supply
• The use of converters deceased the space of battery
in circuits and projects
• It provides organized output in both negative and
positive polarities
• DC controls circuits use this device and voltage
regulators use this module
• It comes in hybrid circuits that have all components
of circuits in a single structure or casing
• It is helpful for the extension of voltage when
needed
• The main benefit of this device is that it provides isolation
• Disadvantages of DC-DC converter
• These converters cause noise during the
operation
• It has a high ripple current and high loess
and a high value of input and output
capacitance
• The circuitry of converters is expensive
• These circuits provide unsteady voltage and
current supply.
• Motor Control System of an EV
Motor controllers play a critical role in the
control of traction motors in electric vehicles
(EVs). The motor controller regulates the
flow of electric current to the motor, which
determines the speed and torque generated
by the motor.
The main function of the motor controller is
to convert the DC power supplied by the
battery into AC power, which is then
supplied to the motor.
• Motor Control System of an EV
The motor controller adjusts the voltage,
frequency, and waveform of the AC power to
control the speed and torque of the motor.

To regulate the flow of electric current, the

motor controller uses pulse width modulation
(PWM) techniques, which vary the duration of
the voltage applied to the motor.
By controlling the voltage and frequency, the
motor controller can regulate the speed of
the motor and the torque generated.
• Motor Control System of an EV
• The motor controller also monitors various
parameters such as the motor speed, temperature,
and current to ensure that the motor operates
within its safe operating limits.
• In the case of an overcurrent or over-temperature
situation, the motor controller can shut down the
motor to protect it from damage.
• In addition, the motor controller can also be
programmed to provide different driving modes,
such as sport or eco, which can adjust the torque
and speed of the motor to optimize the driving
experience.
In summary, the motor controller plays a
crucial role in the control of traction motors
in EVs, as it regulates the flow of electric
current to the motor, adjusts the torque
generated, and monitors the operating
parameters of the motor to ensure safe and
efficient operation.
• Motor Control System of an EV
• In summary, the motor controller plays a
crucial role in the control of traction motors in
EVs, as it regulates the flow of electric current
to the motor, adjusts the torque generated, and
monitors the operating parameters of the motor
to ensure safe and efficient operation.
• Rectifiers used in EVs
• In electric vehicles (EVs), rectifiers are crucial
components used primarily in the charging systems
and inverter circuits. Here are the main types of
rectifiers commonly used in EVs:
• Rectifiers for On-Board Chargers (OBC):
• Silicon Diode Rectifiers: These are commonly used
for rectifying AC voltage from the charging station to
DC voltage suitable for the battery pack. They are
reliable and cost-effective but less efficient
compared to other types
Silicon-Controlled Rectifiers (SCRs):
Also known as thyristors, SCRs are used in high-power
applications where precise control of the charging
current and voltage is required. They offer better
efficiency and power handling capabilities than diode
rectifiers.
• Rectifiers in Inverters:
– IGBT Rectifiers: Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistors
(IGBTs) are used in the rectification stage of the
inverter that converts DC power from the battery
into AC power to drive the electric motor. IGBTs
are chosen for their ability to handle high currents
and voltages efficiently.
• MOSFET Rectifiers:
Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor Field-Effect Transistors
(MOSFETs) are also used in some high-
frequency inverters due to their fast switching
speeds and lower conduction losses compared
to IGBTs
• Regenerative Braking Rectifiers:
– In EVs, during regenerative braking, energy
generated by the electric motor is fed back into
the battery. Rectifiers play a role in efficiently
converting this AC voltage generated by the motor
back into DC voltage suitable for charging the
battery.
• These rectifiers are critical for ensuring
efficient energy conversion and
management in electric vehicles,
contributing to overall performance,
range, and energy efficiency.
Applications of Inverter:
➢ adjustable-speed ac drives
➢ Induction heating,
➢ stand by air-craft power supplies,
➢ UPS (uninterruptible power supplies) for
computers,
➢ HVDC transmission lines
Inverters are AC converters used to convert the DC input
into a sinusoidal AC output with variable frequency and
amplitude.
Inverter Switch Control The inverter output voltage
can be shaped based on the switch ON/OFF
control that use with the inverter. Thus, two types
of switch control can be used which are
• Square Wave Scheme
• PWM variable width Scheme
Voltage Source Inverter can operate in two modes:
Square wave mode.
PWM (Pulse width modulation) mode.

Voltage source inverter is available in three configurations

–
single-phase half-bridge,
 single-phase full-bridge, and three phase.
Single phase voltage source inverters are ideally used in
high power supplies, active filters, and single-phase UPS
applications whereas three phase voltage source inverters
are used in adjustable speed drives (ASDs), UPS, flexible
AC transmission systems (FACTS) devices such as the
STATCOM, and PV generators.
Single Phase Half-Bridge Voltage Source Inverter
The circuit diagram of a single-phase HB-VSI with a load is shown below
Single Phase Half-Bridge Voltage Source Inverter
The circuit diagram of a single-phase HB-VSI with a load is shown below

In this type of topology, one thyristor T1 conducts

for half of the time period and the other thyristor T2
conducts for the other half of the time period of the
output waveform.
The diodes are connected anti-parallel with the
thyristor and will allow the current to flow when the
main thyristor is turned off.
Diode D1 will conduct when the voltage is positive
and the current is negative, and diode D2 will conduct
when the voltage is negative, and the current is
positive.
Single Phase Half-Bridge Voltage Source Inverter
The circuit diagram of a single-phase HB-VSI with a load is shown below

It is especially useful in the case of non-resistive loads.

When the diode conducts, the energy is fed back to the DC
source and hence, these diodes (D1 & D2) are called
flyback diodes

Each thyristor is triggered via its gate. While

analyzing the circuit, it is assumed that each thyristor
conducts for the duration its gate pulse is present and
is commutated as soon as this pulse is removed.
The gating signal for thyristor T1 (ig1) and thyristor
T2 (ig2) and the output voltage waveform of this
inverter are shown below.
It can be observed that ig1 is applied for a period of
0 <t≤ (T/2), the thyristor T1 conducts during this
period and the load is directly connected to the
source Vs/2 on the upper arm of the circuit and the
output voltage equals Vs/2 during this time. ig1 is
removed at time T/2, thyristor T1 gets turned off, ig2
is applied and thyristor T2 starts conducting.

 The load is then connected directly to the -Vs/2 on

the lower arm (it has the opposite polarity as
compared to the upper arm). The output voltage is
now -Vs/2 as shown in the waveform above.
Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) Techniques
A common control method in power
electronics for managing the output voltage of
converters, particularly DC/AC inverters, is
pulse width modulation (PWM).

The basic concept behind PWM is to adjust

the output pulse width in order to regulate the
average output voltage. With PWM, a fixed DC
input voltage source can produce a sinusoidal
output waveform with variable frequency and
amplitude.
 Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) Techniques

An inverter whose functionality depends upon

the pulse width modulation technology is referred to as
PWM inverters.

These are capable of maintaining the output voltages

as the rated voltages depending on the country
irrespective of the type of load connected.

This can be achieved by changing the switching

frequency width at the oscillator.
PWM Inverter Circuit Diagram
Circuit diagram of PWM inverter is given in the
below diagram
PWM Inverter Circuit Diagram
Circuit diagram of PWM inverter is given in the
below diagram
Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) Techniques

PWM methodologies in inverters provide

fine control over the output voltage waveform
in VSIs, enabling accurate voltage regulation
as well as current regulation.

 This is vital for numerous applications

where precise voltage control is necessary for
top performance, including motor drives,
renewable energy systems, and
uninterruptible power supplies (UPS).
Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) Techniques

With the usage of PWM, it is also possible to

control the output waveform's harmonic distortions
which ultimately leads to improved power quality
and lowering system losses.

In contrast to the fundamental square-wave

modulation techniques, PWM in inverters offers
advantages in terms of improved control over
output voltage, frequency, and harmonics.
Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) Techniques

Types of PWM Techniques

PWM comes in a variety of forms for single-phase
inverters.
These cleverly designed procedures take into
account the inverters' activity in only permitted
switching states in order to prevent any potential
damage.
To prevent the source from being shorted, for
instance, the switches in the same leg of VSIs are
never switched on.
The typical PWM methods for full-bridge single
phase inverters are listed below.
Single-Pulse Width Modulation