Electromagnetic Waves

Electromagnetic Waves
Lecture Notes
Erkan Afacan
Gazi Üniversitesi
Mühendislik Fakültesi
Maltepe/Ankara
12 Temmuz 2024
Version 1.0
Contents
1 TIME–VARYING FIELDS AND MAXWELL’S EQUATIONS 1

1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic Induction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.3 Maxwell’s Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.4 Electromagnetic Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.5 Potential Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
1.6 Wave Equations and eir Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
1.7 Time-Harmonic Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
2 PLANE ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES 44

2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
2.2 Plane Waves in Lossless Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
2.3 Transverse Electromagnetic Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
2.4 Normal Incidence at a Plane Conducting Boundary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
2.5 Oblique Incidence at a Plane Conducting Boundary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
2.6 Normal Incidence at a Plane Dielectric Boundary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
2.7 Oblique Incidence at a Plane Dielectric Boundary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
2.8 Total Reflection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
2.9 Total Transmission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
REFERENCES 89
ii
1 TIME–VARYING FIELDS AND
MAXWELL’S EQUATIONS
1.1 Introduction
Electrostatic Model:
∇ × ~E = 0 (1.1)
~ =ρ
∇·D (1.2)
~E : electric field intensity (V/m)

~ : electric flux density (C/m2 )
D
ρ : charge density (C/m3 )
For linear (doğrusal) and isotropic (yön bağımsız) media we have
~ = ~E
D (1.3)
e electric field intensity ~E for an electrostatic model is conservative (∇ × ~E = 0) and

can be expressed as the gradient of a scalar potential.
~E = −∇V (Electrostatic model) (1.4)
Magnetostatic Model:
~ =0
∇·B (1.5)
~ = ~J
∇×H (1.6)
~ : magnetic flux density (T = Wb/m2 )

B
~ : magnetic field intensity (A/m)
H
~J : current density (A/m2 )
For linear and isotropic media we have
~ = µH
B ~ (1.7)
A changing magnetic field gives rise to an electric field, and a changing electric field gives
rise to a magnetic field.
1
2 ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
1.2 Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic Induction

Fundamental Postulate for Electromagnetic Induction
~
∂B
∇ × ~E = − (1.8)
∂t
e electric field intensity ~E in a region of time–varying magnetic flux density B

~ is non-
conservative (∇ × ~E 6= 0) and cannot be expressed as the gradient of a scalar potential. We
will see that
~E = −∇V + ? (Time–varying fields) (1.9)
Now, we will obtain the integral form of Faraday’s law (Eq. 1.8). We will use Stokes’
theorem.
Z I
~
(∇ × A) · d~s = ~ · d~`
A (1.10)
S C
Taking the surface integral of both sides of Eq. 1.8 over an open surface we have
Z ~
∂B
Z
(∇ × ~E) · d~s = − · d~s (1.11)
S S ∂t
Applying Stokes’ theorem

Z I
~
(∇ × E) · d~s = ~E · d~` (1.12)
S C
I Z ~
∂B
~E · d~` = − · d~s (Faraday’s law) (1.13)
C S ∂t
Erkan AFACAN, Gazi Üniversitesi, Mühendislik Fakültesi, Maltepe/Ankara

ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES 3
A Stationary Circuit in a Time–Varying Magnetic Field

For a stationary circuit with a contour C and surface S we have
I Z
~E · d~` = − ∂ ~ · d~s
B (1.14)
C ∂t S
Let’s define
I
V = ~E · d~` (1.15)
C
where V is the electromotive force (em) induced in a circuit with contour C (V), and
Z
Φ= ~ · d~s
B (1.16)
S
where Φ is the magnetic flux crossing surface S (Wb). So we have
dΦ
V =− (Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction) (1.17)
dt
e electromotive force induced in a stationary closed circuit is equal to the negative rate
of increase of the magnetic flux linking the circuit.
e induced emf will cause a current to flow in the closed loop in a such a direction as to
oppose the change in the linking magnetic flux.
e current induced by the changing flux is called the induced current. e negative sign
is known as Lenz’s law.
~
B
Let’s assume that the flux through a circuit C is decreasing.

dΦ
< 0, V >0 (1.18)
dt
en by Lenz’s law, the induced emf produces a current I in the circuit which gives rise to a
magnetic field so directed as to increase the flux through C.

~
B
e reverse situation is shown in the following figure when the flux through C is increas-
ing.
dΦ
> 0, V <0 (1.19)
dt
~
B
e change in flux can occur for a variety of reasons. For instance

i) the magnetic induction field B ~ may be changing in time,
ii) the size or shape of the circuit may be altering,
iii) the circuit may be moving in a manner which continually alters the flux passing through
it.
Example 1.1 A circular loop (çembersel halka) of N turns (sarım) of conducting wire lies in
the x − y plane with its center at the origin of a magnetic field specified by
~ = âz B0 cos πr sin ωt

B (1.20)
2b
where b is the radius of the loop and ω is the angular frequency. Find the emf induced in the
loop.
Solution
N turns

b
x
~
B

B
2b
dΦ
V =− (1.21)
dt
Z
Φ= ~ · d~s
B (1.22)
S

B (1.23)
2b
d~s = âz r dφ dr (1.24)
âz · âz = 1 (1.25)
~ · d~s = B0 cos πr sin ωt [r dφ dr]
h i
B (1.26)
2b
Z 2π Z b πr
Φ= B0 cos sin ωt r dr dφ (1.27)
0 0 2b
Z 2π Z b πr
Φ = B0 sin ωt dφ cos r dr (1.28)
0 0 2b
Z 2π
dφ = 2π (1.29)
0
Z b πr
Φ = 2π B0 sin ωt cos r dr (1.30)
0 2b
Z b πr
I= r cos dr (1.31)
0 2b
πr 2b
u= ⇒r= u (1.32)
2b π
π 2b
du = dr ⇒ dr = du (1.33)
2b π
Z
2b 2b
I= u cos(u) du (1.34)
π π
2 Z
2b
I= u cos u du (1.35)
π

Z
J= x cos x dx (1.36)
Z Z
u dv = uv − v du (integration by parts) (1.37)
u=x dv = cos x dx (1.38)
du = dx v = sin x (1.39)
Z
J = x sin x − sin x dx = x sin x + cos x (1.40)
2 2
2b 2b
I= J= (u sin u + cos u) (1.41)
π π
2 h
2b πr πr πr ib
I= sin + cos (1.42)
π 2b 2b 2b 0
2
2b πb πb πb
I= sin + cos
π 2b 2b 2b
(1.43)
π0 π0 π0
− sin − cos
2b 2b 2b
2 h
2b π π π i
I= sin + cos − 0 − cos(0) (1.44)
π 2 2 2
2 h
2b π i
I= −1 (1.45)
π 2
Z b πr
Φ = 2π B0 sin ωt cos r dr (1.46)
0 2b
2
2b π
Φ = 2π B0 sin ωt −1 (1.47)
π 2
8b2 π
Φ= − 1 B0 sin ωt (1.48)
π 2
dΦ
V =− (1.49)
dt
8b2 π
V = −ω − 1 B0 cos ωt (for one turn) (1.50)
π 2
8b2 π
V = −N ω − 1 B0 cos ωt (V) (for N turns) (1.51)
π 2
Transformers
A transformer is an alternating current (a-c) device that transforms voltages, currents and
impedances. A transformer consists of two or more coils (sargı) coupled magnetically through
a common ferromagnetic core (çekirdek).
i1 (t)
i2 (t)
+
+
v1 (t) N1 N2 v2 (t) RL
−
−
Φ
A transformer
For any closed path in a magnetic circuit

X X
Nj Ij = Rk Φk (1.52)
j k
e algebraic sum of ampere-turns (amper-sarım) around a closed path in a magnetic circuit

is equal to the algebraic sum of the products of the reluctances and fluxes.
For the closed path in the magnetic circuit traced by magnetic flux Φ
N1 i1 − N2 i2 = R Φ (1.53)
N1 : the number of turns in the primary circuit

N2 : the number of turns in the secondary circuit
i1 : the current in the primary circuit (A)
i2 : the current in the secondary circuit (A)
R : reluctance of the magnetic circuit (manyetik direnç) (1/H)

e induced magnetomotive force (mm) in the secondary circuit N2 i2 , opposes the flow
of the magnetic flux Φ created by the mmf in the primary circuit N1 i1 . e reluctance of the
ferromagnetic core is
`
R= (1.54)
µS
` : length of the core (m)
S : cross-sectional area of the core (m2 )
µ : permeability (manyetik geçirgenlik) of the core (H/m)
`
N1 i1 − N2 i2 = R Φ = Φ (1.55)
µS
Ideal Transformer
For an ideal transformer we assume that µ → ∞. So
N1 i1 − N2 i2 = 0 (1.56)
i1 N2
= (1.57)
i2 N1
e ratio of the currents in the primary and secondary windings (sargı) of an ideal transformer
is equal to the inverse ratio of the numbers of turns.
From Faraday’s law
dΦ
v1 = −N1 (1.58)
dt
dΦ
v2 = −N2 (1.59)
dt
So, we have
v1 N1
= (1.60)
v2 N2
e ratio of the voltages across the primary and secondary windings of an ideal transformer
is equal to the turns ratio.
When the secondary winding is terminated in a load resistance RL , the effective load seen
by the source connected to primary winding is
v2 N 1
2 2
v1 N2 v2 N1 N1
(R1 )eff = = N2 = = RL (1.61)
i1 i2 N1 i2 N2 N2
where
v2
RL = (1.62)
i2
In a similar way, for a sinusoidal source v1 (t) and a load impedance ZL , the effective load
seen by the source is
2
N1
(Z1 )eff = ZL (1.63)
N2

A Moving Conductor in a Static Magnetic Field

When a conductor moves with a velocity ~u in a static (non-time-varying) magnetic field B, ~ a
force ~Fm = q ~u × B
~ will cause the free electrons in the conductor to dri towards one end of
the conductor.
2
−−
~Fm
~u
~
~u × B ~
q ~u × B (q negative)
~u
++
~
B
1
To an observer moving with the conductor there is no apparent motion, and the magnetic
force per unit charge ~Fm /q = ~u × B
~ can be interpreted as an induced electric field acting along
the conductor and producing a voltage
Z 2
V21 = ~ · d~`
(~u × B) (1.64)
1
If the moving conductor is a part of closed circuit C, then the emf generated around the circuit
is
I
0
V = ~ · d~` (V)
(~u × B) (1.65)
C
Example 1.2
~ = âz B0 with
A metal bar slides over a pair of conducting rails in a uniform magnetic field B
a constant velocity ~u, as shown in figure.
a) Determine the open circuit-voltage V0 that appears across the terminals 1 and 2.
b) Assuming that a resistance R is connected between the terminals, find the electric power
dissipated in R.
c) Show that this electric power is equal to the mechanical power required to move the sliding
bar with a velocity ~u.
y
10
−−
1 ~Fm
+
R V0 h ~u ~
B
−
2
++
x
20

Solution
a) Solution I
I Z 10
V0 = V1 − V2 = ~ · d~` =
(~u × B) ~ · d~`
(~u × B) (1.66)
C 20
y
~ = âx u × âz B0 = −ây u B0
~u × B (1.67)
d~` = ây dy (1.68)

Z h h
V0 = (−) u B0 dy = −u B0 y = −u B0 h (V) (1.69)
0 0
Solution II
Z
Φ= ~ · d~s
B (1.70)
S
~ = âz B0
B (1.71)
d~s = âz dx dy (1.72)
~ · d~s = B0 dx dy
B (1.73)
Z hZ x
Φ= B0 dx dy = B0 h x (1.74)
0 0
x = ut (distance = velocity × time) (1.75)
Φ = B0 h u t (1.76)
dΦ
V =− = −B0 h u (V) (1.77)
dt
y
−
I V0 B0 hu
uB0 h (V) I= =
+ R R
b)
V0 (V0 )2 (u B0 h)2
Pe = I V 0 = (V0 ) = = (Wa) (1.78)
R R R
c)
Work = Force × Distance (1.79)
Work Force × Distance Distance

Power = = = Force × (1.80)
Time Time Time
Power = Force × Velocity (1.81)
Mechanical power
Pmech = ~Fmech · ~u (1.82)
~Fmech is the mechanical force required to counteract the magnetic force ~Fm , which the magnetic
field exerts on the current carrying metal bar.
I
~Fm = I d~` × B
~ (1.83)
C
d~` is in the direction of current flow.
d~` = ây dy (1.84)
~ = âz B0
B (1.85)
d~` × B
~ = (ây × âz ) B0 dy = âx B0 dy (1.86)
I is in clockwise direction.
Z 10 h
~Fm = −I âx B0 dy = −âx I B0 y = −âx I B0 h (magnetic force) (1.87)
20 0
~Fmech = −~Fm = âx I B0 h (1.88)
Pmech = ~Fmech · ~u = (âx I B0 h) · (âx u) = I B0 h u (1.89)

V0 (B0 h u)
I= = (1.90)
R R
(B0 h u)2

B0 h u
Pmech = (B0 h u) = (Wa) (1.91)
R R
Pmech = Pe (1.92)
Example 1.3
e Faraday disk generator consists of a circular metal disk rotating with a constant angular
velocity ω in a uniform and constant magnetic flux density B ~ = âz B0 that is parallel to the
axis of rotation. Brush contacts are provided at the axis and on the rim of the disk. Determine
the open-circuit voltage of the generator if the radius of the disk is b.

1 10
~
B ~
B
+
V0
−
2 20 4
φ
3
ω
Faraday disk generator
Solution I
Z
Φ= ~ · d~s
B (1.93)
S
~ = âz B0
B (1.94)
d~s = âz r dφ dr (1.95)

~ · d~s = B0 dφ r dr
B (1.96)
ω
φ dφ
φ = ωt, ω=
dt
Z Z bZ ωt
Φ= ~ · d~s =
B B0 dφ r dr (1.97)
S 0 0
Z ωt Z b
Φ = B0 dφ r dr (1.98)
0 0
Z ωt
dφ = ωt (1.99)
0
b
b2
Z
r dr = (1.100)
0 2
1 2
Φ= b B0 ω t (1.101)
2
dΦ 1
V0 = − = − b2 B0 ω (1.102)
dt 2
Solution II
I
V0 = ~ · d~`
(~u × B) (1.103)
C
~u = ω r âφ (1.104)
~ = âz B0
B (1.105)
~ = âr ω r B0
~u × B (1.106)
d~` = d~r = âr dr (1.107)
~ · d~` = B0 ω r dr
~u × B (1.108)
Z 4 Z 0 0
1 2
V0 = B0 ω r dr = ω B0 r dr = ω B0 r (1.109)
3 b 2 b
1
V0 = − b2 B0 ω (1.110)
2
Example 1.4
An h by w rectangular conducting loop is situated in a changing magnetic field B~ = ây B0 sin ωt.
e normal of the loop initially makes an angle α0 with ây . Find the induced emf in the loop a)
when the loop is at rest, b) when the loop rotates with an angular velocity ω about the x-axis.
z
h
~
B
− α0
x
+ ω
y
I ân
a) Perspective view

z
~
B
~u
ω
y
ân
~u
~
B
b) View from +x direction
Solution
a)
dΦ
V =− (1.111)
dt
Z
Φ= ~ · d~s
B (1.112)
S
~ = ây B0 sin ωt
B (1.113)
d~s = ân ds = ân dx dz (1.114)
ây · ân = cos α0 (1.115)
~ · d~s = B0 cos α0 sin ωt dx dz
B (1.116)
Z w/2 Z h/2
Φ= B0 cos α0 sin ωt dx dz (1.117)
−w/2 −h/2
Z w/2 Z h/2
Φ = B0 cos α0 sin ωt dx dz (1.118)
−w/2 −h/2
Z w/2 Z h/2
dx dz = w h = S (area of the loop) (1.119)
−w/2 −h/2
Φ = B0 S cos α0 sin ωt (1.120)

dΦ
V =− = −ω B0 S cos α0 cos ωt (1.121)
dt
If the circuit is completed through an external load, V will produce a current that will oppose
the change in Φ.
b)
dΦ
V =− (1.122)
dt
Z
Φ= ~ · d~s
B (1.123)
S

~ = ây B0 sin ωt
B (1.124)
d~s = ân ds = ân dx dz (1.125)

ân rotates with angular velocity ω, so the angle between ân and ây changes with time.
α = α0 + ωt (1.126)
ây · ân = cos α = cos(α0 + ωt) (1.127)

Φ = B0 S cos(α0 + ωt) sin ωt (1.128)
dΦ d
V =− = −B0 S [cos(α0 + ωt) sin ωt] (1.129)
dt dt
d
[cos(α0 + ωt) sin ωt] = −ω sin(α0 + ωt) sin ωt + ω cos(α0 + ωt) cos ωt (1.130)
dt
V = −B0 S [−ω sin(α0 + ωt) sin ωt + ω cos(α0 + ωt) cos ωt] (1.131)
V = −ω B0 S [cos(α0 + ωt) cos ωt − sin(α0 + ωt) sin ωt] (1.132)
cos(x + y) = cos x cos y − sin x sin y (1.133)
V = −ω B0 S cos[(α0 + ωt) + ωt] (1.134)
V = −ω B0 S cos(α0 + 2ωt) (1.135)
V = −ω B0 S cos(2ωt + α0 ) (1.136)
1.3 Maxwell’s Equations

Differential form of Maxwell’s equations
~
∂B
∇ × ~E = − (1.137)
∂t
~
~ = ~J + ∂ D
∇×H (1.138)
∂t
~ =ρ
∇·D (1.139)
~ =0
∇·B (1.140)
∂ρ
∇ · ~J = − (Equation of continuity; conservation of charge) (1.141)
∂t

~E : electric field intensity (V/m)

~ : magnetic flux density (T = Wb/m2 )
B
~ : magnetic field intensity (A/m)
H
~ : electric flux density (C/m2 )
D
~J : current density (A/m2 )
ρ : volume charge density (C/m3 )
~F = q (~E + ~u × B)
~ (Lorentz’s force equation) (1.142)
ese four Maxwell’s equations, together with the equation of continuity and Lorentz’s
force equation, form the foundation of electromagnetic theory. ese equations can be used
to explain and predict all macroscopic electromagnetic phenomena.
∂D~
e term is called displacement current density (deplasman akımı; yer değiştirme
∂t
akımı).
Derivation of equation of continuity

~
~ = ~J + ∂ D
∇×H (1.143)
∂t
~ =0
∇ · (∇ × A) (Identity II) (1.144)
!
∂ ~
D
~ = ∇ · ~J +
∇ · (∇ × H) (1.145)
∂t
~ =0
∇ · (∇ × H) (1.146)
!
∂ ~
D
∇ · ~J + =0 (1.147)
∂t
∂D~
∇ · ~J + ∇ · =0 (1.148)
∂t
∂
∇ · ~J + (∇ · D) ~ =0 (1.149)
∂t
∂ρ
∇ · ~J + =0 (1.150)
∂t
∂ρ
∇ · ~J = − (1.151)
∂t
Integral form of Maxwell’s equations

Z I
~ · d~s =
(∇ × A) ~ · d~`
A (Stokes’ theorem) (1.152)
S C
1)
~
∂B
∇ × ~E = − (1.153)
∂t
Z Z ~
∂B
(∇ × ~E) · d~s = − · d~s (1.154)
S S ∂t
I Z ~
∂B
~E · d~` = − · d~s (Faraday’s law) (1.155)
C S ∂t
I Z
~E · d~` = − ∂ ~ · d~s = − dΦ
B (1.156)
C ∂t S dt
2)
~
~ = ~J + ∂ D
∇×H (1.157)
∂t
!
~
~J + ∂ D
Z Z
~ · d~s =
(∇ × H) · d~s (1.158)
S S ∂t
!
~
~J + ∂ D
I Z
~ · d~` =
H · d~s (Ampere’s circuital law) (1.159)
C S ∂t
I Z Z ~
∂D
Z ~
∂D
~ · d~` =
H ~J · d~s + · d~s = I + · d~s (1.160)
C S S ∂t S ∂t
Z I
~ dv =
(∇ · A) ~ · d~s
A (Divergence theorem) (1.161)
V S
S
3)
∇·D~ =ρ (1.162)
Z Z
~
(∇ · D) dv = ρ dv (1.163)
V V
I Z
~ · d~s =
D ρ dv (Gauss’s law) (1.164)
S V
I Z
~ · d~s =
D ρ dv = Q (1.165)
S V
4)
∇·B~ =0 (1.166)
Z Z
~ dv =
(∇ · B) 0 dv (1.167)
V V
I
~ · d~s = 0
B (No isolated magnetic charge) (1.168)
S
Example 1.5
An ac voltage source of amplitude V0 and angular frequency ω, vc = V0 sin ωt, is connected
across a parallel-plate capacitor C1 , as shown in figure. a) Verify that the displacement current
in the capacitor is the same as the conduction current in the wires. b) Determine the magnetic
field intensity at a distance r from the wire.
S1 S2 C1
ic
C
iD
+ vc −

Solution
a)
dvc
ic = C1 (conduction current in the wires) (1.169)
dt
d
ic = C1 (V0 sin ωt) = ω V0 C1 cos ωt (1.170)
dt
Z ~
∂D
iD = · d~s (displacement current in the capacitor) (1.171)
S ∂t
A = surface area
d
A
C1 = (1.172)
d
vc
E= (1.173)
d
vc
D = E = = V0 sin ωt (1.174)
d d
∂D V0
= ω cos ωt (1.175)
∂t d
y
x
~ = D âx
D (1.176)
d~s = âx dy dz (1.177)

∂D~ ∂D V0
= âx = âx ω cos ωt (1.178)
∂t ∂t d
∂D~ V0
· d~s = ω cos ωt dy dz (1.179)
∂t d
Z Z Z Z
V0 V0
iD = ω cos ωt dy dz = ω cos ωt dy dz (1.180)
d d
Z Z
dy dz = A (1.181)
A
iD = V0 ω cos ωt = C1 V0 ω cos ωt (1.182)
d
ic = iD = ω V0 C1 cos ωt (1.183)
e displacement current is equal to the conduction current.

b) e magnetic field intensity at a distance r from the conducting wire can be found by
applying the generalized Ampere’s circuital law:
I Z Z ~
∂D
~ · d~` =
H ~J · d~s + · d~s (1.184)
C S S ∂t
S1 S2
ic
C
iD
~ = 0, because no charges are

First let’s choose planar disk surface S1 for S. For this case D
deposited along the wire. So we have
I Z
~ · d~` =
H ~J · d~s (1.185)
C S1
I Z 2π Z 2π
~ · d~` =
H (Hφ âφ ) · (r dφ âφ ) = Hφ r dφ = Hφ 2πr (1.186)
C 0 0
Z
~J · d~s = ic = ω V0 C1 cos ωt (1.187)
S1
C1 V0
⇒ Hφ = ω cos ωt (1.188)
2πr
Now let’s choose curved surface S2 passing through dielectric medium.
I Z ~
∂D
~ · d~` =
H · d~s = iD (1.189)
C S2 ∂t
⇒ Hφ 2πr = ω V0 C1 cos ωt (1.190)

C1 V0
⇒ Hφ = ω cos ωt (1.191)
2πr
1.4 Electromagnetic Boundary Conditions

Conditions on the Tangential Components of ~E and H
~
~
∂B
∇ × ~E = − (1.192)
∂t
Z ~
~E · d~` = − ∂ B · d~s
I
(Faraday’s law) (1.193)
C S ∂t

y
E1x E2x
E1y ∆y E2y
∆x/2
1 , µ1 , σ1 2 , µ2 , σ2
E3x E4x
x
Region 1 Region 2
Suppose the surface of discontinuity to be the plane x = 0 as shown in figure. Consider

the small rectangle of width ∆x and length ∆y enclosing a small portion of each media (1)
and (2).
I Z ~
∂B
~E · d~` = − · d~s (1.194)
C S ∂t
d~s = âz dx dy = âz ∆x ∆y (1.195)
∆x ∆x ∆x ∆x ∂Bz
E2y ∆y − E2x − E1x − E1y ∆y + E3x + E4x =− ∆x ∆y (1.196)
2 2 2 2 ∂t
Bz is the average magnetic flux density through the rectangle ∆x ∆y. Now let ∆x → 0.
So we obtain
E2y ∆y − E1y ∆y = 0 (1.197)
E1y = E2y (1.198)
e tangential components of an ~E field is continuous across an interface.
E1y − E2y = 0 (1.199)
ân × (~E1 − ~E2 ) = 0 (1.200)

ân = −âx : outward unit normal from medium 2 at the interface.
~E1 = âx E1x + ây E1y + âz E1z (1.201)
~E2 = âx E2x + ây E2y + âz E2z (1.202)

ân × (~E1 − ~E2 ) =
= −âx × (âx E1x + ây E1y + âz E1z − âx E2x − ây E2y − âz E2z )
(1.203)
= −âz E1y + ây E1z + âz E2y − ây E2z
= ây (E1z − E2z ) + âz (E2y − E1y ) = 0

⇒ E1y = E2y (1.204)

⇒ E1z = E2z (1.205)
!
~
~J + ∂ D
I Z
~ · d~` =
H · d~s (Ampere’s circuital law) (1.206)
C S ∂t
y
H1x H2x
H1y ∆y H2y
∆x/2
1 , µ1 , σ1 2 , µ2 , σ2
H3x H4x
x
Region 1 Region 2
I
H~ · d~` = H2y ∆y − H2x ∆x − H1x ∆x − H1y ∆y + H3x ∆x + H4x ∆x (1.207)
C 2 2 2 2
I
lim ~ · d~` = H2y ∆y − H1y ∆y
H (1.208)
∆x→0 C
Z
~J · d~s = ~J · âz ∆x ∆y d~s = âz ∆x ∆y (1.209)
S
Z
lim ~J · d~s = lim [~J · âz ∆x ∆y] = lim [(~J ∆x) · âz ∆y] (1.210)
∆x→0 S ∆x→0 ∆x→0
lim ~J ∆x = ~Js (1.211)

∆x→0
~J : volume current density (A/m2 )

~Js : surface current density (A/m) (current sheet)
Z
lim ~J · d~s = ~Js · âz ∆y = Jsz ∆y (1.212)
∆x→0 S
~Js · âz = Jsz (z component of ~Js )

Z ~
∂D ∂Dz
lim · d~s = lim ∆x ∆y = 0 (1.213)
∆x→0 S ∂t ∆x→0 ∂t
⇒ H2y ∆y − H1y ∆y = Jsz ∆y (1.214)

H2y − H1y = Jsz (1.215)
~ field is discontinuous across an interface where a sur-

e tangential components of an H
face current exists.
H2y − H1y = Jsz (1.216)
~1−H
ân × (H ~ 2 ) = ~Js (1.217)
ân = −âx : outward unit normal from medium 2 at the interface.
~ 1 = âx H1x + ây H1y + âz H1z

H (1.218)
~ 2 = âx H2x + ây H2y + âz H2z

H (1.219)
~Js = âx Jsx + ây Jsy + âz Jsz (1.220)
~1 − H
ân × (H ~ 2) =
= −âx × (âx H1x + ây H1y + âz H1z − âx H2x − ây H2y − âz H2z )
(1.221)
= −âz H1y + ây H1z + âz H2y − ây H2z
= ây (H1z − H2z ) + âz (H2y − H1y ) = ~Js
⇒ H2y − H1y = Jsz (1.222)
⇒ H1z − H2z = Jsy (1.223)
~ and D
Conditions on the Normal Components of B ~
â1n D1n
∆s
1 , µ1 , σ1 ∆x/2 Medium 1
2 , µ2 , σ2 ∆x/2 Medium 2
â2n D2n
I Z
~ · d~s =
D ρ dv (1.224)
S V
~ · â1n ∆s + D
D ~ · â2n ∆s + Ψedge = ρ ∆x ∆s (1.225)
D1n ∆s − D2n ∆s + Ψedge = ρ ∆x ∆s (1.226)
Ψedge : the outward electric flux through the curved edge surface of the pillbox.

lim Ψedge = 0 (1.227)

∆x→0
lim ρ ∆x = ρs (1.228)
∆x→0
ρ : volume charge density (C/m3 )

ρs : surface charge density (C/m2 )
D1n ∆s − D2n ∆s = ρs ∆s (1.229)
D1n − D2n = ρs (1.230)
~ field is discontinuous across an interface where a surface

e normal component of a D
charge exists.
~1 −D
ân · (D ~ 2 ) = ρs (1.231)
ân : outward unit normal from medium 2 at the interface.
â1n B1n
∆s
1 , µ1 , σ1 ∆x/2 Medium 1
2 , µ2 , σ2 ∆x/2 Medium 2
â2n B2n
I
~ · d~s = 0
B (1.232)
S
In a similar way
~ · â1n ∆s + B
B ~ · â2n ∆s + Φedge = 0 (1.233)
Φedge : the outward magnetic flux through the curved edge surface of the pillbox.
lim Φedge = 0 (1.234)

∆x→0
B1n ∆s − B2n ∆s = 0 (1.235)
B1n = B2n (1.236)
~ field is continuous across an interface.

e normal component of a B

Interface Between Two Lossless Linear Media

A lossless linear medium can be specified by a permiivity and permeability µ, with σ = 0.
We set ρs = 0, ~Js = 0.
1
µ1 ân
σ1 = 0 Medium 1
2 Medium 2
µ2
σ2 = 0
D1t D2t D1t 1

E1t = E2t ⇒ = ⇒ = (1.237)
1 2 D2t 2
B1t B2t B1t µ1
H1t = H2t ⇒ = ⇒ = (1.238)
µ1 µ2 B2t µ2
D1n = D2n ⇒ 1 E1n = 2 E2n (1.239)
B1n = B2n ⇒ µ1 H1n = µ2 H2n (1.240)
Interface Between a Dielectric and a Perfect Conductor

1
µ1 ân
σ1 = 0 Medium 1
2 Medium 2
µ2 (Perfect conductor)
σ2 → ∞
In the interior of a perfect conductor the electric field is zero, and charges reside on the
surface only.
~E2 = 0
~2 =0
H
(1.241)
~2 = 0
D
~2 = 0
B
E1t = E2t = 0
ân × (H~1−H ~ 2 ) = ~Js ⇒ ân × H~ 1 = ~Js
(1.242)
~1 −D
ân · (D ~ 2 ) = ρs ⇒ ân · D~ 1 = ρs
B1n = B2n = 0
ân : outward unit normal from medium 2 at the interface.

1.5 Potential Functions

~
Wave Equation for Vector Potential A
~ =0
∇·B (4th Maxwell’s equation) (1.243)
~ =0
∇ · (∇ × A) (Identity II) (1.244)
~ is solenoidal (∇ · B
B ~ = 0). So B
~ can be expressed as the curl of another vector field.
B ~
~ =∇×A (1.245)
~ is called the vector magnetic potential (Wb/m).

e vector field A
~
∂B
∇ × ~E = − (1st Maxwell’s equation) (1.246)
∂t
∂ ~
∇ × ~E = − (∇ × A) (1.247)
∂t
!
∂ ~
A
∇ × ~E + =0 (1.248)
∂t
∇ × (∇V ) = 0 (Identity I) (1.249)
~
~E + ∂ A = − ∇V (1.250)
∂t
~
~E = − ∇V − ∂ A (V/m) (1.251)
∂t
~
∂D
~ = ~J +
∇×H (2nd Maxwell’s equation) (1.252)
∂t
B ~
~ =∇×A (1.253)
~
~E = − ∇V − ∂ A (1.254)
∂t
Let’s substitute Eqs. 2.341 and 2.343 into Eq. 1.252 and make use of the constitutive rela-
tions.
~
~ =B
H (1.255)
µ
~ = ~E
D (1.256)
For a homogenous medium we have
!
~
B ∂ ~
∇× = ~J + ( E) (1.257)
µ ∂t

" !#
~
∂A

1 ~ ∂
∇× ∇×A = ~J +
− ∇V − (1.258)
µ ∂t ∂t
!
1 ∂ ∂ ~
A
∇×∇×A~ = ~J + − ∇V − (1.259)
µ ∂t ∂t
!
∂ ∂ ~
A
∇×∇×A~ = µ ~J + µ − ∇V − (1.260)
∂t ∂t
~ = ∇(∇ · A)
∇×∇×A ~ − ∇2 A
~ (1.261)
!
~
∂A
∇(∇ · A) ~ = µ ~J + µ ∂
~ − ∇2 A − ∇V − (1.262)
∂t ∂t
!
~
∂A
~ − ∇2 A
∇(∇ · A) ~ = µ ~J + µ ∂ (− ∇V ) − µ ∂ (1.263)
∂t ∂t ∂t
~
∂ 2A

~ −∇ A ~ = µ ~J − ∇ µ ∂V
∇(∇ · A) 2
− µ 2 (1.264)
∂t ∂t
2~
~ − µ ∂ A

~ + ∇ µ ∂V − µ ~J = ∇2 A
∇(∇ · A) (1.265)
∂t ∂t2
~
∂ 2A

2~ ~ ∂V
∇ A − µ 2 = ∇(∇ · A) + ∇ µ − µ ~J (1.266)
∂t ∂t
~
∂ 2A

2~ ~ + µ ∂V
∇ A − µ 2 = ∇ ∇ · A − µ ~J (1.267)
∂t ∂t
e definiton of a vector requires the specification of both its curl and its divergence. e
~ is equal to B,
curl of A ~ = B).
~ i.e. (∇ × A ~ We can choose the divergence of A ~ as follows:
~ + µ ∂V
∇·A =0 (Lorentz condition for potentials) (1.268)
∂t
So we obtain
~
∂ 2A
~
∇ A − µ 2 = −µ ~J
2
(1.269)
∂t
~
is is the nonhomogenous wave equation for vector potential A
Wave Equation for Scalar Potential V

Now let’s derive the wave equation for scalar potential V .
~
~E = − ∇V − ∂ A (1.270)
∂t
~ =ρ
∇·D (1.271)

~ = ~E
D (1.272)
∇ · ( ~E) = ρ (1.273)
" #!
∂A~
∇· − ∇V − =ρ (1.274)
∂t
!
~
∂A
−∇ · ∇V + =ρ (1.275)
∂t
For a constant , we obtain
!
∂A~
− ∇ · ∇V + =ρ (1.276)
∂t
!
~
∂A ρ
∇· ∇V + =− (1.277)
∂t
∇ · (∇V ) = ∇2 V (1.278)
∂ ~ = −ρ
∇2 V + (∇ · A) (1.279)
∂t
Using Lorentz condition
~ + µ ∂V = 0
∇·A (1.280)
∂t
∇·A~ = −µ ∂V (1.281)

∂t

∂ ∂V ρ
2
∇V + −µ =− (1.282)
∂t ∂t
∂ 2V ρ
∇2 V − µ = − (1.283)
∂t2
is is the nonhomogenous wave equation for scalar potential V .
1.6 Wave Equations and Their Solutions

For given charge and current distributions, ρ and ~J, we first solve the following nonhomoge-
neous wave equations for potentials V and A.~
∂ 2V ρ
∇2 V − µ 2
=−
∂t
~
∂ 2A
~ − µ
∇2 A = −µ ~J
∂t2

~ determined, ~E and B
With V and A ~ can be found from the following equations by differ-
entiation.
~
~E = − ∇V − ∂ A
∂t
~
~ =∇×A
B
Solution of Wave Equations for Potentials

We now consider the solution of the nonhomogeneous wave equation for scalar electric po-
tential V .
∂ 2V ρ
∇2 V − µ 2
=− (1.284)
∂t
First, let’s find the solution for a point charge at time t, located at the origin of the coordinates.
en by summing the effects of all charge elements in a given region we can find the total
solution. For a point charge at the origin it is convenient to use spherical coordinates. Because
of spherical symmetry, V depends only on R and t (not on θ and φ). V (R, t) satisfies the
following homogenous equation:
∂ 2V

1 ∂ 2 ∂V 1 ∂ ∂V 1
2
∇V = 2 R + 2 sin θ + 2 2 (1.285)
R ∂R ∂R R sin θ ∂θ ∂θ R sin θ ∂φ2

1 ∂ 2 ∂V
2
∇V = 2 R (1.286)
R ∂R ∂R
∂ 2V

1 ∂ 2 ∂V
R − µ =0 (Except at the origin) (1.287)
R2 ∂R ∂R ∂t2
Let’s introduce a new variable
1
V (R, t) =U (R, t) (1.288)
R
∂U

R−U

∂V ∂ U
= = ∂R
(1.289)
∂R ∂R R R2
∂V ∂U
R2 =R −U (1.290)
∂R ∂R
∂V 1 ∂U
= (1.291)
∂t R ∂t
2
∂ V 1 ∂ 2U
= (1.292)
∂t2 R ∂t2
1 ∂ 2U

1 ∂ ∂U
R − U − µ =0 (1.293)
R2 ∂R ∂R R ∂t2
∂ 2 U ∂U ∂ 2U

∂ ∂U ∂U
R −U = +R − = R (1.294)
∂R ∂R ∂R ∂R2 ∂R ∂R2

1 ∂ 2U

1 ∂ ∂U
R −U = (1.295)
R2 ∂R ∂R R ∂R2
1 ∂ 2U 1 ∂ 2U
− µ =0 (1.296)
R ∂R2 R ∂t2
∂ 2U ∂ 2U
− µ =0 (1.297)
∂R2 ∂t2
One-dimensional homogeneous wave equation.

R
U =f t− (1.298)
c

R
U =f t+ does not corresspond to a physically useful solution. So we have
c

R 1
U (R, t) = f t − , c= √ (1.299)
c µ
1
is represents a wave traveling in the positive R direction with a velocity c = √ .
µ
1
V (R, t) = U (R, t) (1.300)
R

1 R
V (R, t) = f t − (1.301)
R c
It can be also shown that
1
V (R, t) = f (R − c t) (1.302)
R
f
t=0 t = ∆t
f (R) f (R − c ∆t)
R
Direction of wave propagation
c ∆t

q R V (R, t)
Source Observation point
At an
instant t, the potential at a distance R is a function of the charge that existed at the
R R
instant t − . A time interval ∆t = elapses before an observer at a distance R from the
c c
charge is able to notice any change occuring in the charge. is potential is therefore referred
to as the retarded (gecikmeli) scalar
potential.

R
To determine the function f t − more precisely, let us consider a point very close to
c
the charge. In this case, the retardation may be ignored. If the charge varies according to the
law q(t), the potential is
q(t)
V (R, t) = (Close to the charge) (1.303)
4πR
We have found the solution of wave equation as

1 R
V (R, t) = f t − (1.304)
R c
Comparing the last two equations we see that,
q t − Rc

R
f t− = (1.305)
c 4π
e resulting potential created by a varying point charge is
q t − Rc

1
V (R, t) = , c= √ (1.306)
4πR µ
e retarded potential at a point due to a cloud of charges of density ρ(t) is given by
R

ρ t−
Z
1
V (R, t) = c
dv 0 (V) (1.307)
4π V0 R
Retarded scalar potential

In a similar way
Z ~
J t − Rc

~ µ
A(R, t) = dv 0 (Wb/m) (1.308)
4π V0 R
Retarded vector potential

e electric and magnetic fields in the case of varying charges and currents need some time
to change at points distant from the sources. In the quasi-static approximation we ignore this
time-retardation effect and assume instant response. is assumption is implicit in dealing
with circuit problems.

q R
R
t=0 ∆t =
c
Source-Free Wave Equations

In problems of wave propagation we are interested in how an electromagnetic wave propa-
gates in a source-free region where ρ and ~J are both zero. In a simple (linear, isotropic,ho-
mogeneous) nonconducting medium (σ = 0) characterized by and µ, Maxwell’s equations
reduce to
~
∂B
∇ × ~E = − (1.309)
∂t
~ = µH
B ~ (1.310)
~
∂H
∇ × ~E = −µ (1.311)
∂t
~
~ = ~J + ∂ D
∇×H (1.312)
∂t
~ = ~E
D (1.313)
~J = 0 (1.314)
~
~ = ∂E
∇×H (1.315)
∂t

~ =ρ
∇·D (1.316)
ρ=0 (1.317)
~ = ~E
D (1.318)
∇ · ~E = 0 (1.319)
~ =0
∇·B (1.320)
~ = µH
B ~ (1.321)
~ =0
∇·H (1.322)
~
∂H
∇ × ~E = −µ (1.323)
∂t
!
~
∂H
∇ × (∇ × ~E) = −µ ∇ × (1.324)
∂t
!
∂ ~ = −µ ∂ ∂ ~E ∂ 2~E
∇ × (∇ × ~E) = −µ (∇ × H) = −µ (1.325)
∂t ∂t ∂t ∂t2
∇ × ∇ × ~E = ∇(∇ · ~E) − ∇2 ~E (1.326)

∇ · ~E = 0 (1.327)
∇ × ∇ × ~E = −∇2 ~E (1.328)
∂ 2~E
−∇2 ~E = −µ 2 (1.329)
∂t
∂ 2~E
∇2 ~E − µ 2 = 0 (1.330)
∂t
1
c= √ (1.331)
µ
1 ∂ 2~E
∇2 ~E − =0 (1.332)
c2 ∂t2
Homogeneous vector wave equation

In a similar way
~
1 ∂ 2H
~ −
∇2 H =0 (1.333)
c2 ∂t2
Homogeneous vector wave equation

1.7 Time-Harmonic Fields

The Use of Phasors
For time harmonic (steady-state sinusoidal) fields it is convenient to use a phasor notation.
R L
e(t) C
i(t)
Z
di 1
Ri+L + i dt = e(t) (1.334)
dt C
e(t) = E cos ωt = Re E ejωt (peak value) (1.335)

i(t) = I cos(ωt + φ) = Re I ejφ ejωt (peak value) (1.336)

Re : the real part of

di(t) jφ d jωt
= Re I e = Re jωI ejφ ejωt (1.337)

e
dt dt
Z Z
1
i(t) dt = Re I e e dt = Re
jφ jωt
Ie ejφ jωt
(1.338)
jω

1 1
R Re I e e + L Re jωI e e + Re = Re E ejωt (1.339)
jφ jωt jφ jωt jφ jωt

Ie e
C jω

1
R + jωL + I ejφ = E (1.340)
jωC
Example 1.6
Express 3 cos ωt − 4 sin ωt as first a) A1 cos(ωt + θ1 ); b) A2 sin(ωt + θ2 ). Determine A1 , θ1 , A2
and θ2 .
Solution
a)
◦
3 cos ωt = Re 3 ej0 ejωt (1.341)

cos(x + y) = cos x cos y − sin x sin y (1.342)

cos(x − y) = cos x cos y + sin x sin y (1.343)
cos(x − 90◦ ) = cos x cos(90◦ ) + sin x sin(90◦ ) (1.344)
cos(x − 90◦ ) = (cos x) (0) + (sin x) (1) = sin x (1.345)

◦
sin ωt = cos(ωt − 90◦ ) = Re e−j90 ejωt (1.346)

◦ ◦ ◦
−4 sin ωt = −4 cos(ωt − 90◦ ) = Re 4 ej180 e−j90 ejωt = Re 4 ej90 ejωt (1.347)

◦ ◦
3 cos ωt − 4 sin ωt = Re 3 ej0 ejωt + Re 4 ej90 ejωt (1.348)

◦ ◦
3 cos ωt − 4 sin ωt = Re 3 ej0 + 4 ej90 ejωt (1.349)

3 cos ωt − 4 sin ωt = Re (3 + j4) ejωt (1.350)

h −1 (4/3)
i
3 cos ωt − 4 sin ωt = Re 5 ej tan ejωt (1.351)
◦
3 cos ωt − 4 sin ωt = Re 5 ej53.13 ejωt (1.352)

3 cos ωt − 4 sin ωt = 5 cos(ωt + 53.13◦ ) (1.353)
A1 = 5, θ1 = 53.13◦
b)
3 cos ωt − 4 sin ωt = A2 sin(ωt + θ2 ) (1.354)
sin ωt → 1 ∠ 0◦ (1.355)
−4 sin ωt → 4 ∠ 180◦ (1.356)
sin(x + y) = sin x cos y + cos x sin y (1.357)
sin(x + 90◦ ) = sin x cos(90◦ ) + cos x sin(90◦ ) = cos x (1.358)
cos ωt = sin(ωt + 90◦ ) → 1 ∠ 90◦ (1.359)
3 cos ωt → 3 ∠ 90◦ (1.360)
3 ∠ 90◦ + 4 ∠ 180◦ = j3 − 4 = −4 + j3 = 5 ∠ (− tan−1 3/4) = 5 ∠ 143.13◦ (1.361)
3 cos ωt − 4 sin ωt = 5 sin(ωt + 143.13◦ ) (1.362)
A2 = 5, θ2 = 143.13◦

Time-Harmonic Electromagnetics
We can write a time-harmonic ~E-field as
h i
~E(x, y, z, t) = Re ~E(x, y, z) ejωt (peak value) (1.363)
where ~E(x, y, z) is a vector phasor that contains information on direction, magnitude and
phase.
d~E

~ d h
~
i
= Re E(x, y, z) e jωt
= Re jω E(x, y, z) ejωt
(1.364)
dt dt
d~E
→ jω~E (1.365)
dt
d2~E 2

~ d h
2~
i
= Re E(x, y, z) 2 ejωt
= Re −ω E(x, y, z) e jωt
(1.366)
dt2 dt
d2~E
→ −ω 2~E (1.367)
dt2
" #
~
E(x,
Z Z Z
h i
~E dt = Re ~E(x, y, z) ejωt dt = Re ~E(x, y, z) ejωt dt = Re y, z)
ejωt (1.368)
jω
~
~E dt → E
Z
(1.369)
jω
We can write time-harmonic Maxwell’s equations in terms of vector field phasors (~E, H) ~
and source phasors (ρ, ~J) in a simple (linear, isotropic, and homogeneous) medium as follows:
~
∂B
∇ × ~E = − → ∇ × ~E = −jω B
~ ⇒ ∇ × ~E = −jωµ H
~ (1.370)
∂t
~
∇×H~ = ~J + ∂ D →∇×H~ = ~J + jω D
~ ~ = ~J + jω ~E
⇒∇×H (1.371)
∂t
ρ
~ =ρ
∇·D ~ =ρ
→∇·D ⇒ ∇ · ~E = (1.372)

~ =0
∇·B ~ =0
→∇·B ⇒∇·H ~ =0 (1.373)
∇ × ~E = −jωµ H
~ (1.374)
~ = ~J + jω ~E
∇×H (1.375)
ρ
∇ · ~E = (1.376)

~ =0
∇·H (1.377)

~
∂ 2A
~ − µ
∇2 A = −µ ~J (1.378)
∂t2
~
Nonhomogeneous wave equation for vector potential A.
~ − µ (−ω 2 A)
⇒ ∇2 A ~ = −µ ~J (1.379)
~ + µ ω 2 A
⇒ ∇2 A ~ = −µ ~J (1.380)
k 2 = ω 2 µ (1.381)
√ ω
k = ω µ = (1.382)
c
k : wavenumber
~ + k2 A
∇2 A ~ = −µ ~J (1.383)
Nonhomogeneous Helmholtz’s equation.
∂ 2V ρ
2
∇ V − µ 2 = − (1.384)
∂t
Nonhomogeneous wave equation for scalar potential V .
ρ
⇒ ∇2 V − µ (−ω 2 V ) = − (1.385)

ρ
⇒ ∇2 V + µ ω 2 V = − (1.386)

ρ
∇2 V + k 2 V = − (1.387)

Nonhomogeneous Helmholtz’s equation.
Lorentz condition
~ + µ ∂V = 0
∇·A ~ + jωµ V = 0
→∇·A (1.388)
∂t
e phasor solution of nonhomogeneous Helmholtz’s equation

Z ~
J t − Rc

~ µ
A(R, t) = dv 0 (1.389)
4π V 0 R
h i
~J(x, y, z, t) = Re ~J(x, y, z) ejωt (1.390)

h i
~J(x, y, z, t − R/c) = Re ~J(x, y, z) ejω(t−R/c) (1.391)
ejω(t−R/c) = ejωt e−jωR/c = ejωt e−jkR (1.392)
k = ω/c (1.393)
h i
~J(x, y, z, t − R/c) = Re ~J(x, y, z) e−jkR ejωt (1.394)
~J(t − R/c) → ~J e−jkR (1.395)
Z ~ −jkR
~ µ Je
A(R) = dv 0 (Wb/m) (1.396)
4π V0 R
In a similar way
ρ e−jkR 0
Z
1
V (R) = dv (V) (1.397)
4π V0 R
e procedure for determining the electric and magnetic fields due to time harmonic
charge and current distributions is as follows:
~
1) Find phasors V (R) and A(R).
ρ e−jkR 0
Z
1
V (R) = dv (1.398)
4π V0 R
Z ~ −jkR
~ µ Je
A(R) = dv 0 (1.399)
4π V 0 R
2) Find ~E(R) and B(R).

~
~
~E = − ∇V − ∂ A → ~E(R) = − ∇V − jω A
~ (1.400)
∂t
B ~ → B(R)
~ =∇×A ~ ~
=∇×A (1.401)
3) Find instantaneous ~E(R, t) and B(R,

~ t).
h i
~E(R, t) = Re ~E(R) ejωt (1.402)
h i
~
B(R, ~
t) = Re B(R) ejωt (1.403)

Source-Free Fields in Simple Media

General Maxwell’s equations are given as follows:
∇ × ~E = −jωµ H
~ (1.404)
~ = ~J + jω ~E
∇×H (1.405)
ρ
∇ · ~E = (1.406)

~ =0
∇·H (1.407)
In a simple, nonconducting source-free medium (ρ = 0, ~J = 0, σ = 0) the time-harmonic

Maxwell’s equations are
∇ × ~E = −jωµ H
~ (1.408)
~ = jω ~E
∇×H (1.409)
∇ · ~E = 0 (1.410)
~ =0
∇·H (1.411)
∇ × ~E = −jωµ H
~ (1.412)
∇ × ∇ × ~E = −jωµ ∇ × H
~ = −jωµ (jω ~E) = ω 2 µ~E (1.413)
∇ × ∇ × ~E − ω 2 µ~E = 0 (1.414)
∇ × ∇ × ~E = ∇(∇ · ~E) − ∇2 ~E (1.415)
∇ · ~E = 0 (1.416)
−∇2 ~E − ω 2 µ~E = 0 (1.417)
∇2 ~E + ω 2 µ~E = 0 (1.418)
∇2 ~E + k 2~E = 0 (1.419)
Homogeneous vector Helmholtz’s equation

√ ω
k = ω µ = (1.420)
c
In a similar way
~ + k2H
∇2 H ~ =0 (1.421)
Homogeneous vector Helmholtz’s equation

Example 1.7
Show that if (~E, H)
~ are solutions of source–free Maxwell’s equations in a simple medium
characterized by and µ, then so also are (~E0 , H
~ 0 ) where
~E0 = η H
~ (1.422)
~
~ 0 = −E
H (1.423)
η
r
µ
In the above equation η = is called the intrinsic impedance of the medium.

Solution
e following equations are satisfied.
∇ × ~E = −jωµ H
~ (1.424)
∇×H~ = jω ~E (1.425)

~E0
~
H= (1.426)
η
~E = −η H~0 (1.427)
∇ × ~E = −jωµ H
~ (1.428)
~E0
~ 0 ) = −jωµ
∇ × (−η H (1.429)
η
η∇×H ~ 0 = j ωµ ~E0 (1.430)
η
~0 =j ωµ ~E0
∇×H (1.431)
η2
µ µ
2
= = (1.432)
η µ/
∇×H ~ 0 = jω ~E0 (2nd Maxwell0 s equation) (1.433)
~ = jω ~E
∇×H (1.434)
~E0
∇× = jω (−η H~ 0) (1.435)
η
∇ × ~E0 = −jω η 2 H~0 (1.436)
µ
η2 = = µ (1.437)

~ 0
∇ × E = −jωµ H ~0 (1st Maxwell0 s equation) (1.438)
∇ · ~E = 0 ⇒ ∇ · (−η H ~ 0) = 0 ⇒ ∇ · H~0 =0 (1.439)

!
~E0
∇·H ~ =0⇒∇· = 0 ⇒ ∇ · ~E0 = 0 (1.440)
η

Wave Equation in a Conducting Medium

If the simple medium is conducting (σ 6= 0), a current
~J = σ~E (1.441)
will flow and we obtain
~ = ~J + jω ~E = σ~E + jω ~E

∇×H (1.442)
~ = (σ + jω) ~E
∇×H (1.443)

~ = jω + σ ~E
∇×H (1.444)
jω
∇×H ~ = jωc ~E (1.445)
σ σ
c = + =−j (F/m) (1.446)
jω ω
Maxwell’s equations in a simple, conducting medium
∇ × ~E = −jωµ H
~ (1.447)
~ = jωc ~E
∇×H (1.448)
∇ · ~E = 0 (1.449)
~ =0
∇·H (1.450)
c can be wrien as
c = 0 − j00 (F/m) (1.451)
where
σ
00 = (1.452)
ω
In a lossy dielectric medium, the real wave number k, changes to a complex wave number
√ p
kc = ω µc = ω µ (0 − j00 ) (1.453)
00
e ratio 0 is called the loss tangent (kayıp tanjantı). It is a measure of the power loss
in the medium.
00
tan δc = (1.454)
0
0 ' (1.455)
σ
00 σ
tan δc = = ω = (1.456)
ω
e quantity δc is called the loss angle (kayıp açısı).

σ
c = − j (1.457)
ω
A medium is said to be a good conductor if
σ
(1.458)
ω
In this case
σ
c ' −j (1.459)
ω
A medium is said to be a good insulator if
σ
(1.460)
ω
In this case
c ' (1.461)
For moist ground (nemli toprak)
r = 10 (1.462)
σ = 10−2 (S/m) (1.463)

At f = 1 KHz
σ σ 10−2
= = (1.464)
ω ωr 0 (2π × 103 )(10)(10−9 /36π)
σ
= 18000 Relatively good conductor (1.465)
ω
At f = 10 GHz
σ σ 10−2
= = (1.466)
ω ωr 0 (2π × 1010 )(10)(10−9 /36π)
σ
= 1.8 × 10−3 Moist ground behaves like an insulator (1.467)
ω
Example 1.8
A sinusoidal electric field intensity of amplitude 250 (V/m) and frequency 1 GHz exists in a
lossy dielectric medium that has a relative permiivity of 2.5 and loss tangent of 0.001. Find
the average power dissipated in the medium per cubic meter.
Solution
Average power dissipated per cubic meter
Vp Ip 1
P = Vrms Irms = √ √ = Vp Ip (1.468)
2 2 2

P P 1 Vp Ip 1
= = = EJ (1.469)
∆V ∆x ∆y ∆z 2 ∆x ∆y ∆z 2
J = σE (1.470)
P 1
= σE 2 (1.471)
∆V 2
r = 2.5 (1.472)
00
= 0.001 loss tangent (1.473)
0
f = 109 Hz (1.474)
E = 250 (V/m) (1.475)
σ
00 = ⇒ σ = ω00 (1.476)
ω
σ = ω (0.0010 ) (1.477)
σ = (2π × 109 ) (0.0010 ) (1.478)
10−9
0 = = r 0 = (2.5) (1.479)
36π
10−9
σ = (2π × 109 ) (0.001) (2.5) (1.480)
36π
σ = 1.39 × 10−4 (S/m) (1.481)
P 1 1
= σE 2 = (1.39 × 10−4 ) (250)2 (1.482)
∆V 2 2
P
= 4.34 (W/m3 ) (1.483)
∆V
For microwave oven f = 2.45 GHz = 2.45 × 109 Hz.

r = 40
for beefsteak (1.484)
tan δc = 0.35
σ σ
tan δc = = = 0.35 (1.485)
ω ωr 0
10−9

9
σ = 0.35 ωr 0 = 0.35 (2π × 2.45 × 10 ) (40) (1.486)
36π
σ = 1.91 (S/m) (1.487)
P 1 1
= σE 2 = (1.91) (250)2 = 59600 (W/m3 ) = 59.6 (kW/m3 ) (1.488)
∆V 2 2

2 PLANE ELECTROMAGNETIC
WAVES
2.1 Introduction
A uniform plane wave (düzlemsel dalga) is a particular solution of Maxwell’s equations with
~E (H)
~ assuming the same direction, same magnitude, and same phase in infinite planes per-
pendicular to the direction of propagation.
2.2 Plane Waves in Lossless Media

We focus our aention on wave behavior in the sinusoidal steady state. We will investigate
the solutions of the homogeneous vector Helmholtz’s equation in free space.
∇2 ~E + k02 ~E = 0 (2.1)
k0 : free-space wavenumber
rad

√ ω
k0 = ω µ0 0 = (2.2)
c m
~E = âx Ex + ây Ey + âz Ez (2.3)
∇2 Ex + k02 Ex = 0 (2.4)
∇2 Ey + k02 Ey = 0 (2.5)
∇2 Ez + k02 Ez = 0 (2.6)
For Ex component we have
∇2 Ex + k02 Ex = 0 (2.7)
∂ 2 Ex ∂ 2 Ex ∂ 2 Ex
+ + + k02 Ex = 0 (2.8)
∂x2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2
Consider a uniform plane wave characterized by a uniform Ex (uniform magnitude and
constant phase) over plane surfaces perpendicular to z; that is
∂ 2 Ex
=0 (2.9)
∂x2
∂ 2 Ex
=0 (2.10)
∂y 2
In this case we have
d2 Ex
+ k02 Ex = 0 (2.11)
dz 2
44
Ex (z) = Ex+ (z) + Ex− (z) (2.12)
Ex (z) = E0+ e−jk0 z + E0− ejk0 z (2.13)
E0+ , E0− : arbitrary complex constants

E0+ and E0− are determined by boundary conditions.
Ex+ (z, t) = Re Ex+ (z) ejωt (2.14)

Ex+ (z, t) = Re E0+ e−jk0 z ejωt (2.15)

Ex+ (z, t) = E0+ cos(ωt − k0 z) (V/m) (2.16)
t = 0 ⇒ Ex+ (z, 0) = E0+ cos(−k0 z) = E0+ cos(k0 z) (2.17)

π π π
t= +
⇒ Ex z, = E0 cos
+
− k0 z = E0+ sin(k0 z) (2.18)
2ω 2ω 2
π π
t = ⇒ Ex+ z, = E0+ cos(π − k0 z) = −E0+ cos(k0 z) (2.19)
ω ω
e curve travels in the +z direction and we have a traveling wave.
1
t=0
0.5
Ex+ (z, t)
−0.5
−1
0 π 2π 3π 4π 5π
k0 z
1
t = π/2ω
0.5
Ex+ (z, t)
−0.5
−1
0 π 2π 3π 4π 5π
k0 z

1
t = π/ω
0.5
Ex+ (z, t)
−0.5
−1
0 π 2π 3π 4π 5π
k0 z
1
t=0
t = π/2ω
0.5 t = π/ω
Ex+ (z, t)
−0.5
−1
0 π 2π 3π 4π 5π
k0 z
1
ωt = 0.0
0.5
Ex+ (z, t)
−0.5
−1
0 π 2π 3π 4π 5π
k0 z
Ex+ (z, t) = E0+ cos(ωt − k0 z) (2.20)

Let’s fix our aention on a particular point on the wave:
cos(ωt − k0 z) = constant (2.21)
⇒ ωt − k0 z = constant phase (2.22)

dz
up = (phase velocity) (2.23)
dt
d
(ωt − k0 z) = 0 (2.24)
dt
dz
ω − k0 =0 (2.25)
dt
dz ω ω 1
= = w =c= √ (2.26)
dt k0 c
µ0 0
up = c (2.27)
e velocity of propagation of equiphase front (the phase velocity) in free space is equal to the
velocity of light. e term E0− ejk0 z represents a cosinusoidal wave traveling in −z direction
with velocity c.
Ex+ (z) = E0+ e−jk0 z (2.28)
~
Now let’s find H.
∇ × ~E = −jωµ0 H
~ (2.29)
âx ây âz

∇ × ~E = ∂
∂x
∂
∂y
∂
∂z
(2.30)
Ex Ey Ez

∂E z ∂E y ∂E z ∂E x ∂E y ∂E x
∇ × ~E = âx − − ây − + âz − (2.31)
∂y ∂z ∂x ∂z ∂x ∂y
Ex = Ex+ (z) = E0+ e−jk0 z (2.32)
Ey = 0 (2.33)
Ez = 0 (2.34)
∂Ex
=0 (2.35)
∂y
∂Ex ∂Ex+ (z) ∂ + −jk0 z
∇ × ~E = ây = ây = ây E e (2.36)
∂z ∂z ∂z 0
∇ × ~E = ây (−jk0 ) E0+ e−jk0 z = ây (−jk0 ) Ex+ (z) (2.37)
1
~ =
H ∇ × ~E (2.38)
−jωµ0

~ = 1
H ây (−jk0 ) Ex+ (z) (2.39)
−jωµ0
~ = ây Hy+
H (2.40)
k0 +
Hy+ (z) = E (z) (2.41)
ωµ0 x
ω √
µ0 0
r
k0 1 0 1
= c
= = = = (2.42)
ωµ0 ωµ0 cµ0 µ0 µ0 η0
r
µ0
η0 , = 120π ' 377 (Ω) (2.43)
0
η0 : the intrinsic impedance of the free space

1 +
Hy+ (z) = E (z) (A/m) (2.44)
η0 x
Hy+ (z, t) = Re Hy+ (z) ejωt (2.45)

1 + −jk0 z jωt
Hy (z, t) = Re
+
E e e (2.46)
η0 0
E0+
Hy+ (z, t) = cos(ωt − k0 z) (A/m) (2.47)
η0
~E(z, t) = âx Ex+ = âx E0+ cos(ωt − k0 z) (V/m) (2.48)
~ E+
H(z, t) = ây Hy+ = ây 0 cos(ωt − k0 z) (A/m) (2.49)
η0
For a uniform plane wave
|~E| |E + cos(ωt − k0 z)|

= 1 0+ = η0 (2.50)
~
|H| η0
|E0 cos(ωt − k 0 z)|
Example 2.1
A uniform plane wave with ~E = âx Ex propagates in a lossless simple medium (r = 4, µr =
1, σ = 0) in the +z direction. Assume that Ex is sinuosidal with a frequency 100 MHz and
has a maximum value 10−4 (V/m) at t = 0 and z = 18 m.
a) Write the instantaneous expression for ~E for any t and z.
~
b) Write the instantaneous expression for H.
c) Determine the locations where Ex is a positive maximum when t = 10−8 s.
Solution
a)
f = 100 MHz = 100 × 106 Hz = 108 Hz (2.51)
ω = 2πf = 2π × 108 (rad/s) (2.52)

~E(z, t) = âx Ex = âx E0 cos(ωt − kz + φ) (V/m) (2.53)

~E(z = 1 , t = 0) = âx E0 cos −k 1 + φ = âx 10−4 (2.54)
8 8
E0 = 10−4 (V/m)

⇒ (2.55)
cos(−k 18 + φ) = 1
√ √ √
k = ω µ = ω µ0 0 µr r (2.56)
ω√ 2πf √
k= µr r = µr r (2.57)
c c
2π × 108 p 4π
k= (1)(4) = (rad/m) (2.58)
3 × 108 3
k
− +φ=0 (2.59)
8
k 4π 1 π
φ= = = (2.60)
8 3 8 6

~E(z, t) = âx 10−4 cos 2π × 108 t − 4π z + π (2.61)
3 6

~E(z, t) = âx 10−4 cos 2π × 108 t − 4π z − 1 (V/m) (2.62)
3 8
b)
Ex
Hy = (2.63)
η
r r r r r
µ µ0 µr µ0 µr µr
η= = = = η0 (2.64)
0 r 0 r r
r
1 η0 120π
η = η0 = = = 60π (2.65)
4 2 2
Ex
Hy = (2.66)
60π
−4

~ 10 4π 1
H(z, t) = ây cos 2π × 10 t −
8
z− (A/m) (2.67)
60π 3 8
c)
t = 10−8 s (2.68)

−8 −4
~E(z, t = 10 ) = âx 10 −8 4π 1
cos 2π × 10 × 10
8
− z− (2.69)
3 8

−8 −4
~E(z, t = 10 ) = âx 10 4π 1
cos 2π − z− (2.70)
3 8


4π 1
cos 2π − zm − =1 (2.71)
3 8 max

4π 1
2π − zm − = 0, ∓2π, ∓4π, . . . , ∓2nπ (2.72)
3 8

4π 1 4π π 13π 4π
2π − zm − = 2π − zm + = − zm (2.73)
3 8 3 6 6 3
13π 4π
⇒ − zm = 0, ∓2π, ∓4π, . . . , ∓2nπ (2.74)
6 3
13π 4π
− zm = 2nπ, n ∈ Z, n = 0, ∓1, ∓2, . . . (2.75)
6 3
4π 13π
zm = − 2nπ (2.76)
3 6
13π 13π − 12nπ π
4πzm = − 6nπ = = (13 − 12n) (2.77)
2 2 2
13 − 12n
zm = , n ∈ Z, n = 0, ∓1, ∓2, . . . (2.78)
8
2π 2π 3 12
λ= = 4π = = m (2.79)
k 3
2 8
13
zm = − nλ The locations where Ex is a positive maximum (2.80)
8
For t = 0

~E(z, 0) = âx 10 −4 4π 1
cos z− (V/m) (2.81)
3 8
~ Ex (z, 0)
H(z, 0) = ây (2.82)
η
x 1/8 m
λ = 3/2 m
y Ex
Hy

2.3 Transverse Electromagnetic Waves

(Enine Elektromanyetik Dalgalar)
~E = âx Ex (2.83)
~ = ây Hy
H (2.84)
~E and H~ are perpendicular to each other, and both are transverse to the direction of propaga-
tion. It is a particular case of a transverse electromagnetic (TEM) wave. e phasor form Ex
and Hy are functions of only the distance z.
Now we consider the propagation of a uniform plane wave along an arbitrary direction
that does not necessarily coincide with a coordinate axis.
e phasor electric field intensity for a uniform plane wave propagating in the +z direction
is
~E(z) = ~E0 e−jkz (2.85)
~E0 : constant vector

x
plane of constant phase
(phase front)
M
~
R
ân
0
P
z
e phasor electric field intensity for a uniform plane wave propagating in the ân direction
is
−→
~E = ~E0 e−jk| OP| (2.86)
~ shows any
ân is the unit vector in the direction of propagation. e position vector R
point M on the phase front and it is given by
~ = âx x + ây y + âz z

R (2.87)
e equation of the plane

−→
ân · PM = 0 (2.88)
−→ −→
~ + OP = 0
PM − R (2.89)

−→ −→ −→
~ − OP = R
⇒ PM = R ~ − ân |OP| (2.90)
−→ −→
~ − ân |OP|) = 0
ân · PM = ân · (R (2.91)
−→
~ − |OP| = 0
ân · R (2.92)
−→
~
|OP| = ân · R (2.93)
−→
~E = ~E0 e−jk| OP| (2.94)
~E = ~E0 e−jk ân ·R~ (V/m) (2.95)
~ = constant is a plane of constant phase and uniform amplitude for the wave
ân · R
~E = ~E0 e−jk ân ·R~ (2.96)
As a special case let ân = âz .
~
R ân = âz
ân = âz (2.97)

~ = âx x + ây y + âz z
R (2.98)
~ =z
ân · R (2.99)
~E = ~E0 e−jk ân ·R~ = ~E0 e−jkz (2.100)
~E = ~E0 e−jk ân ·R~ (2.101)
~k = k ân = âx kx + ây ky + âz kz (2.102)

~k: wavenumber vector
~k · R
~ = (âx kx + ây ky + âz kz ) · (âx x + ây y + âz z) (2.103)
~k · R
~ = kx x + ky y + kz z (2.104)

~E = ~E0 e−j ~k·R~ = ~E0 e−j(kx x+ky y+kz z) = ~E0 e−jkx x e−jky y e−jkz z (2.105)
Let’s substitute this expression into the homogeneous Helmholtz’s equation:
∇2 ~E + k 2 ~E = 0 (2.106)
~E = ~E0 e−jkx x e−jky y e−jkz z (2.107)

ψ = e−jkx x e−jky y e−jkz z (2.108)
~E = ~E0 e−jkx x e−jky y e−jkz z = ~E0 ψ (2.109)
∇2 ~E = ∇2 (~E0 ψ) = ~E0 ∇2 ψ (2.110)
∂ 2ψ ∂ 2ψ ∂ 2ψ
∇2 ψ = + 2 + 2 (2.111)
∂x2 ∂y ∂z
∂ψ ∂(e−jkx x e−jky y e−jkz z )
= = −jkx (e−jkx x e−jky y e−jkz z ) (2.112)
∂x ∂x
∂ψ
= −jkx ψ (2.113)
∂x
∂ 2ψ

∂ ∂ψ
= (2.114)
∂x2 ∂x ∂x
∂ 2ψ ∂
2
= (−jkx ψ) (2.115)
∂x ∂x
∂ 2ψ ∂ψ
2
= −jkx = −jkx (−jkx ψ) = −kx2 ψ (2.116)
∂x ∂x
In a similar way
∂ 2ψ
= −ky2 ψ (2.117)
∂y 2
∂ 2ψ
= −kz2 ψ (2.118)
∂z 2
∂ 2ψ ∂ 2ψ ∂ 2ψ
∇2 ψ = + 2 + 2 = −kx2 ψ − ky2 ψ − kz2 ψ (2.119)
∂x2 ∂y ∂z
∇2 ψ = (−kx2 − ky2 − kz2 ) ψ (2.120)
∇2 ~E = ~E0 ∇2 ψ = ~E0 (−kx2 − ky2 − kz2 ) ψ (2.121)
∇2 ~E + k 2 ~E = ~E0 (−kx2 − ky2 − kz2 ) ψ + k 2 ~E0 ψ = 0 (2.122)
⇒ kx2 + ky2 + kz2 = k 2 = ω 2 µ (2.123)
In a charge free region
∇ · ~E = 0 (2.124)
~E = ~E0 e−jk ân ·R~ (2.125)


~
−jk ân ·R
~ ~
∇ · E = ∇ · E0 e (2.126)

~ = ψ∇·A
∇ · ψA ~ +A
~ · ∇ψ (2.127)
~ → ~E0
A (2.128)
~
ψ → e−jk ân ·R (2.129)

~
∇ · ~E = ∇ · ~E0 e−jk ân ·R (2.130)
~ ~
∇ · ~E = e−jk ân ·R ∇ · ~E0 + ~E0 · ∇e−jk ân ·R (2.131)
∇ · ~E0 = 0 (~E0 = constant vector) (2.132)

~
∇ · ~E = ~E0 · ∇e−jk ân ·R = ~E0 · ∇ψ (2.133)
~
ψ = e−jk ân ·R = e−jkx x e−jky y e−jkz z (2.134)
∂ψ ∂ψ ∂ψ
∇ψ = âx + ây + âz (2.135)
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂ψ
= −jkx ψ (2.136)
∂x
∂ψ
= −jky ψ (2.137)
∂y
∂ψ
= −jkz ψ (2.138)
∂z
∇ψ = âx (−jkx )ψ + ây (−jky )ψ + âz (−jkz )ψ (2.139)
∇ψ = −j(âx kx + ây ky + âz kz )ψ (2.140)
âx kx + ây ky + âz kz = ~k = k ân (2.141)

q
k = kx2 + ky2 + kz2 (2.142)
∇ψ = −jk ân ψ (2.143)
∇ · ~E = ~E0 · ∇ψ = ~E0 · (−jk ân ) ψ (2.144)

~
∇ · ~E = ~E0 · (−jk ân ) e−jk ân ·R = 0 (2.145)
⇒ ân · ~E0 = 0 (2.146)
~E0 is transverse to the direction of propagation. Now, let’s find H.

~
∇ × ~E = −jωµ H
~ (2.147)
~ = − 1 ∇ × ~E
H (2.148)
jωµ

~
∇ × ~E = ∇ × ~E0 e−jk ân ·R (2.149)


~ ~ + ∇ψ × A
∇ × ψA = ψ ∇ × A ~ (2.150)
~ → ~E0
A (2.151)
~
ψ → e−jk ân ·R (2.152)

~ ~ ~
∇ × ~E0 e−jk ân ·R = e−jk ân ·R ∇ × ~E0 + ∇e−jk ân ·R × ~E0 (2.153)
∇ × ~E0 = 0 (~E0 = constant vector) (2.154)

~
∇ × ~E = ∇e−jk ân ·R × ~E0 (2.155)
~ ~
∇e−jk ân ·R = ∇ψ = −jk e−jk ân ·R ân (2.156)
~
∇ × ~E = −jk e−jk ân ·R ân × ~E0 (2.157)
~
∇ × ~E = −jk ân × ~E0 e−jk ân ·R (2.158)
∇ × ~E = −jk ân × ~E (2.159)
~ = − 1 ∇ × ~E = − 1 (−jk) ân × ~E
H (2.160)
jωµ jωµ
~ = k ân × ~E
H (2.161)
ωµ
ω √
µ
r
k 1 1
= c
= = = = (2.162)
ωµ ωµ cµ µ µ η
~ = 1 ân × ~E
H (A/m) (2.163)
η
r
ωµ µ
η= = (Ω) (2.164)
k
η : intrinsic impedance of the medium (wave impedance; karakteristik empedans)
A uniform plane wave propagating in an arbitrary direction, ân , is a transverse electro-
magnetic (TEM) wave with ~E ⊥ H ~ and that both ~E and H
~ are normal to ân .
Example 2.2
~
If H(R) of a TEM wave is given as
~
H(R) ~ 0 e−jk ân ·R~
=H (2.165)
obtain ~E(R).
Solution I
∇×H ~ = jω ~E (2.166)

~E = 1 ∇ × H ~ (2.167)
jω

~
−jk ân ·R
~
∇ × H = ∇ × H0 e~ (2.168)


~ = ψ∇×A
∇ × ψA ~ + ∇ψ × A
~ (2.169)
~ →H
A ~0 (2.170)
~
ψ → e−jk ân ·R (2.171)

~ =∇× H
∇×H ~ 0 e−jk ân ·R~ = e−jk ân ·R~ ∇ × H
~ 0 + ∇e−jk ân ·R~ × H
~0 (2.172)
~ 0 = 0 (H
∇×H ~ 0 = constant vector) (2.173)

~ = ∇e−jk ân ·R~ × H
∇×H ~0 (2.174)
~ ~
∇e−jk ân ·R = ∇ψ = −jk e−jk ân ·R ân (2.175)
~ = −jk e−jk ân ·R~ ân × H
∇×H ~0 (2.176)
~
∇×H ~ 0 e−jk ân ·R
~ = −jk ân × H (2.177)
∇×H ~ = −jk ân × H~ (2.178)
~E = 1 ∇ × H ~ = 1 (−jk) ân × H
~ (2.179)
jω jω
~E = − k ân × H~ (2.180)
ω
ω √ r
k 1 µ µ
= c
= = = =η (2.181)
ω ω c
~E = −η ân × H
~ (V/m) (2.182)
Solution II
~ = 1 ân × ~E
H (2.183)
η
~ = 1 ân × ân × ~E

ân × H (2.184)
η

~ × B
A ~ =B
~ ×C ~ A ~ ·C
~ −C~ A~ ·B
~ ("Back − cab" rule) (2.185)
~ = ân , B
A ~ = ~E
~ = ân , C (2.186)

ân × ân × ~E = ân ân · ~E − ~E (ân · ân ) (2.187)
ân · ~E = 0 (2.188)
ân · ân = 1 (2.189)

ân × ân × ~E = −~E (2.190)
~ = − 1 ~E
ân × H (2.191)
η
~E = −η ân × H
~ (V/m) (2.192)

2.4 Normal Incidence at a Plane Conducting Boundary

x
~Ei
~i
H âni
Incident wave
Medium 1 Medium 2
(σ1 = 0) (Perfect conductor σ2 = ∞)
z=0
~Ei (z) = âx Ei0 e−jβ1 z (2.193)
~ i (z) = ây Ei0 e−jβ1 z

H (2.194)
η1
Ei0 : the magnitude of ~Ei at z = 0

β1 : phase constant of medium 1
η1 : intrinsic impedance of medium 1
r
µ1
η1 = (2.195)
1
In a perfect conductor electric and magnetic fields are zero.
~E2 = 0 (2.196)
~2 =0
H (2.197)
e incident wave is reflected giving rise to a reflected wave (~Er , H

~ r ).
~Er (z) = −âx Er0 ejβ1 z (2.198)
Reflected wave travels in the −z direction.

Reflected wave
ânr ~r
H
~Er
~Ei
~i
H âni
Incident wave
Medium 1 Medium 2
(σ1 = 0) (Perfect conductor σ2 = ∞)
z=0
Total field in medium 1
~E1 (z) = ~Ei (z) + ~Er (z) (2.199)
~E1 (z) = âx Ei0 e−jβ1 z − âx Er0 ejβ1 z (2.200)

~E1 (z) = âx Ei0 e−jβ1 z − Er0 ejβ1 z (2.201)

~E2 = 0 (2.202)
E1t = E2t = 0 (2.203)
~E1 (0) = 0 = âx (Ei0 − Er0 ) (2.204)
⇒ Er0 = Ei0 (2.205)
~Er (z) = −âx Ei0 ejβ1 z (2.206)

~E1 (z) = âx Ei0 e−jβ1 z − ejβ1 z (2.207)

~E1 (z) = âx Ei0 (−2j) sin β1 z (2.208)

~E1 (z) = −âx 2j Ei0 sin β1 z (2.209)
~ r (z) = 1 ânr × ~Er (z)
H (2.210)
η1
ânr = −âz (2.211)
~ r (z) = 1 (−âz ) × (−âx ) Ei0 ejβ1 z
H (2.212)
η1
~ r (z) = ây Ei0 ejβ1 z
H (2.213)
η1

~ 1 (z) = H
H ~ i (z) + H
~ r (z) (2.214)
~ 1 (z) = ây Ei0 e−jβ1 z + ây Ei0 ejβ1 z

H (2.215)
η1 η1
~ 1 (z) = ây Ei0 e−jβ1 z + ejβ1 z

H (2.216)

η1
~ 1 (z) = ây 2 Ei0 cos β1 z

H (2.217)
η1
h i
~E1 (z, t) = Re ~E1 (z) ejωt (2.218)
~E1 (z, t) = Re −âx 2j Ei0 sin β1 z ejωt (2.219)

~E1 (z, t) = Re [−âx 2j Ei0 sin β1 z (cos ωt + j sin ωt)] (2.220)
~E1 (z, t) = âx 2 Ei0 sin β1 z sin ωt (2.221)
h i
~ 1 (z, t) = Re H
H ~ 1 (z) ejωt (2.222)

~ 1 (z, t) = Re ây 2 Ei0 cos β1 z ejωt
H (2.223)
η1
~ 1 (z, t) = ây 2 Ei0 cos β1 z cos ωt

H (2.224)
η1
1
ωt = 0.00
0.5
~ 1 (z, t)
0
E
−0.5
−1
−5π −4π −3π −2π π 0
β1 z

1
ωt = 0.00
0.5
~ 1 (z, t)
0
H
−0.5
−1
−5π −4π −3π −2π π 0
β1 z
e total wave in medium 1 is not a traveling wave. It is a standing wave, resulting from
the superpositon of two waves traveling in opposite directions.
Example 2.3
A y-polarized uniform plane wave (~Ei , H~ i ) with a frequency 100 MHz propagates in air in the
+x-direction and impinges normally on a perfectly conducting plane at x = 0. Assuming the
amplitude of ~Ei to be 6 mV/m, write the phasor and instantaneous expressions for (a) ~Ei and
~ i of the incident wave; (b) ~Er and H
H ~ r of the reflected wave; and (c) ~E1 and H
~ 1 of the total
wave in air. (d) Determine the location nearest to the conducting plane where ~E1 is zero.
Solution
y
~r
H
~Er
x
z
~Ei
~i
H
x=0

a)
~Ei (x) = ây 6 × 10−3 e−jkx (V/m) (2.225)

r
µ0
η1 = η0 = = 120π (2.226)
0
~ 6 × 10−3 −jkx
Hi (x) = âz e (A/m) (2.227)
120π
ω 2πf 2π × 108 2π
k= = = 8
= (2.228)
c c 3 × 10 3
h i
~Ei (x, t) = Re ~Ei (x) ejωt (2.229)
~Ei (x, t) = Re ây 6 × 10−3 e−jkx ejωt (2.230)

~Ei (x, t) = Re ây 6 × 10−3 ej(ωt−kx) (2.231)

~Ei (x, t) = ây 6 × 10−3 cos(ωt − kx) (V/m) (2.232)
In a similar way
−3

~ i (x, t) = Re âz 6 × 10 e−jkx ejωt
H (2.233)
120π
−3
~ i (x, t) = âz 6 × 10 cos(ωt − kx)
H (A/m) (2.234)
120π
b)
~Er (x) = −ây 6 × 10−3 ejkx (V/m) (2.235)
~ r (x) = 1 ân × ~Er (x)

H (2.236)
η1
ân = −âx (2.237)
−3
~ r (x) = âz 6 × 10 ejkx (A/m)
H (2.238)
120π
h i
~Er (x, t) = Re ~Er (x) ejωt (2.239)
~Er (x, t) = Re −ây 6 × 10−3 ejkx ejωt (2.240)

~Er (x, t) = Re −ây 6 × 10−3 ej(ωt+kx) (2.241)

~Er (x, t) = −ây 6 × 10−3 cos(ωt + kx) (V/m) (2.242)
In a similar way
−3

~ r (x, t) = Re âz 6 × 10 ejkx ejωt
H (2.243)
120π
−3
~ r (x, t) = âz 6 × 10 cos(ωt + kx)
H (A/m) (2.244)
120π
c)
~E1 (x) = ~Ei (x) + ~Er (x) (2.245)
~E1 (x) = ây 6 × 10−3 e−jkx − ây 6 × 10−3 ejkx (2.246)

~E1 (x) = ây 6 × 10−3 e−jkx − ejkx (2.247)

e−jkx − ejkx = (cos kx − j sin kx) − (cos kx + j sin kx) = −2j sin kx (2.248)
~E1 (x) = −ây j 12 × 10−3 sin kx (V/m) (2.249)
h i
~E1 (x, t) = Re ~E1 (x) ejωt (2.250)
~E1 (x, t) = Re −ây j 12 × 10−3 sin kx ejωt (2.251)

~E1 (x, t) = Re −ây j 12 × 10−3 sin kx (cos ωt + j sin ωt) (2.252)

~E1 (x, t) = Re −ây j 12 × 10−3 sin kx cos ωt + ây 12 × 10−3 sin kx sin ωt (2.253)

~E1 (x, t) = ây 12 × 10−3 sin kx sin ωt (V/m) (2.254)
~ 1 (x) = H
H ~ i (x) + H
~ r (x) (2.255)
−3 −3
~ 1 (x) = âz 6 × 10 e−jkx + âz 6 × 10 ejkx
H (2.256)
120π 120π
−3
~ 1 (x) = âz 6 × 10
H e−jkx + ejkx (2.257)

120π
e−jkx + ejkx = (cos kx − j sin kx) + (cos kx + j sin kx) = 2 cos kx (2.258)
−3
~ 1 (x) = âz 12 × 10 cos kx
H (A/m) (2.259)
120π
h i
~ ~
H1 (x, t) = Re H1 (x) e jωt
(2.260)
−3

~ 1 (x, t) = Re âz 12 × 10
H cos kx e jωt
(2.261)
120π
−3

~ 1 (x, t) = Re âz 12 × 10
H cos kx (cos ωt + j sin ωt) (2.262)
120π
−3
~ 1 (x, t) = âz 12 × 10 cos kx cos ωt
H (A/m) (2.263)
120π
d)
~E1 (x, t) = ây 12 × 10−3 sin kx sin ωt = 0 (2.264)

⇒ sin kx = 0 (2.265)
⇒ kx = nπ, n = 0, −1, −2, −3, · · · (2.266)

2π
⇒ x = nπ (2.267)
λ
λ
⇒ x = n , n = 0, −1, −2, −3, · · · (2.268)
2
f = 100 MHz = 108 (2.269)
c 3 × 108
λ= = =3m (2.270)
f 108
3
⇒ x = n , n = 0, −1, −2, −3, · · · (2.271)
2
n = 0 gives the boundary (2.272)
n = −1 gives the nearest location (2.273)

3
⇒x=− m (2.274)
2
2.5 Oblique Incidence at a Plane Conducting Boundary

Horizontal Polarization (Yatay Kutuplanma)
x
z
θi
âni
~Ei Medium 1 Medium 2
~i
H (σ1 = 0) (Perfect conductor σ2 = ∞)
Incident wave z=0

θi : angle of incidence
âni
âx sin θi
θi
âz cos θi
âni = âx sin θi + âz cos θi (2.275)
~Ei (x, z) = ây Ei0 e−jβ1 âni ·R~ (2.276)

~ = (âx sin θi + âz cos θi ) · (âx x + ây y + âz z)
âni · R (2.277)
~ = (x sin θi + z cos θi )
âni · R (2.278)
~Ei (x, z) = ây Ei0 e−jβ1 (x sin θi +z cos θi ) (2.279)
θi
−âx cos θi
~i
H
âz sin θi
~ 1 h ~
i
Hi (x, z) = âni × Ei (x, z) (2.280)
η1
~ i (x, z) = 1 (âx sin θi + âz cos θi ) × ây Ei0 e−jβ1 (x sin θi +z cos θi )
H (2.281)

η1
~ i (x, z) = (âz sin θi − âx cos θi ) Ei0 e−jβ1 (x sin θi +z cos θi )

H (2.282)
η1
~ i (x, z) = (−âx cos θi + âz sin θi ) Ei0 e−jβ1 (x sin θi +z cos θi )

H (2.283)
η1

ânr x
Reflected wave
~Er
~r
H
θr
z
θi
âni
~i
Incident wave z=0
θr : angle of reflection
ânr
âx sin θr
θr
−âz cos θr
~Er (x, z) = −ây Er0 e−jβ1 ânr ·R~ (2.284)
ânr = âx sin θr − âz cos θr (2.285)

~ = (âx sin θr − âz cos θr ) · (âx x + ây y + âz z)
ânr · R (2.286)
~ = (x sin θr − z cos θr )
ânr · R (2.287)
~Er (x, z) = −ây Er0 e−jβ1 (x sin θr −z cos θr ) (2.288)
At the boundary surface, z = 0, the tangential components of ~E1 is zero (E1t = E2t = 0).
~E1 (x, z) = ~Ei (x, z) + ~Er (x, z) (2.289)

~E1 (x, z = 0) = ~Ei (x, z = 0) + ~Er (x, z = 0) = 0 (2.290)

~E1 (x, z = 0) = ây Ei0 e−jβ1 x sin θi − ây Er0 e−jβ1 x sin θr = 0 (2.291)
Ei0 e−jβ1 x sin θi = Er0 e−jβ1 x sin θr valid for all x (2.292)
For x = 0,
Er0 = Ei0 (2.293)
⇒ θr = θi (Snell0 s law of reflection) (2.294)
e angle of reflection is equal to the angle of incidence. So we have
~Er (x, z) = −ây Ei0 e−jβ1 (x sin θi −z cos θi ) (2.295)
~ 1 h ~
i
Hr (x, z) = ânr × Er (x, z) (2.296)
η1
θr
−âx cos θr
~r
H
−âz sin θr
~ r (x, z) = 1 (âx sin θr − âz cos θr ) × (−) ây Ei0 e−jβ1 (x sin θi −z cos θi )
H (2.297)

η1
~ r (x, z) = (−âz sin θr − âx cos θr ) Ei0 e−jβ1 (x sin θi −z cos θi )

H (2.298)
η1
~ r (x, z) = (−âx cos θi − âz sin θi ) Ei0 e−jβ1 (x sin θi −z cos θi )

H (2.299)
η1
e total electric field
~E1 (x, z) = ~Ei (x, z) + ~Er (x, z) (2.300)
~E1 (x, z) = ây Ei0 e−jβ1 (x sin θi +z cos θi ) − ây Ei0 e−jβ1 (x sin θi −z cos θi ) (2.301)
~E1 (x, z) = ây Ei0 e−jβ1 z cos θi − ejβ1 z cos θi e−jβ1 x sin θi (2.302)

e−jβ1 z cos θi − ejβ1 z cos θi = −2j sin(β1 z cos θi ) (2.303)

~E1 (x, z) = −ây j2 Ei0 sin(β1 z cos θi ) e−jβ1 x sin θi (2.304)

e total magnetic field
~ 1 (x, z) = H
H ~ i (x, z) + H
~ r (x, z) (2.305)
~ 1 (x, z) = (−âx cos θi + âz sin θi ) Ei0 e−jβ1 (x sin θi +z cos θi )

H
η1
(2.306)
Ei0 −jβ1 (x sin θi −z cos θi )
+ (−âx cos θi − âz sin θi ) e
η1
~ 1 (x, z) = −âx cos θi Ei0 e−jβ1 z cos θi + ejβ1 z cos θi e−jβ1 x sin θi
H

η1
(2.307)
Ei0 −jβ1 z cos θi
+âz sin θi − ejβ1 z cos θi e−jβ1 x sin θi

e
η1
e−jβ1 z cos θi + ejβ1 z cos θi = 2 cos(β1 z cos θi ) (2.308)
~ 1 (x, z) = −âx 2Ei0 cos θi cos(β1 z cos θi ) e−jβ1 x sin θi

H
η1
(2.310)
2jEi0
−âz sin θi sin(β1 z cos θi ) e−jβ1 x sin θi
η1
Vertical Polarization (Dikey Kutuplanma)

ânr x
Reflected wave
~r
H
~Er
θr
z
θi
~Ei âni
Medium 1 Medium 2
~i
Incident wave
z=0


−âz sin θi
~Ei
âx cos θi
θi
~Ei (x, z) = (âx cos θi − âz sin θi ) Ei0 e−jβ1 (x sin θi +z cos θi ) (2.313)
~ i (x, z) = ây Ei0 e−jβ1 (x sin θi +z cos θi )

H (2.314)
η1
θr
−âx cos θr
~Er
−âz sin θr
~Er (x, z) = (−âx cos θr − âz sin θr ) Er0 e−jβ1 (x sin θr −z cos θr ) (2.315)
~ r (x, z) = ây Er0 e−jβ1 (x sin θr −z cos θr )

H (2.316)
η1
At z = 0, the tangential component of the total electric field intensity must vanish.
Eix (x, z = 0) + Erx (x, z = 0) = 0 (2.317)
Ei0 cos θi e−jβ1 x sin θi − Er0 cos θr e−jβ1 x sin θr = 0 (2.318)
⇒ Er0 = Ei0 (2.319)
θr = θi (Snell0 s law of reflection) (2.320)

e total electric field intensity in medium 1
~E1 (x, z) = ~Ei (x, z) + ~Er (x, z) (2.321)

~E1 (x, z) = (âx cos θi − âz sin θi ) Ei0 e−jβ1 (x sin θi +z cos θi )
(2.322)
− (âx cos θi + âz sin θi ) Ei0 e−jβ1 (x sin θi −z cos θi )
~E1 (x, z) =âx cos θi Ei0 e−jβ1 z cos θi − ejβ1 z cos θi e−jβ1 x sin θi

(2.323)
−âz sin θi Ei0 e−jβ1 z cos θi + ejβ1 z cos θi e−jβ1 x sin θi


~E1 (x, z) = −âx 2jEi0 cos θi sin(β1 z cos θi ) e −jβ1 x sin θi
(2.326)
−âz 2Ei0 sin θi cos(β1 z cos θi ) e−jβ1 x sin θi
Total magnetic field intensity in medium 1
~ 1 (x, z) = H
H ~ i (x, z) + H
~ r (x, z) (2.327)
~ 1 (x, z) = ây Ei0 e−jβ1 (x sin θi +z cos θi ) + ây Ei0 e−jβ1 (x sin θi −z cos θi )
H (2.328)
η1 η1
~ 1 (x, z) = ây Ei0 e−jβ1 z cos θi + ejβ1 z cos θi e−jβ1 x sin θi
H (2.329)

η1
~ 1 (x, z) = ây 2Ei0 cos(β1 z cos θi ) e−jβ1 x sin θi
H (2.331)
η1
2.6 Normal Incidence at a Plane Dielectric Boundary

x
~Ei
~i
H âni
Incident wave
Medium 1 Medium 2
(1 , µ1 ) (2 , µ2 )
z=0

~Ei (z) = âx Ei0 e−jβ1 z (2.332)
~ i (z) = ây Ei0 e−jβ1 z

H (2.333)
η1
When an electromagnetic wave is incident on the surface of a different dielectric medium, part
of the incident power is reflected and part is transmied.
x
~Er ~Et
ânr ~r
H ~t
H ânt
Transmied wave
Reflected wave
~Ei
~i
H âni
Incident wave
Medium 1 Medium 2
(1 , µ1 ) (2 , µ2 )
z=0
~Er (z) = âx Er0 ejβ1 z (2.334)
~ r (z) = 1 (−âz ) × ~Er (z) = −ây Er0 ejβ1 z

H (2.335)
η1 η1
~Et (z) = âx Et0 e−jβ2 z (2.336)
~ t (z) = 1 âz × ~Et (z) = ây Et0 e−jβ2 z

H (2.337)
η2 η2
Et0 : the magnitude of ~Et at z = 0.
β2 : phase constant of medium 2.
η2 : intrinsic impedance of medium 2.
√
β2 = ω µ2 2 (2.338)
r
µ2
η2 = (2.339)
2

Er0 and Et0 may be positive or negative, depending on 1 , µ1 , 2 , µ2 . Er0 and Et0 must be
determined.
e tangential components (the x− and y− components) of the electric and magnetic field
intensities must be continous at z = 0.
~Ei (0) + ~Er (0) = ~Et (0) (2.340)
⇒ Ei0 + Er0 = Et0 (2.341)
~ i (0) + H
H ~ r (0) = H
~ t (0) (2.342)
Ei0 Er0 Et0
⇒ − = (2.343)
η1 η1 η2
Ei0 + Er0 = Et0

Ei0 Er0 Et0 (2.344)
− =
η1 η1 η2
Er0 − Et0 = −Ei0

Er0 Et0 Ei0 (2.345)
− − =− (// η1 )
η1 η2 η1
Er0 − Et0 = −Ei0

η1 (2.346)
−Er0 − Et0 = −Ei0
η2

η1
−Et0 1 + = −2 Ei0 (2.347)
η2

η1
Et0 1 + = 2 Ei0 (2.348)
η2
2 2
Et0 = Ei0 = Ei0 (2.349)
1 + ηη12 η2 +η1
η2
2 η2
Et0 = Ei0 (2.350)
η1 + η2
2 η2
Er0 = Et0 − Ei0 = Ei0 − Ei0 (2.351)
η1 + η2

2 η2 2 η2 − (η1 + η2 ) 2 η2 − η1 − η2
Er0 = − 1 Ei0 = Ei0 = Ei0 (2.352)
η1 + η2 η1 + η2 η1 + η2
η2 − η1
Er0 = Ei0 (2.353)
η2 + η1

Er0 η2 − η1
Γ= = (dimensionless) (Reflection coefficient) (2.354)
Ei0 η2 + η1
Et0 2 η2
τ= = (dimensionless) (Transmission coefficient) (2.355)
Ei0 η2 + η1
e reflection coefficient Γ can be positive or negative. e tranmission coefficient τ is

always positive.
Er0 = Et0 − Ei0 (2.356)
Er0 Et0
= −1 (2.357)
Ei0 Ei0
Γ=τ −1 (2.358)
τ =Γ+1 (2.359)
e total electric field in medium 1

~E1 (z) = ~Ei (z) + ~Er (z) = âx Ei0 e−jβ1 z + Γejβ1 z (2.360)

2.7 Oblique Incidence at a Plane Dielectric Boundary

x
z
θi
âni
~i
H (1 , µ1 ) (2 , µ2 )
Incident wave z=0

âni
âx sin θi
θi
âz cos θi
~Ei (x, z) = ây Ei0 e−jβ1 âni ·R~ (2.361)
~ = (âx sin θi + âz cos θi ) · (âx x + ây y + âz z)

âni · R (2.363)
~ = (x sin θi + z cos θi )
âni · R (2.364)
~Ei (x, z) = ây Ei0 e−jβ1 (x sin θi +z cos θi ) (2.365)
θi
−âx cos θi
~i
H
âz sin θi
~ i (x, z) = 1 âni × ~Ei (x, z)

h i
H (2.366)
η1
~ i (x, z) = 1 (âx sin θi + âz cos θi ) × ây Ei0 e−jβ1 (x sin θi +z cos θi )
H (2.367)

η1
~ i (x, z) = (âz sin θi − âx cos θi ) Ei0 e−jβ1 (x sin θi +z cos θi )

H (2.368)
η1
~ i (x, z) = (−âx cos θi + âz sin θi ) Ei0 e−jβ1 (x sin θi +z cos θi )

H (2.369)
η1

ânr x
Reflected wave
~Er ânt
~r
H ~Et
~t
H
Transmied wave
θr θt
z
θi
âni
~i
H (1 , µ1 ) (2 , µ2 )
Incident wave z=0
ânr
âx sin θr
θr
−âz cos θr
~Er (x, z) = −ây Er0 e−jβ1 ânr ·R~ (2.370)
~ = (âx sin θr − âz cos θr ) · (âx x + ây y + âz z)

ânr · R (2.372)
~ = (x sin θr − z cos θr )
ânr · R (2.373)
~Er (x, z) = −ây Er0 e−jβ1 (x sin θr −z cos θr ) (2.374)

θr
−âx cos θr
~r
H
−âz sin θr
~ r (x, z) = 1 ânr × ~Er (x, z)

h i
H (2.375)
η1
~ r (x, z) = 1 (âx sin θr − âz cos θr ) × (−) ây Er0 e−jβ1 (x sin θr −z cos θr )
H (2.376)

η1
~ r (x, z) = (−âz sin θr − âx cos θr ) Er0 e−jβ1 (x sin θr −z cos θr )
H (2.377)
η1
~ r (x, z) = (−âx cos θr − âz sin θr ) Er0 e−jβ1 (x sin θr −z cos θr )
H (2.378)
η1
~Et (x, z) = ây Et0 e−jβ2 (x sin θt +z cos θt ) (2.379)
~ t (x, z) = (−âx cos θt + âz sin θt ) Et0 e−jβ2 (x sin θt +z cos θt )

H (2.380)
η2
Er0 , Et0 , θr and θt are unknown quantities.
Tangential components of ~E and H ~ are continuous at z = 0.
Eiy (x, z = 0) + Ery (x, z = 0) = Ety (x, z = 0) (2.381)
Hix (x, z = 0) + Hrx (x, z = 0) = Htx (x, z = 0) (2.382)

Ei0 e−jβ1 x sin θi − Er0 e−jβ1 x sin θr = Et0 e−jβ2 x sin θt (2.383)
Ei0 Er0 Et0
− cos θi e−jβ1 x sin θi − cos θr e−jβ1 x sin θr = − cos θt e−jβ2 x sin θt (2.384)
η1 η1 η2
ese equations must be satisfied for all x. So
β1 x sin θi = β1 x sin θr = β2 x sin θt (phase matching) (2.385)
β1 x sin θi = β1 x sin θr (2.386)

sin θi = sin θr (2.387)
θr = θi (Snell’s law of reflection) (2.388)

β1 sin θi = β2 sin θt (2.389)
√ √
sin θt β1 ω µ1 1 µ1 1 n1
= = √ =√ = (Snell’s law of refraction) (2.390)
sin θi β2 ω µ2 2 µ2 2 n2
n1 : the index of refraction for medium 1.

For x = 0
Ei0 − Er0 = Et0 (2.391)

Ei0 Er0 Et0
− cos θi − cos θr = − cos θt (2.392)
η1 η1 η2
Ei0 − Er0 = Et0 (2.393)

Ei0 Er0 Et0
− cos θi − cos θi = − cos θt (2.394)
η1 η1 η2
1
Er0 + Et0 = Ei0 // ( cos θi ) (2.395)
η1
Er0 Et0 Ei0
− cos θi + cos θt = cos θi (2.396)
η1 η2 η1
Er0 Et0 Ei0

cos θi + cos θi = cos θi (2.397)
η1 η1 η1
Er0 Et0 Ei0
− cos θi + cos θt = cos θi (2.398)
η1 η2 η1
Et0 Et0 Ei0

cos θi + cos θt = 2 cos θi (2.399)
η1 η2 η1

1 1 Ei0
Et0 cos θi + cos θt = 2 cos θi (2.400)
η1 η2 η1
η2 cos θi + η1 cos θt

Ei0
Et0 =2 cos θi (2.401)
η1 η2 η1
Et0 (η2 cos θi + η1 cos θt ) = 2 η2 Ei0 cos θi (2.402)
2 η2 Ei0 cos θi
Et0 = (2.403)

Et0 2 η2 cos θi
τ⊥ = = (2.404)
Ei0 η2 cos θi + η1 cos θt
τ⊥ : transmission coefficient for horizontal polarization
Er0 = Ei0 − Et0 (2.405)

Et0
Er0 = Ei0 1 − (2.406)
Ei0
Er0 = Ei0 (1 − τ⊥ ) (2.407)
Er0
Γ⊥ = = 1 − τ⊥ (2.408)
Ei0
2 η2 cos θi
Γ⊥ = 1 − (2.409)
η2 cos θi + η1 cos θt − 2 η2 cos θi
Γ⊥ = (2.410)
η1 cos θt − η2 cos θi
Γ⊥ = (2.411)
η1 cos θt + η2 cos θi
Γ⊥ : reflection coefficient for horizontal polarization

ânr x
Reflected wave
~r ânt
H ~Et
~Er
~t
H
Transmied wave
θr θt
z
θi
~Ei âni
Medium 1 Medium 2
~i
H (1 , µ1 ) (2 , µ2 )
Incident wave
z=0

−âz sin θi
~Ei
âx cos θi
θi
~Ei (x, z) = (âx cos θi − âz sin θi ) Ei0 e−jβ1 (x sin θi +z cos θi ) (2.412)
~ i (x, z) = ây Ei0 e−jβ1 (x sin θi +z cos θi )

H (2.413)
η1
θr
−âx cos θr
~Er
−âz sin θr
~Er (x, z) = (−âx cos θr − âz sin θr ) Er0 e−jβ1 (x sin θr −z cos θr ) (2.414)
~ r (x, z) = ây Er0 e−jβ1 (x sin θr −z cos θr )

H (2.415)
η1
~Et (x, z) = (âx cos θt − âz sin θt ) Et0 e−jβ2 (x sin θt +z cos θt ) (2.416)
~ t (x, z) = ây Et0 e−jβ2 (x sin θt +z cos θt )

H (2.417)
η2
Er0 , Et0 , θr and θt are unknown quantities.

Tangential components of ~E and H
~ are continuous at z = 0.
Eix (x, z = 0) + Erx (x, z = 0) = Etx (x, z = 0) (2.418)
Hiy (x, z = 0) + Hry (x, z = 0) = Hty (x, z = 0) (2.419)

Ei0 cos θi e−jβ1 x sin θi − Er0 cos θr e−jβ1 x sin θr = Et0 cos θt e−jβ2 x sin θt (2.420)
Ei0 −jβ1 x sin θi Er0 −jβ1 x sin θr Et0 −jβ2 x sin θt
e + e = e (2.421)
η1 η1 η2

ese equations must be satisfied for all x. So
β1 x sin θi = β1 x sin θr = β2 x sin θt (phase matching) (2.422)
β1 x sin θi = β1 x sin θr (2.423)

sin θi = sin θr (2.424)
θr = θi (Snell’s law of reflection) (2.425)
β1 sin θi = β2 sin θt (2.426)

√ √
sin θt β1 ω µ1 1 µ1 1 n1
= = √ =√ = (Snell’s law of refraction) (2.427)
sin θi β2 ω µ2 2 µ2 2 n2

For x = 0
Ei0 cos θi − Er0 cos θr = Et0 cos θt (2.428)

Ei0 Er0 Et0
+ = (2.429)
η1 η1 η2
Ei0 cos θi − Er0 cos θi = Et0 cos θt (2.430)

Ei0 Er0 Et0
+ = (2.431)
η1 η1 η2
Er0 cos θi + Et0 cos θt = Ei0 cos θi (2.432)

η1
Ei0 + Er0 = Et0 (2.433)
η2

η1
Er0 − Et0 = −Ei0 // (− cos θi ) (2.435)
η2

η1
−Er0 cos θi + Et0 cos θi = Ei0 cos θi (2.437)
η2
η1
Et0 cos θt + Et0 cos θi = 2 Ei0 cos θi // (η2 ) (2.438)
η2
η2 Et0 cos θt + η1 Et0 cos θi = 2 η2 Ei0 cos θi (2.439)

Et0 (η2 cos θt + η1 cos θi ) = 2 η2 Ei0 cos θi (2.440)
Et0 2 η2 cos θi
= (2.441)
Ei0 η2 cos θt + η1 cos θi
Et0 2 η2 cos θi
τk = = (2.442)
τk : transmission coefficient for vertical polarization
η1
Er0 = Et0 − Ei0 (2.443)
η2
Er0 η1 Et0
= −1 (2.444)
Ei0 η2 Ei0
Er0 η1
= τk − 1 (2.445)
Ei0 η2
Er0 η1 2 η2 cos θi
= −1 (2.446)
Ei0 η2 η2 cos θt + η1 cos θi
Er0 2 η1 cos θi
= −1 (2.447)
Er0 2 η1 cos θi − η2 cos θt − η1 cos θi

= (2.448)
Er0 η1 cos θi − η2 cos θt

= (2.449)

Γk = = (2.450)
Γk : reflection coefficient for vertical polarization

2.8 Total Reflection

ânr x
Reflected wave
~Er
~r
H
No transmied wave ?
θr
z
θi
âni
~i
H (1 , µ1 ) (2 , µ2 )
Incident wave z=0
For total reflection we need |Γ⊥ | = 1 or Γ⊥ = ∓1.

Let’s first try Γ⊥ = 1.
Er0 η1 cos θt − η2 cos θi

Γ⊥ = = =1 (2.451)
η1 cos θt − η2 cos θi = η1 cos θt + η2 cos θi (2.452)
⇒ 2 η2 cos θi = 0 (2.453)
cos θi = 0 ⇒ θi = 90◦ (2.454)
is does not give us an interesting solution.

Now let’s try Γ⊥ = −1.

Γ⊥ = = = −1 (2.455)
η1 cos θt − η2 cos θi = −η1 cos θt − η2 cos θi (2.456)
2 η1 cos θt = 0 (2.457)
cos θt = 0 ⇒ θt = 90◦ (2.458)

From Snell’s law

√
sin θt µ1 1
=√ (2.459)
sin θi µ2 2
For nonmagnetic media µ1 = µ2 = µ0 .
sin θt
r
1
= (2.460)
sin θi 2
θt = 90◦ ⇒ sin θt = 1 (2.461)

r
1 1
= (2.462)
sin θi 2
r
2
sin θi = (2.463)
1
r
2
sin θc = (2.464)
1
r
−1 2
θc = sin (2.465)
1
e angle of incidence θc is called the critical angle.

ânr x
Reflected wave
~r
H
~Er
No transmied wave ?
θr
z
θi
~Ei âni
Medium 1 Medium 2
~i
H (1 , µ1 ) (2 , µ2 )
Incident wave
z=0

For total reflection we need |Γk | = 1 or Γk = ∓1.

Let’s first try Γk = −1.

Γk = = = −1 (2.466)
η1 cos θi − η2 cos θt = −η2 cos θt − η1 cos θi (2.467)
⇒ 2 η1 cos θi = 0 (2.468)
cos θi = 0 ⇒ θi = 90◦ (2.469)
is does not give us an interesting solution.
Now let’s try Γk = 1.

Γk = = =1 (2.470)
η1 cos θi − η2 cos θt = η2 cos θt + η1 cos θi (2.471)
2 η2 cos θt = 0 (2.472)
cos θt = 0 ⇒ θt = 90◦ (2.473)
From Snell’s law
√
sin θt µ1 1
=√ (2.474)
sin θi µ2 2
For nonmagnetic media µ1 = µ2 = µ0 .
sin θt
r
1
= (2.475)
sin θi 2
θt = 90◦ ⇒ sin θt = 1 (2.476)

r
1 1
= (2.477)
sin θi 2
r
2
sin θi = (2.478)
1
r
2
sin θc = (2.479)
1
r
−1 2
θc = sin (2.480)
1
e angle of incidence θc is called the critical angle. Note that the critical angle θc does not
depend on polarization, i.e. it is same for both horizontal and vertical polarizations.

If θi = θc then θt = 90◦ .
If θi > θc then
sin θi > sin θc (2.481)

r
2
sin θi > (2.482)
1
r
1
sin θi > 1 (2.483)
2
r
1
sin θt = sin θi (2.484)
2
⇒ sin θt > 1 (2.485)
ere is no real solution for θt and total reflection occurs.
2.9 Total Transmission

x
ânt
~Et
No reflected wave ?
~t
H
Transmied wave
θt
z
θi
âni
~i
H (1 , µ1 ) (2 , µ2 )
Incident wave z=0
For total transmission we need Γ⊥ = 0.

Γ⊥ = = =0 (2.486)

⇒ η1 cos θt − η2 cos θi = 0 (2.487)
⇒ η1 cos θt = η2 cos θi (2.488)
From Snell’s law

√
sin θt µ1 1
=√ (2.489)
sin θi µ2 2
√
µ1 1
sin θt = √ sin θi (2.490)
µ2 2
r
p µ1 1
cos θt = 1 − sin θt = 1 −
2
sin2 θi (2.491)
µ2 2
p
cos θi = 1 − sin2 θi (2.492)
r
µ1
η1 = (2.493)
1
r
µ2
η2 = (2.494)
2
η1 cos θt = η2 cos θi (2.495)
r r r p
µ1 µ1 1 µ2
1− sin θi =
2
1 − sin2 θi (2.496)
1 µ2 2 2

µ1 µ1 1 µ2
sin2 θi = 1 − sin2 θi (2.497)

1−
1 µ2 2 2
µ1 µ2 µ2 µ2
− 1 sin2 θi = − sin2 θi (2.498)
1 µ2 2 2 2
µ2 µ2 µ2 µ1
sin2 θi − 1 sin2 θi = − (2.499)
2 µ2 2 2 1
µ2

µ2 µ2 µ1
− 1 sin2 θi = − (2.500)
2 µ2 2 2 1
µ2 µ1
2
− 1
sin θi =
2
µ21
(2.501)
µ2
2
− µ2 2
1 µ2 − 2 µ1 µ2 2
sin2 θi = (2.502)
1 2 µ22 − µ21
1 µ2 − 2 µ1 µ2
sin2 θi = (2.503)
1 µ22 − µ21
1 µ2 − 2 µ1 µ2
sin2 θi = 2
(2.504)
1 µ2 [1 − (µ1 /µ2 )2 ]
1 µ2 − 2 µ1 1
sin2 θi = (2.505)
1 µ2 [1 − (µ1 /µ2 )2 ]
2 µ1
1− 1 µ2
sin2 θi = µ2
(2.506)
1 − µ12
2

For nonmagnetic media µ1 = µ2 = µ0 and we have
sin2 θi = ∞ (2.507)
So for horizontal polarization there is no incidence angle that makes the reflection coeffi-
cient Γ⊥ = 0.

x
ânt
~Et
No reflected wave ?
~t
H
Transmied wave
θt
z
θi
~Ei âni
Medium 1 Medium 2
~i
H (1 , µ1 ) (2 , µ2 )
Incident wave
z=0
For total transmission we need Γk = 0.

Γk = = =0 (2.508)
⇒ η1 cos θi − η2 cos θt = 0 (2.509)
⇒ η1 cos θi = η2 cos θt (2.510)
From Snell’s law
√
sin θt µ1 1
=√ (2.511)
sin θi µ2 2
√
µ1 1
sin θt = √ sin θi (2.512)
µ2 2
r
p µ1 1
cos θt = 1 − sin θt = 1 −
2
sin2 θi (2.513)
µ2 2

p
cos θi = 1 − sin2 θi (2.514)
r
µ1
η1 = (2.515)
1
r
µ2
η2 = (2.516)
2
η1 cos θi = η2 cos θt (2.517)
r p r r
µ1 µ2 µ1 1
1 − sin θi =
2
1− sin2 θi (2.518)
1 2 µ2 2

µ1 µ2 µ1 1
1 − sin θi =
2
1− sin θi
2
(2.519)
1 2 µ2 2
µ1 µ1 µ2 µ2 µ1 1
− sin2 θi = − sin2 θi (2.520)
1 1 2 2 µ2 2
µ1 µ1 µ2 µ1 1
− sin2 θi = − sin2 θi (2.521)
1 1 2 2 2
µ1 µ
1 1 µ2 µ1
− sin2 θi + sin2 θi = − (2.522)
1 2 2 2 1
µ1 µ1 1 µ2 µ1
− sin2 θi + 2 sin2 θi = − (2.523)
1 2 2 1

µ1 µ1 1 µ2 µ1
− + 2 sin2 θi = − (2.524)
1 2 2 1

µ1 1 µ1 µ2 µ1
2
− sin2 θi = − (2.525)
2 1 2 1
µ2
2
− µ11
sin θi =
2
µ1 1 (2.526)
22
− µ11
1 µ2 −2 µ1
1 2
sin θi =
2
21 µ1 −22 µ1
(2.527)
1 22
1 µ2 − 2 µ1 1 22
sin2 θi = (2.528)
1 2 21 µ1 − 22 µ1
2
sin2 θi = [1 µ2 − 2 µ1 ] 2 (2.529)
1 µ1 − 22 µ1
2
sin2 θi = [1 µ2 − 2 µ1 ] 2 (2.530)
[1 − 22 ] µ1

1 µ2
sin2 θi = 2 µ1 −1 h2 2 i (2.531)
2 µ1
22 12 − 1 µ1
2
h i
1 µ2
2 µ1
−1
sin2 θi = h2 i (2.532)
1
2 − 1
2
1 µ2
1− 2 µ1
sin2 θi = 2
(2.533)
1 − 12
2

For nonmagnetic media µ1 = µ2 = µ0 and we have

1
1− 2
1 − 12
sin θi =
2
21
= (2.534)
1− 1 1
22 1 − 2 1+ 2
1
sin2 θi = (2.535)
1 + 12
1
sin θi = q (2.536)
1
1+ 2
e angle satisfying this equation is called as the Brewster angle θB . If θi = θB then

Γk = 0 and there is no reflection from the interface, the wave is totally transmied to the
second medium.

REFERENCES
[1] Field and Wave Electromagnetics (2nd Edition), David K. Cheng, Addison-Wesley, 1989.
[2] Fundamentals of Engineering Electromagnetism, David K. Cheng, Prentice–Hall, 1993.
[3] Mühendislik Elektromanyetiğinin Temelleri, David K. Cheng, Çeviri: Adnan Köksal,

Birsen Saka, Palme Yayıncılık, 2006.
[4] Elektromanyetik, J. A. Edminister, Çeviri: M. Timur Aydemir, Erkan Afacan, K. Cem Na-
kiboğlu, Nobel Yayın Dağıtım, 2000.
89

Electromagnetic Waves

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Electromagnetic Waves

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Electromagnetic Waves

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Electromagnetic Waves

1 TIME–VARYING FIELDS AND MAXWELL’S EQUATIONS 1

2 PLANE ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES 44

~E : electric ﬁeld intensity (V/m)

e electric ﬁeld intensity ~E for an electrostatic model is conservative (∇ × ~E = 0) and

~E = −∇V (Electrostatic model) (1.4)

~ : magnetic ﬂux density (T = Wb/m2 )

1.2 Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic Induction

e electric ﬁeld intensity ~E in a region of time–varying magnetic ﬂux density B

Applying Stokes’ theorem

Erkan AFACAN, Gazi Üniversitesi, Mühendislik Fakültesi, Maltepe/Ankara

A Stationary Circuit in a Time–Varying Magnetic Field

where Φ is the magnetic ﬂux crossing surface S (Wb). So we have

Let’s assume that the ﬂux through a circuit C is decreasing.

Erkan AFACAN, Gazi Üniversitesi, Mühendislik Fakültesi, Maltepe/Ankara

e change in ﬂux can occur for a variety of reasons. For instance

~ = âz B0 cos πr sin ωt

Erkan AFACAN, Gazi Üniversitesi, Mühendislik Fakültesi, Maltepe/Ankara

~ = âz B0 cos πr sin ωt

~ = âz B0 cos πr sin ωt

Erkan AFACAN, Gazi Üniversitesi, Mühendislik Fakültesi, Maltepe/Ankara

u=x dv = cos x dx (1.38)

For any closed path in a magnetic circuit

e algebraic sum of ampere-turns (amper-sarım) around a closed path in a magnetic circuit

N1 : the number of turns in the primary circuit

Erkan AFACAN, Gazi Üniversitesi, Mühendislik Fakültesi, Maltepe/Ankara

Erkan AFACAN, Gazi Üniversitesi, Mühendislik Fakültesi, Maltepe/Ankara

A Moving Conductor in a Static Magnetic Field

Erkan AFACAN, Gazi Üniversitesi, Mühendislik Fakültesi, Maltepe/Ankara

d~` = ây dy (1.68)

Work = Force × Distance (1.79)

Work Force × Distance Distance

Pmech = ~Fmech · ~u (1.82)

d~` is in the direction of current ﬂow.

d~` = ây dy (1.84)

~Fmech = −~Fm = âx I B0 h (1.88)

Pmech = ~Fmech · ~u = (âx I B0 h) · (âx u) = I B0 h u (1.89)

Erkan AFACAN, Gazi Üniversitesi, Mühendislik Fakültesi, Maltepe/Ankara

Faraday disk generator

d~s = âz r dφ dr (1.95)

d~` = d~r = âr dr (1.107)

Erkan AFACAN, Gazi Üniversitesi, Mühendislik Fakültesi, Maltepe/Ankara

b) View from +x direction

Φ = B0 S cos α0 sin ωt (1.120)

Erkan AFACAN, Gazi Üniversitesi, Mühendislik Fakültesi, Maltepe/Ankara

d~s = ân ds = ân dx dz (1.125)

ây · ân = cos α = cos(α0 + ωt) (1.127)

1.3 Maxwell’s Equations

Erkan AFACAN, Gazi Üniversitesi, Mühendislik Fakültesi, Maltepe/Ankara

~E : electric ﬁeld intensity (V/m)

Derivation of equation of continuity

Integral form of Maxwell’s equations

Erkan AFACAN, Gazi Üniversitesi, Mühendislik Fakültesi, Maltepe/Ankara

d~s = âx dy dz (1.177)

Erkan AFACAN, Gazi Üniversitesi, Mühendislik Fakültesi, Maltepe/Ankara

~ = 0, because no charges are

⇒ Hφ 2πr = ω V0 C1 cos ωt (1.190)

1.4 Electromagnetic Boundary Conditions

Erkan AFACAN, Gazi Üniversitesi, Mühendislik Fakültesi, Maltepe/Ankara

Suppose the surface of discontinuity to be the plane x = 0 as shown in ﬁgure. Consider

D1t D2t D1t 1

∇·A~ = −µ ∂V (1.281)