UNIT 1-B

Basic Computer Organization, Units of a computer, CPU, ALU, memory hierarchy, registers,
input-output devices

Basic Architecture of Computer

Over the several years the size, processing speed, cost and reliability of computers has changed.
But, the basic structure of computer is still the same as was given by Von Neumann in the year
1945 has not changed. According to Von Neumann architecture of computer every digital
computer with these components:

1. Input Unit
2. Output Unit
3. Storage Unit
4. Arithmetic Logic Unit
5. Control Unit Storage Unit

Secondary
Instructi Storage Information or
Input Unit Output Unit Result

Primary
Storage

Control
Unit

Arithmetic Logic
Unit

Central Processing Unit

Von Neumann Architecture or Basic Architecture of Computer

Input Unit

Input unit connects the external environment with internal computer system. It provides data and
instructions to the computer system. Commonly used input devices
are keyboard, mouse, magnetic tape, scanner, webcam, joystick etc.
Input unit performs following tasks:
 Accept the data and instructions from the outside environment.
 Convert it into machine language.
 Supply the converted data to computer system.

Output Unit
It connects the internal system of a computer to the external environment. It provides the results
of any computation, or instructions to the outside world. Some output devices
are printers, monitor, plotter, speaker etc.
Storage Unit
This unit holds the data and instructions. It also stores the intermediate results before these are
sent to the output devices. It also stores the data for later use.
The storage unit of a computer system can be divided into two categories:

 Primary Storage: This memory is used to store the data which is being currently executed.
It is used for temporary storage of data. The data is lost, when the computer is switched off.
RAM and ROM are used as primary storage memory.
 Secondary Storage: The secondary memory is slower and cheaper than primary memory. It
is used for permanent storage of data. Commonly used secondary memory devices are hard
disk, CD etc.

CPU (Central Processing Unit)

It is Central Processing Unit of the computer. The control unit and ALU are together known as
CPU. CPU is the brain of computer system. It performs following tasks:
 It performs all operations.
 It takes all decisions.
 It controls all the units of computer

Arithmetic Logical Unit

All the calculations are performed in ALU of the computer system. The ALU can perform basic
operations such as addition, subtraction, division, multiplication etc. Whenever calculations are
required, the control unit transfers the data from storage unit to ALU. When the operations are
done, the result is transferred back to the storage unit.

Control Unit
It controls all other units of the computer. It controls the flow of data and instructions to and
from the storage unit to ALU. Thus it is also known as central nervous system of the computer.
Memory Units

Computer store data in binary format, binary format contain only two characters 0 and 1. All the
information stored/represented in the computer is a code which contain a specific combination of
0’s and 1’s. The memory units are used to measure the size of data in computer. The memory
units are as follow.

1. Smallest Memory Unit – Bit ( Binary Digit)

2. Nibble – 4 bits
3. Byte or 1B- 8 Bites
4. Kilobyte or 1KB – 1024 bytes or 210 bytes
5. Megabyte or 1 MB – 1024 Kilobyte or 220 bytes
6. Gigabyte or 1 GB – 1024 MB or 230 bytes
7. Terabyte or 1 TB- 1024 GB or 240 bytes
7. Petabyte or 1 PB- 1024 TB or 250 bytes
8. Exabyte or 1 EB – 1024 PB or 260 bytes
9. Zetta or 1ZB – 1024 EB or 270 bytes
10. Yotta or 1 YB- 1024 ZB or 280 bytes
Memory Hierarchy Design and its Characteristics

Computer memories are broadly divided into two types

1. External Memory or Secondary Memory – These memories do not communicate
directly with the CPU due to their slow speed in comparison to CPU. Examples of external
memory : Magnetic Disk, Optical Disk, Magnetic Tape
Tape.

2. Internal Memory or Primary Memory – Thesee memories can directly communicate with
CPU. Examples of internal memory: Cache Memory & CPU registers.
On the basis of storage capacity, access time and cost per bit the various types of memories can
be divided into 5 Levels :
Level 0 - CPU Registers : Processor
rocessor registers are quickly accessible locations available to a
computer's CPU. Registers usually consist of a small amount of fast storage, some registers have
specific hardware functions, and may be read
read-only or write-only
Level 1 - Cache Memory : Cache is hardware or software component that stores data so that
future requests for that data can be served faster; the data stored in a cache might be the result of
an earlier computation or a copy of data stored elsewhere. Cache is made up of SRAM (Static (Stat
Random access Memory).
Level 2 - Main Memory : Main memory is used to store the data and instruction that are to be
executed by the CPU. It also store the results obtained after the processing of instructions. RAM
and ROM are two types of main memory.
Level 3 - Magnetic Disk
isk Storage : It is the most commonly used secondary memory. It store the
data on the surface of one or more rotating disks by using magnetic mechanism. HDD and SDD
are two categories of magnetic disk storage.
Level 4 – Optical Disk and Magnetic Tape : Optical disk and magnetic disk allow sequential
access of data. These memories are mostly used for backup and archiving purpose.

As indicated in the
diagram, the storage
capacity and access
time increases as we
move down the
memory hierarchy
levels where as the
cost per bit to store
increase as we move
up in the memory
hierarchy levels.

Memory Hierarchy

Main Memory Organisation

Main memory/ primary memory or Internal Memory stores the data and instruction that can be directly
executed by the CPU. Primary memory store data in specific locations called memory location. Each
memory location is identified by a unique number called m memory
emory address. The smallest amount of data
that can be transferred to and from main memory is called memory word.
Primary Memory is of Two Types.

1. RAM (Random Access Memory)

The main characteristics of RAM are as follow :

 The word “random” refers to the fact that any memory location of RAM can be accessed at constant
time regardless the physical location.
 RAM is Volatile or Temporary in nature i.e. Once the
system is switched off , the information stored on
RAM gets erased.
 RAM is read and write memory, it can be read as well
as write as per the processing requirements.
 RAM is a semiconductor memory and is very costly in
comparison to secondary memory.
 RAM size is limited, the storage size of RAM
available these days varies from MB’s to GB’s.
Example 512 MB, 1GB, 2GB, 4GB,8GB etc.
 RAM are of two types
o DRAM (Dynamic RAM) : In this memory the data is
continuously refreshed because Dynamic RAM looses data
in few milliseconds, It stores data in the form of charge on
capacitor which leaks away in short time. Dynamic memory
is slower and cheaper than Static RAM.
o SRAM (Static RAM) : In this memory data remained stored
without the need of periodic refresh. Static RAM store uses
transistors for data storage; Static RAM is fast and costly as
compare to DRAM. One of the most popular example of
SRAM is Cache memory.
2. ROM (Read Only Memory) : ROM is built in memory of a computer system. It is very small in size
and store firmware, which store instruction which are necessary to run or boot the system.

The main characteristics of ROM are as follow :

 It is a read only memory, we cannot write into it.
 ROM is non volatile or permanent memory, The data and instructions does not get erased when the
computer power is switched off.
 In ROM data/instruction are accessed in sequence, Random access is not possible.
 Instruction stored in ROM is executed automatically as soon as computer is switched on.
 There are mainly 3 types of ROM’s
o PROM (Programmable Read only Memory) : These ROM’s are
programmed by computer programmers for some special purposes.
Once they are programmed the data gets stored in them permanently.
o EPROM (Erasable Programmable Read only Memory). The data stored
in EPROM’s can be erased by using Ultra Violet (UV) rays and these
ROM chips can be reprogrammed.
o EEPROM (Electrically Erasable Programmable Read only Memory) :
The data stored in EEPROMs can be erased completely / partially
electrically and new data can be stored on them.
Secondary Memory/ Secondary Storage Devices

Primary memory has two main limitations: Limited storage capacity and volatility. To overcome
these limitations almost all computers use additional memory called secondary or auxiliary
memory. Secondary memory is permanent, cheap and provides high storage capacity.

There are two methods of accessing information from secondary storage devices : direct access
and sequential access.

In sequential access the desired information is accessed by searching the data in the sequential
manner starting from the first record until the desired record is found, thus the access time here
depends upon the distance of the desired information from the beginning.

In direct access method the information is directly fetched from its storage location. In this case
search time is independent from the location of the data storage.

Examples Sequential Access : Magnetic Tape

Direct Access : Magnetic Disk, CD/DVD/ Pen Drive, Memory Card etc.

Brief information about the most common secondary storage devices :

Magnetic Disks: Magnetic disks are the most popular direct access secondary storage devices. A
magnetic disk is made up of a thin circular plate / platter of metal or plastic. Its surface on both
sides has a coating of magnetic material such as iron oxide that can record data by
magnetization. Data is recorded on its coated surface as tiny magnetized and non magnetized
spots (Represents 0 and 1).
Storage organization
A magnetic disk’s surface has a number of invisible, concentric circles called tracks. A magnetic
disk also has a pie shaped segments. If there are eight such segments than each track has eight
parts. Each part of the track is called a sector. Typically a sector contains 512 bytes and every
sector has a unique address. Magnetic disks store data in EBCDIC (Extended Binary coded
decimal Interchange Code).

The disk drive has an access arm assembly having read/write heads for each recordable surface
of the disk pack. All access arms of the assembly moves together, for fast data access the disk
packs use the concept of cylinder for data organization. A set of corresponding tracks on all
recording surfaces of a disk pack together form a cylinder.