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Tests and Assessment

The NEO Personality Inventory: Using
the Five-Factor ModeI in Counseling

ROBERT R. McCRAE and PAUL T. COSTA, JR.

Personality psychologists have recently concluded that five major di- Openness to Experience (O), Agreeableness (A), and Conscien-
mensions account for most individual differences in personality traits. tiousness (C). In the past 10 years it has become clear that some
The NEO Personality Inventory (NEO-PI) is a concise measure of this or all of these same five dimensions recur in most personality
Five-Factor Model and of some of the important traits that define the inventories. For example, the Extroverted, Intuitive, Feeling, and
factors. Characteristics of the test, features for administration and Judging scales of the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI; Myers
scoring, and studies of reliability, stability, and validity are sum- & McCaulley, 1985) correspond to E, O, A, and C of the NEO
marized. The NEO-PI may be particularly appropriate for use in coun- Personality Inventory (McCrae & Costa, 1989c). Similar links
seling because it is brief, nonpsychopathological in content, and sensitive have been shown with scales measuring Murray’s (1938) needs,
to client strengths as well as weaknesses. We suggest several ways in personality disorders, and the interpersonal circumplex (McCrae
which the counselor can learn how to use the NEO-PI effectively. & Costa, 1990). The same five factors have been found in children,
college students, and older adults; in men and women; in self-
ne of the most exciting developments in personality psy- reports and observer ratings; and in English, German, and

O chology in the last decade has been the rapidly emerging

consensus on the value of the Five-Factor Model (or “Big
Five”) as a comprehensive taxonomy of personality traits. The
Chinese samples.
The task of systematic assessment is thus greatly simplified: To
be maximally effective, counselors should measure traits from
model itself was the subject of a recent Annual Review chapter each of the five factors to have a comprehensive understanding
(Digman, 1990), and it has been featured in both of the recent of the individual. These personality traits have an enduring and
personality psychology handbooks (John, 1990; Wiggins &Trap- pervasive influence on people’s lives. Research has shown that
nell, in press). The applications of the model to clinical psychol- they are highly stable in adulthood and can be assessed by both
ogy (Spielberger, 1989) and psychiatry (Widiger, Frances, Harris, self-reports and observer ratings, and that they affect reactions to
Jacobsberg, Fyer, & Manning, in press) have been explored, and stress (McCrae & Costa, 1986), occupational interests (Costa,
a forthcoming special issue of the Journal of Personality will ad- McCrae, & Holland, 1984), creativity (McCrae, 1987), interper-
dress its use in areas such as health psychology, school adjust- sonal relations (Buss, in press), and response to psychotherapy
ment, and the psychology of emotion (McCrae, in press-b). In this (Miller, in press). We return in a later section to consider some
article, we would like to consider its potential use in counseling specific applications to counseling, but it should be clear that all
and to introduce an instrument—the NEO Personality Inven- five of these factors are potentially of great relevance.
tory—which measures the five factors and some of the important
traits that define them.
There are, of course, innumerable ways in which individuals
THE NEO PERSONALITY INVENTORY
differ in their characteristic styles of thinking, feeling, and behav-
ing. Laypersons use thousands of words, such as nervous, en-
thusiastic, original, accommodating, and careful to describe them- Because the factors are so pervasive, many instruments could be
selves and their acquaintances, and psychologists have used to measure them, although relatively few inventories tap all
developed hundreds of scales to measure personality trait con- five dimensions. Currently the only published instrument de-
structs derived from theory and research. Counselors who wish signed specifically to operationalize the Five-Factor Model is the
to gain a clear understanding of their clients’ personalities need NEO Personality Inventory (NEO-PI; Costa & McCrae, 1985,
to select a manageable number of these constructs to assess, and 1989). This is a 181-item questionnaire developed through ration-
it is here that the Five-Factor Model can offer guidance. al and factor-analytic methods in a series of studies using adult
A series of studies conducted over the past 40 years (John, volunteers ranging in age from 20 to 90 years. In addition to the
Angleitner, & Ostendorf, 1988) has shown that most trait adjec- global domain scales measuring N, E, O, A, and C, there are 18
tives found in natural languages can be understood in terms of subscales measuring six specific facets of N, E, and O. (Facet
the five basic dimensions of Neuroticism (N), Extraversion (E), scales for A and C are currently under development and will

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McCrae and Costa

result in a 241-item instrument.) Table 1 lists the facet scales and tional information that can confirm or qualify self-reports
characteristics of high and low scorers. (McCrae & Costa, 1989a; Muten, in press), and the use of both
Both paper-and-pencil and computer-administered versions of self-reports and ratings may be particularly valuable in marriage
the NEO-PI are available. A sixth-grade reading level is sufficient and family counseling, where differing perceptions of personal-
to understand the items; most respondents require about 20 ity can be a source of misunderstanding and miscommunication.
minutes to complete the questionnaire. A 60-item version of the NEO-PI scales are roughly balanced to control for the effects of
instrument—the NEO Five-Factor Inventory—has also been acquiescence, and studies have shown that socially desirable
published; it provides information only on the five global scores, responding does not invalidate scores (McCrae & Costa, 1983; see
and it is recommended chiefly for situations in which administra- also Nicholson & Hogan, 1990). A single-item validity check is
tion of the full instrument is not feasible. The NEO-PI has been used to screen careless or avowedly inaccurate administrations.
used with college students and with adults of all ages. Research Additional checks for random and acquiescent responding have
has shown that after about age 30, there are few changes in also been devised (Costa & McCrae, 1989, in press).
personality; thus, two normative age groups—college students In a longitudinal retest of the original normative sample, 3- to
and adults—are sufficient, and separate profiles are offered for 6-year stability coefficients for the NEO-PI scales ranged from .68
each. The fact that older adults have been used in the develop- to .83. The internal consistency reliabilities of the 8-item facet
ment and validation of the instrument makes it particularly scales ranged from .64 to .85; coefficient alphas for the longer N,
appropriate for use in counseling older people (Waters, 1990). It E, O, A, and C scales were .93, .87, .89, .76, and .86 (Costa &
would probably be suitable for use by adolescents, but no studies McCrae, 1988). Internal consistency coefficients were virtually
have yet been published using the instrument in that population. identical in a recent study in a clinical sample (Fagan, Wise,
In addition to its use with normal volunteers, the NEO-PI Schmidt, Ponticas, Marshall, & Costa, in press). Spouse and peer
has been used in a variety of medical and clinical settings ratings on the observer form of the NEO-PI show similar levels
(Spielberger, 1989). of reliability, and NEO-PI scales have been validated in a series
Both the computer-administered version and a mail-in scoring of studies, showing meaningful convergent and discriminant
service for the paper-and-pencil version provide an interpretive correlations with other inventory scales, peer and spouse ratings,
report that gives a narrative description of personality and pos- sentence completion tests, and expert Q-sort ratings (Costa &
sible implications for mood and psychological well-being, coping McCrae, in press).
and defense, somatic complaints, cognitive processes, interper- Test authors, of course, are not necessarily the most objective
sonal styles, and needs and motives, based on research done with evaluators of their own instruments, so we have paid particular
the instrument. attention to the comments of test reviewers. Dolliver (1987) pro-
One of the unique features of the NEO-PI is a parallel form for vided the first review of the NEO-PI in this journal; since his
obtaining observer ratings. Although self-reports have proven to review appeared, we have addressed a number of his concerns.
be useful and valid measures of personality, they provide only Specifically, we have provided separate norms for college stu-
one perspective on personality. Spouses and peers provide addi- dents; replicated our reports of internal consistency on separate

TABLE 1
NEO-PI Facet Scales and Characteristics of Low and High Scorers

Domain and Facet Low Scorer High Scorer

Neuroticism
Anxiety Calm, relaxed, fearless Worrying, tense, apprehensive
Hostility Even-tempered, slow to take offense Hot-tempered, easily frustrated
Depression Seldom sad, feels worthwhile Hopeless, guilty, down-hearted
Self-consciousness Poised, secure, feels adequate Ashamed, feels inferior
Impulsiveness Resists temptation, self-controlled Unable to resist cravings
Vulnerability Resilient, cool-headed Unable to deal with stress
Extraversion
Warmth Cold, distant, formal Outgoing, talkative, affectionate
Gregariousness Solitary, prefers being alone Convivial, seeks social contact
Assertiveness Unassuming, retiring Dominant, forceful
Activity Unhurried, slow Energetic, fast-paced, vigorous
Excitement-seeking Cautious, staid Flashy, seeks stimulation
Positive emotions Unenthusiastic. serious Cheerful, high-spirited
Openness
Fantasy Practical, avoids daydreaming Imaginative, elaborates fantasies
Aesthetics Insensitive to beauty Moved by art and beauty
Feelings Narrow range of emotions Emotionally responsive, sensitive
Actions Prefers familiar, follows routine Seeks novelty and variety
Ideas Pragmatic, factually oriented Intellectually curious, analytical
Values Dogmatic, conforming Broad-minded, tolerant

Note. Adapted from Figure 1 in Costa and McCrae (1985). Reproduced with permission from the NEO Personality lnventory Manual, copyright 1985
by PAR Inc.

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 NEO Personality lnventory

samples; reported long-term stability coefficients; and substan- characteristics they can change, such as coping skills. In fact,
tially revised the interpretive report (Costa & McCrae, 1989). however, psychological change can be facilitated by knowledge
Dolliver suggested that counselors might wish to discuss NEO-PI of the individual’s enduring dispositions. For example, in-
scores with their clients, and we have developed and validated a dividuals high in Openness report a greater spontaneous use of
one-page “Your NE0 Summary” to provide nontechnical feed- humor in coping with stress, whereas those low in Openness
back to respondents (Costa & McCrae, in press). More recent report more use of faith (McCrae & Costa, 1986). Both faith and
reviews of the NEO-PI have been offered by Hogan (1989) and humor are useful ways to deal with stress, but different in-
by Leong and Dollinger (1990). dividuals may find one or the other way more congenial, and
counselors might wish to tailor their interventions to these pre-
PERSONALITY ASSESSMENT IN COUNSELING ferences. The NEO-PI Interpretive Report gives information on a
number of ways of coping that the client is likely to use, and a
Counselors differ greatly in their attitudes toward and use of
review of these may suggest characteristic problems to avoid or
psychological assessment, partly because of their widely dif-
possibilities to exploit.
ferent specializations, and partly because of differences in phil-
osophy and training. As Watkins and Campbell (1989, 1990)
How Should Personality Information Be Used?
pointed out, counselors differ from clinical psychologists in their
emphases on normal human development, skill enhancement, Many psychological tests were developed for very specific pur-
and client potentials, although they have not developed a distinc- poses, such as to diagnose depression, select police officers, or
tive approach to the use of tests. The NEO-PI may be particularly identify gifted children. The NEO-PI has a much broader goal; it
suited to the distinctive aims and needs of counselors, because it attempts to give a full and accurate assessment of basic per-
measures normal personality traits, assesses strengths as well as sonality traits and thus be useful in placement, selection, psy-
weaknesses, and is brief enough to be suitable for short-term chotherapy, guidance—whenever knowledge of personality is
counseling. needed. We know from both validational studies and clinical
Unlike the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory experience (Spielberger, 1989) that the NEO-PI can be used to
(MMPI) and other clinical instruments, the NEO-PI: was not understand people’s emotional, interpersonal, experiential, and
designed to measure psychopathology. The individual who motivational styles, and this will probably be its most basic
comes to counseling for advice, reassurance, or simply a chance function in counseling. Just as counselors routinely begin by
to think a problem through may be confused or offended by noting the client‘s age, sex, and educational background, we
questions about bizarre beliefs, suicidal tendencies, or antisocial believe they should also take into account the client’s standing
behavior. Assessment using measures of psychopathology may on the dimensions of N, E, O, A, and C. Indeed, these dimensions
interfere with rapport between the counselor and the client. may prove to be more relevant to understanding the client than
These problems are much less likely with an instrument like the factors such as sex or age (cf. Schlossberg, 1990).
NEO-PI, which asks questions about feelings, preferences, and There are also more specific ways in which personality infor-
social behaviors that are relevant and meaningful to virtually mation is likely to prove useful, and research demonstrating
everyone. utility for particular applications in counseling settings will be
Because it provides a comprehensive assessment of personality welcome. We believe the NEO-PI will be valuable in evaluating
traits, the NEO-PI is particularly useful in pointing to each in- the client’s problem, in selecting an optimal treatment, in predict-
dividual’s strengths. MMPI scales, for example, do not measure ing the outcome of counseling, and in providing useful feedback
Conscientiousness (Johnson, Butcher, Null, & Johnson, 1984), so to the client.
a client’s self-discipline and willingness to work would not be Although the NEO-PI was not designed to yield psychiatric
assessed by that instrument. The scales of the NEO-PI can also diagnoses, it does measure related traits, and the counselor may
alert counselors to individuals’ emotional stability and hardiness, find it very useful to know the client’s characteristic levels of
social poise and leadership abilities, willingness to rethink old anxiety, depression, and hostility. As Johnson, Ellison, and Heik-
ways of approaching problems, or altruism and generosity. kinen (1989) recently reported, one-fourth to one-third of univer-
Counseling traditionally employs brief interventions, and it is sity students attending a college counseling center showed symp-
unrealistic to expect counselors to conduct elaborate assessments toms of a psychiatric disorder. NEO-PI scales are known to be
that may take hours to administer, score, and interpret. The strongly related to measures of personality disorders (Wiggins &
NEO-PI can usually be administered and scored in 30 minutes, Pincus, 1989), and the N scale is associated with several of the
and once the personality model is understood, it can be quickly clinical scales on the MMPI (McCrae, in press-a). Thus, high N
interpreted. This kind of assessment can actually save time for scores might indicate that more focused assessment of psycho-
two reasons: (1) it gives the counselor information on what the pathology is warranted. Extreme scores on other dimensions can
client is like and thus which approaches may be most fruitful and also suggest areas that need special attention. For example, high
(2) the counselor’s understanding of the client can lead to the E scores are associated with histrionic traits, low E scores with
rapid development of an empathic bond that can facilitate the schizoid withdrawal. Even if these features do not constitute
therapeutic process. As Miller noted, the NEO-PI allows one to diagnosable personality disorders, they may indicate qualitative-
“get a jump on accurate empathy” (cited in McCrae & Costa, ly similar problems.
1989b, p. 452; cf. Duckworth, 1990). Gelso and Fassinger (1990) noted that the key question for the
At first glance, some counselors might consider the traits counseling field is the matching of counselors and techniques
measured by the NEO-PI to be irrelevant. Longitudinal research with clients, and it is clear that personality dimensions are among
has shown that these traits are quite stable in adults (McCrae & the most important client characteristics in this regard. Miller (in
Costa, 1990), and counselors tend to be more concerned with press) has argued that the two dimensions of E and O are most

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McCrae and Costa

relevant to the choice of therapeutic technique. Specifically, he on an early version of the NEO-PI (Costa, McCrae, & Holland,
suggested that extraverted individuals profit from group and 1984). Adult men and women with artistic and investigative
talk-centered therapies, whereas introverts prefer more task- interests were high in O; those with social and enterprising
oriented approaches, and that open clients are willing to try a interests were high in E.
number of novel and imaginative approaches to solving their These associations made theoretical sense, but how should they
problems, whereas those who are closed to experience prefer be used in counseling? Certainly, we would not advocate the use
directive, structured, and conventional therapies. These sugges- of the NEO-PI as a substitute for the SDS. The SDS provides
tions need to be adapted to the techniques specific to counseling, specific information on vocational interests that is indispensable.
Personality variables are likely to be related to the client's But the NEO-PI can be useful as a supplement to the SDS in
response to counseling. Miller (in press) suggested that agreeable several ways. If personality scores are markedly inconsistent
clients would be more trusting and cooperative with the therapist with vocational choices (if, for example, an extreme introvert
than antagonistic clients and that highly conscientious clients indicates a strong interest in enterprising occupations), it can
would follow recommendations more diligently than low C in- suggest carelessness in filling out the instrument or confusion
dividuals. He also found that individuals high in C and low in N about the nature of the occupations chosen. If the client shows an
had the best prognosis for a favorable outcome of psychotherapy. undifferentiated vocational interest profile, additional per-
An understanding of these variables can help the counselor sonality information may be useful in suggesting occupations for
anticipate the process and outcome of counseling. consideration. We know that open men and women tend to have
Duckworth (1990) has argued that counselors regard psycho- very wide interests, and this should be taken into account in
logical testing as a tool that should benefit the client as well as the interpreting SDS scores. Very open individuals might indicate an
therapist. Accurate and appropriate feedback on personality initial interest in occupations, such as Tree Surgeon or Credit
traits can give clients a new perspective on themselves, their Investigator, that are unlikely to sustain their interest.
problems, and their resources, and participation in test inter- Interests are not the only qualification needed for occupational
pretation can contribute to the empowerment of the client. The success. In addition to specialized aptitude and training, other
NEO-PI can facilitate this kind of client-centered assessment characteristics of the individual are relevant, including social
(McReynolds, 1989). The Five-Factor Model itself was first dis- skills, ability to tolerate stress, and ambition and diligence. The
covered in analyses of the natural language, so its basic concepts NEO-PI profile gives information on emotional, interpersonal,
are easily conveyed in lay language. “Your NEO Summary” experiential, attitudinal, and motivational styles; all of these
provides a validated feedback form that describes the basic fea- should be considered in evaluating the fit between client and
tures of the individual’s personality in nonpejorative language, vocation.
and the counselor may wish to discuss the full NEO-PI profile Information on personality can be particularly important in
with the client in detail. Use of ratings from spouses or peers on counseling individuals who are contemplating career change.
the rating form of the NEO-PI can provide yet another source of Holland’s theory holds that dissatisfaction with one’s career is
insight: The client can learn from these results how he or she is the result of incongruence between the job and the individual’s
perceived by significant others. The experience and judgment of needs, interests, and abilities. Although this is doubtless often
the counselor are needed, of course, to determine when and how true, there are also other reasons for career shifts. Open people
test information should be shared with the client. prize variety and are more likely to change careers, presumably
We have outlined here a set of hypotheses that will require in search of novelty (McCrae & Costa, 1985). Individuals high in
extensive research to confirm or qualify. But as Gelso and Fas- N may be dissatisfied with their jobs because they are chronically
singer (1990) noted, “Most needed in the area of client and dissatisfied with life. Career changes in themselves are unlikely
counselor variables are programmatic efforts . . . deriving from to cure an unhappiness that is rooted in characterological anxiety
and contributing to sound theoretical statements“ (p. 360). The and depression. The counselor needs to understand vocational
Five-Factor Model can provide a theoretical framework for or- aspirations and discuss them with the client in the context of the
ganizing much of this research. client’s total personality.

The NEO-PI as an Adjunct to Specialized Assessment Learning to Use the NEO-PI

Although we think the NEO-PI would be useful in almost all We noted earlier that NEO-PI scores can be interpreted quickly,
counseling settings, we would not claim that it can replace other once the personality model is understood. In our experience, simply
instruments that have been developed to meet specific assess- reading the scale labels, descriptors, and correlates is rarely
ment needs. Educational psychologists will continue to need sufficient to understand fully the concepts being measured. As
intelligence tests, clinical psychologists will need psychodiagnos- Gough (1965) noted, “From this starting point it is the inter-
tic interviews, and marriage counselors may need information on preter’s task to evolve an insightful diagnostic portrait of the high
sexual attitudes and activities. Fortunately, it is rarely necessary and low scorer on the scale, to render this evidence into an
to choose between personality measurement and specialized integrated formulation relevant for practice and understanding.
assessment; both can contribute to the counseling process. Voca- The achievement of such a formulation requires all of the crea-
tional guidance offers a good example. tivity that the interpreter can muster” (p. 300). Learning a new
One of the most important and widely used tools in vocational system is never easy, but we would like to offer some suggestions
counseling is Holland’s (1985) Self-Directed Search (SDS), an that might facilitate the process.
instrument that groups vocations according to a hexagonal The manuals for the NEO-PI and NEO-FFI are, of course, the
model. In 1984 we published an article with Holland showing basic sources, and they contain an extensive list of references that
links between SDS scales and both self-reports and spouse ratings the user might consult. Most of these, however, deal with re-

370 JOURNAL OF COUNSELING & DEVELOPMENT • MARCH/APRIL 1991 • VOL. 69

 NEO Personality Inventory

search rather than practice issues. We suggest an interplay Costa, P. T., Jr. (in press). A comparison of five-factor personality
dimensions in males with sexual dysfunction and males with
between research and counseling experience. For example, it
paraphilia. Journal of Personality Assessment.
might be appropriate to read more about Openness to Experience Gelso, C. J., & Fassinger, R. E. (1990). Counseling psychology: Theory and
(McCrae & Costa, 1985, in press) when one encounters a client research on interventions. Annual Review of Psychology, 41, 355-386.
exceptionally high or low on the O scale. That client could then Gough, H. G. (1965). Conceptual analysis of psychological test scores and
illustrate the construct, and the articles might illuminate features other diagnostic variables. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 70, 294-302.
Hogan, R. (1989). Review of The NEO Personality Inventory. In J. C.
of the client. Conoley & J. J. Kramer (Eds.), The tenth mental measurements yearbook.
From a heuristic point of view, we suggest that counselors begin Lincoln, NE: Buros Institute of Mental Measurements.
by focusing on the five domain scales that give the broad outlines Holland, J. L. (1985). Self-Directed Search—1985 edition. Odessa, FL:
of personality. When these constructs have become familiar, Psychological Assessment Resources.
John, O. P. (1990). The “Big Five” factor taxonomy: Dimensions of per-
attention can be turned to the facet scales, which provide more
sonality in the natural language and in questionnaires. In L. Pervin
detailed information about specific aspects of personality. For (Ed.), Handbook of personality theory and research (pp. 66-100). New York:
example, both Warmth and Gregariousness are facets of E that Guilford.
measure aspects of sociability. But warm individuals are affec- John, O. P., Angleitner, A., & Ostendorf, F. (1988). The lexical approach
tionate, enthusiastic, and friendly; gregarious people simply to personality: A historical review of trait taxonomic research. European
Journal of Personality, 2, 171-203.
prefer social stimulation. This distinction, which could have Johnson, J. H., Butcher, J. N., Null, C., & Johnson, K. N. (1984). Replicated
considerable importance to some counseling situations, is lost at item level factor analysis of the full MMPI. Journal of Personality and
the level of the five factors, but it is readily seen in NEO-PI facet Social Psychology, 47, 105-114.
scales. There are currently 18 facet scales, and there will eventual- Johnson, R. W., Ellison, R. A., & Heikkinen, C. A. (1989). Psychological
symptoms of counseling center clients. Journal of Counseling Psychology,
ly be 30, so it will take longer to master them all, but the task
36, 110-114.
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Conversely, knowledge of the facets will deepen understanding J. Keyser & R. C. Sweetland (Eds.), Test Critiques (Vol. VIII, pp. 527-
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An alternative approach is to use the Interpretive Report pro- McCrae, R. R. (1987). Creativity, divergent thinking, and openness to
experience. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52, 1258-1265.
vided with computer administration and mail-in scoring. The McCrae, R. R. (in press-a). The Five-Factor Model and its assessment in
report provides a narrative description of personality in three clinical settings. Journal of Personality Assessment.
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“Detailed Interpretation: Facets of N, E, and O”; and “Personality applications [Special issue]. Journal of Personality.
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