Environmental Studies

Report on Audit Course- III

210251 - Environmental Studies submitted

to the Savitribai

Phule Pune University, Pune

By

Student Name : Kartik pravin turankar

Roll No- S5538

NBN SINHGAD SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING, AMBEGAON

(BK.),
OFF. SINHGAD RD.,
PUNE – 411041 MAHARASHTRA, INDIA
 A.Y.2024-2025

CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the report on Audit Course- VII entitled

“Environmental Studies ”
Submitted by

Student Name: Kartik pravin turankar

is a bonafide record of the work carried out by him towards the partial fulfilment
of the requirements of Savitribai Phule Pune University, for the award of degree
of Bachelor of Engineering in Computer Engineering under our supervision and
guidance.

Date : 23/10/2024 Place : Pune

Prof. Madhura Choudhari Dr.Shailesh Bendale

Teacher Guardian Head of Department
SE- Division-2 Computer Engineering

Dr. S.P. Patil

Principal
NBNSSOE

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 INDEX

Sr. No. Contents Page No.

1 Introduction 1

1.1 Objective(s) of the work

1.2 Natural resources

1.3 Ecosystems

1.4 Biodiversity

1.5 Pollution

2 Case Study: 6
Air Pollution and Health in India
3 Conclusion 14

References 16

1. INTRODUCTION

Environmental studies are the field that examines this relationship between people and the
environment. An environmental study is an interdisciplinary subject examining the interplay
between the social, legal, management, and scientific aspects of environmental issues.

1.1 OBJECTIVE(S) OF THE WORK

• Understanding the importance of ecological balance for sustainable development.
 • Understanding the impacts of developmental activities and mitigation measures.
• Understand and realize the multi-disciplinary nature of the environment, its components, and inter-
relationship between man and environment

Environmental Studies

• Understand the relevance and importance of the natural resources in the sustenance of life on earth
and living standard.

1.2 NATURAL RESOURCES

The materials like air, water, soil, minerals, coal, and petroleum, animals, plants, which are
stocks of nature, are called natural resources. In other words, we can say that all those materials, which
are provided to us by nature, are called natural resources. Natural resources now days are over exploited
by growing population, agriculture, industrialization and urbanization.
Types of Natural Resources:
Natural Resources are broadly divided into two categories: -
1. Exhaustible Natural Resources.
2. Inexhaustible Natural Resources

1. Exhaustible Natural Resources

These natural resources are present in the nature in limited quantity. These can be replenished
only after hundreds of millions years. So if their stocks would be finished rapidly, they cannot
be generated.
Example:

NBNSSOE, Ambegaon Soil,

forests, wild animals, minerals, fossil fuels.
2. Inexhaustible Natural Resources
The resources which are present in nature in unlimited quantity, and they are replenished through rapid
natural cycles. These resources can be utilized fully over many years.
Example:
Solar energy, air, water, rainfall, snowfall, atomic power.
1.3 ECOSYSTEMS
An ‘Ecosystem’ is a region with a specific and recognizable landscape form such as forest,
grassland, desert, wetland or coastal area. The nature of the ecosystem is based on its
geographical features such as hills, mountains, plains, rivers, lakes, coastal areas or islands. It
is also controlled by climatic conditions such as the amount of sunlight, the temperature and
the rainfall in the region. The geographical, climatic and soil characteristics form its non- living

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(abiotic) component. These features create conditions that support a community of plants and
animals that evolution has produced to live in these specific conditions. The living part of the
ecosystem is referred to as its biotic component.

Types of Ecosystem:

(a) Natural Ecosystems:

These ecosystems are capable of operating and maintaining themselves without any major
interference by man.

A classification based on their habitat can further be made:

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1. Terrestrial ecosystems: forest, grassland and desert.

2. Aquatic ecosystems: fresh water ecosystem, viz. pond, lake, river and marine ecosystems,
Viz. Ocean, sea or estuary.

(b) Artificial Ecosystem:

These are maintained by man. These are manipulated by man for different purposes, e.g.,
croplands, artificial lakes and reservoirs, townships and cities.

1.4 BIODIVERSITY

The term biodiversity was coined as a contraction of biological diversity by E.O. Wilson in
1985. Biodiversity may be defined as the variety and variability of living organisms and the
ecological complexes in which they exist. In other words, biodiversity is the occurrence of
different types of ecosystems, different species of organisms with the whole range of their
variants and genes adapted to different climates, environments along with their interactions
and processes.

Biodiversity includes the genetic variability (for which different varieties of spices have
appeared in the course of evolution) and diversity of life forms such as plants, animal
microbes, etc. living in a wide range of ecosystems.

Biodiversity of India:
As per available data, the varieties of species living on the earth are 1753739. Out of the above
species, 134781 are residing in India although surface area of India is 2% of the earth’s surface.
Wild life Institute of India has divided it into ten bio geographical regions and twenty five
biotic provinces.

Biogeographical regions are:

(i) Trans Himalayas,

(ii) Gangetic plain,

(iii) Desert,
(iv) Semiarid zone;

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(v) Western Ghats;

(vi) Deccan peninsula,

(vii) North eastern zone,

(viii) Coastal lands

(ix) Himalayas,
(x) Islands.
India is one of the twelve mega diversity nations of the world due to the following
reasons:

(i) It has 7.3% of the global fauna and 10.88% of global flora as per the data collected by
Ministry of Environment and forest.

(ii) It has 350 different mammals, 1200 species of birds- 453 different reptiles, 182
amphibians and 45,000 plants spices.

(iii) It has 50,000 known species of insects which include 13,000 butterflies and moths.

(iv) It has 10 different biogeographical regions and 25 biotic provinces having varieties of
lands and species.

(v) In addition to geographical distribution, geological events in the land mass provide high
level of biological diversity.

(vi) Several crops arose in the country and spread throughout the world.

(vii) There is wide variety of domestic animals like cows, buffaloes, goats, sheep, pigs, horses
etc.

(viii) The marine biota includes sea weeds, fishes, crustaceans, molluses, corals, reptiles etc.

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(ix) There are a number of hot spots (namely Eastern Ghats, Western Ghats, North Eastern
hills etc.).

1.5 POLLUTION
The term ‘pollution’ has gained a wider significance in recent years. Pollution refers to the
release of chemical or substances into the environment that is injurious for human, animal and
plant life. The water, air, noise and other forms of pollution in one terminology is known as the
pollution of the eco-system.

1. Water Pollution

Water Pollution refers to the contamination of water bodies such as water, sea, lakes, ocean,
etc. It happens when pollutants are discharged into water without proper treatment. The organic
sources of water pollution are food-processing wastes, tree debris, etc. The inorganic sources
are acidic industrial discharge, silt, etc.
Proper treatment of pollutants before their introduction to the water bodies is of utmost
importance to mitigate the growing water pollution.
2. Air Pollution
Air pollution is introduction of chemicals to the atmosphere. It damages environmental balance
and causes several diseases. The major causes include massive deforestation, atomic
explosions, old vehicles, industrial fumes, etc.
Massive deforestation should be immediately stopped since it has altered the balance between
oxygen and carbon dioxide. Industrial and vehicle law relating to air pollution should be
properly implemented.
3. Noise Pollution
Noise pollution is the excessive sound that may cause harm to the humanity. The sources of
indoor noise pollution are machines, television, music activities. The external sources of noise
pollution are industries, vehicles, trains, etc.
Noise control measures such as noise barriers, smooth roadways, etc. can be introduced to
reduce the pollution.

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4. Thermal Pollution
The excessive use of water as coolant in heavy industries and power plants cause change in the
temperature of water in lakes, ponds and rivers beyond normal limits. This is called Thermal
Pollution.

2. CASE STUDY:[ Air Pollution and Health in India]

Air pollution is a major and growing risk factor for ill health in India, contributing significantly to the
country’s burden of disease. As per the Global Burden of Disease comparative risk assessment for
2015, air pollution exposure contributes to approximately 1.8 million premature deaths and 49 million
disability adjusted life-years (DALYs) lost, ranking it among the top risk factors for ill health in India.
Home to 10 of the top 20 cities with the highest annual average levels of PM2.5 as per the WHO Urban
Ambient Air Quality Database (2016)1 , and with several studies showing a worsening trend over
time2,3, it is safe to say that rapid urbanization and industrial development have adversely affected
urban air quality due to vehicular and industrial emissions. Simultaneously, over two-thirds of rural
Indians caught in the ‘chulha trap’ use biomass fuels such as wood, dung or coal to satisfy their cooking
and heating needs, resulting in smoke-filled homes and extremely high levels of exposure especially
to women and children. Rural and urban India are both affected by poor air quality. There is, however,
heterogeneity in sources and pollutant profiles. For instance, use of cooking fuels varies between urban
and rural households, vehicular density is vastly different in cities and villages, and differing
climatology and geography across India affects regional and seasonal levels of ambient air pollution.
Air pollution has been termed a democratizing force4 but it is far from that, as it propagates existing
environmental injustices. Studies have shown that children and the elderly are particularly vulnerable
to air pollution exposure. Air pollution exposure has shown to slow lung development in children5 ,
affect cognitive development6 , and has resulted in high levels of mortality from respiratory infections7
. The elderly are more likely to develop chronic respiratory and cardiac illnesses as a result of longterm
exposure, and are more susceptible to heart attacks and strokes during episodic high pollution events.
Vulnerable also are those of a lower socio- economic status, with studies showing they are more
susceptible to insults from air pollution exposure for a variety of reasons including occupation, housing,
cooking fuel use, the common link being poverty8 . While environment, health and development are
frequently pitted in adversarial roles in the discourse on economic growth, published evidence argues
that they are very much in consonance. A study published by the World Bank9 in 2016 revealed that

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air pollution cost India approximately 8% of its GDP or $560 billion in 2013, as a result of lost
productivity due to premature mortality and morbidity. This study, while a great first step, failed to
capture the healthcare costs of treating air pollution-induced illnesses, which if factored in, could
produce a far larger number. To address the multi-dimensional, multi-sectoral problem of air pollution
requires a cogent and considered approach that takes into account the best available epidemiological
evidence, benefit-cost analyses of various interventions, and a strong communications platform to
ensure broad awareness of the health impacts of air pollution and the advantages of mitigation. The
review carried out for this report however, shows us that there is a dearth of work carried out in all of
the areas mentioned above. While the epidemiological evidence for the health impacts of air pollution
in India is strong, strengthening it in several aspects as outlined in this report would aid in more
informed policymaking. There are challenges however that preclude high quality research on the health
effects of air pollution from being conducted in India, and many of these have to do with the quality
and the availability of air quality and health outcome data. At the moment, the health evidence base on
air pollution is primarily based on crosssectional or time-series studies which have been conducted in
large cities through primary research. Challenges remain in conducting such studies with secondary
data due to (a) the availability of quality health outcome data from the public and private sector,
thwarted by the poor uptake of any standardized electronic health records framework, and (b) the sparse
coverage and questionable quality of air quality data collected by government agencies. This lack of
data also ensures that there remain challenges in conducting long-term studies on the health impacts of
air pollution (particularly ambient), since the historical records of air quality data in most cities
(particularly PM2.5) go back only a few years, with many missing data points. While the research
evidence base needs to be strengthened further, there have been some significant developments in the
policy space, recognizing that the evidence necessary to develop policy is already there. The Union
Ministry of Health & Family Welfare in 2014 constituted a Steering Committee of experts on air
pollution, with the report of this committee released in late 2015/early
2016. The Committee’s Report on Air Pollution and Health Related Issues10 outlined targeted actions
to improve health outcomes associated with air pollution by moving beyond air quality management.
Following this, there have been some concrete policy actions including improving rural LPG access
through the Pradhan Mantri Ujjwala Yojana. The establishment of a Standing Committee on Air
Pollution, proposed to be chaired by the Health & Environment Secretaries, is under consideration at
the ministerial level. However, most action on air pollution is often driven by the judiciary, with the
National Green Tribunal and the Supreme Court taking the lead. The directives from the Judiciary have
led to the fast-tracking of newer fuel and emissions standards for vehicles, and a focus on reducing air
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pollution during episodic events such as Diwali. Such decision- making, however, is often
characterized by a lack of in-depth understanding of the health impacts and a focus on
shorttermsolutions without a larger vision to improve air quality. The purpose of this analytical white
paper is to identify effects of health concerns for air pollution on government and public actions in
India, identify barriers and opportunities; and propose recommendations on how to use heath concerns
to build support for air pollution control and prevention. Given the status of the evidence and the
challenges outlined, the authors still believe that much can be done to (a) document the health impacts
of air pollution; (b) engage diverse stakeholder groups to call for multi-sectoral action; (c) raise
awareness especially amongst vulnerable populations; and (d) carry out impact evaluations. This
diversity of sources and drivers ensures that a Pan-India policy to achieve the National Ambient Air
Quality Standards (NAAQS) has till date been unarticulated. What can drive this, however, is the
localization of evidence, broadening awareness of the health impacts, and ensuring that accountability
is at the heart of policymaking.
Methodology
A structured review of available literature on air pollution and health in India was conducted. This
involved searching for articles and reports on online databases such as PubMed as well as resources
from ministry websites. To supplement findings from the literature reviewed, a stakeholder
consultation was undertaken, and some secondary data analysis was conducted. A questionnaire survey
was developed and disseminated among stakeholders with expertise in the areas of air pollution and
associated health impacts, including environmental health researchers, physicians, and ministry
officials. These expert stakeholders were identified through purposive sampling and were contacted
via email. Some were followed up with in-person at the National Consultation on Environmental
Health, hosted by the Centre for Environmental Health (to which the authors are affiliated), held on
June 5th 2017 at New Delhi. Inputs from group discussions held at the consultation are also factored
into this report. Further details of experts consulted and the questionnaire tool are attached in
Annexures. The report was reviewed by two internal and two external reviewers before submission.
Air Pollution Exposure & Trends:
Air quality, whether ambient or household, differs across India, with varied sources, pollutants,
climatology, geography, and cultures. Over time, however, trends indicate deterioration in both urban
and rural India, whether it is due to rapid urbanization and consequent rising vehicular and industrial
emissions or the ‘chulha trap’ resulting in poor indoor air quality.

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Household air pollution

Individuals spend close to three-fourths of their day (around 18 hours) in indoor environments, which
include residences and workplaces11 . Indoor activities such as cooking, heating, cleaning, incense
burning, tobacco smoking, refrigeration, and air conditioning are significant contributors of air
pollutants emissions11–15. The infiltration of ambient air into indoor environments through ventilation
intakes, doors and windows also result in household air pollution (HAP)16. Fine and ultrafine
particulates, biological aerosols, volatile organic compounds (VOCs), poly aromatic hydrocarbons
(PAHs), carbon monoxide (CO), oxides of sulphur and nitrogen (SOx and NOx) are typically found
indoors in households where biomass is used for cooking or heating17–19 . In the following sections,
exposures associated with indoor pollution, their spatial heterogeneity and urban- rural differences in
the Indian subcontinent will be outlined.

Activity based exposures

Cooking and heating: Biomass combustion, involved in cooking and heating practices, is the principal
source of HAP in India19. Close to 60% of Indian households use biomass (in the form of firewood,
charcoal, manure, and crop residues) as their main energy source for cooking, while around 30% use
LPG20. More than 250 teragrams (Tg) of biomass is estimated to be used annually for cooking activities
in India, resulting in significant emissions of pollutants such as PM, elemental and organic carbon (EC
and OC), CO, NO2, VOCs, and PAHs21–23 . In India, women spend close to 1.7-2.4 hours/day for
cooking, while men spend around 0.08-0.1 hours/day in the vicinity of a kitchen13. Total suspended
particles (TSP) exposures during cooking are reported to be as high as 7000 µg/m3 , while respirable
suspended particulate matter (RSPM) exposures are reported to be in the range of 500-2,000 µg/m3,
13,24. Results from a large cohort study (N~3000) in Nepal indicate 24 hour average indoor PM2.5
levels as high as 1400 µg/m3 in households with biomass usage for heating and cooking activities25.
Studies have found sizeable differences in diurnal averaged PM levels between households using
cleaner cooking fuels like LPG (75 μg/m3 ) and dirty fuels like biomass (≈360 μg/m3 ) 13 in indoor
living areas. Table 1 shows typical indoor pollutant levels reported in India under usage of various
domestic fuels.
Rural-urban heterogeneity:
HAP sources differ between rural and urban locations31. More than 89% of the rural Indian population
relies on biomass for cooking purposes whereas urban India mostly uses LPG (65%)20. Indoor
emissions from the domestic sector are therefore more significant in rural rather than urban India. In
contrast, the infiltrated ambient pollution fraction into indoor environments are higher in cities than

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villages. This is due to higher on-road vehicular density, which contributes larger quantities of air
pollution emissions31. The diurnal averaged RSPM levels were reported to be as high as ~350 µg/m3
in typical Indian rural households where biomass is used as a domestic fuel. Rural households using
LPG for domestic activities are observed to have lower HAP levels (~75 µg/m3 ) than urban houses
using LPG (~135 µg/m3 ), indicating a larger contribution of ambient sources to indoor exposures in
Indian urban areas13,33 . Figure 1 shows the distribution of various domestic fuels in urban and rural
India.

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Impact of socio-economic:
status Exposure to air pollution is dependent on socio-economic and socio-cultural differences31. A
majority of urban slums in India are located close to factories and highways. Therefore, people residing
in slums are more prone to higher exposures from industrial and vehicular emissions36,37. Densely
populated localities with absent exhaust vents, coupled with the use of low quality domestic fuels (such
as biomass, dung etc.), and the presence of unpaved roads further deteriorates indoor air in slums31,36.
A study carried out by Kulshreshtha et al. (2008)38 identified differences of 110-175 µg/m3 in indoor
PM concentrations between low and high income houses. Another study carried out in Mumbai also
reported higher indoor pollutant concentrations in low income houses than affluent ones39 .

Ambient air pollution

Among major health risk factors in India, ambient air pollution (AAP) is ranked 5th in mortality and
7th in overall health burden. According to the World Health Organisation (WHO), 10 of the 20 most
polluted cities in the world are in India, including Delhi, Patna, Gwalior, Raipur etc.1 PM levels often
exceed the National Ambient Air Quality Standards(NAAQS) in more than three-fourths of Indian
cities2 . The primary PM sources in India are emissions from industries, power plants, vehicles,
construction activities, biomass
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Household Air Pollution:

In the late 1950s, the Indian Cardiologist Dr. Padmavati associated household air pollution with heart
disease in a study which observed young, rural, non-smoking women suffering from corpulmonale – a
serious heart condition – which could only be explained by their exposure to heavy air pollution from
cookstove smoke88. It was, however, much later that the first systematic consolidation of evidence on
the health risks of household air pollution exposure was performed for the 2000 Global Burden of
Disease (GBD) assessment. A range of studies have since been carried out in India on the health impacts
of HAP, ranging from pilot studies by Smith et al (1983)24, to more recent large scale clinical trials
examining the links between air pollution and low birth weight in children89. Over the years, a strong
body of evidence has been established linking HAP with three broad categories of health outcomes in
India - acute lower respiratory infections in children under five years of age90, chronic obstructive
pulmonary disease in women, and lung cancer (especially in users of coal)91. There is also a moderate
or weak evidence for a broad range of other outcomes such as pre-term births, low birth weight,
cataracts, asthma and Tuberculosis92–94.
According to the Census 2011, about 64% of Indian households use solid fuels (which goes to as high
as 85% in rural areas) for cooking and heating purposes20. Census figures also show that while the
percentage of users reliant on biomass for cooking and heating has reduced between 2000-2010, the
absolute number remains around 700 million, with urban areas showing an uptick in the use of biomass.
Given the pervasive use of biomass for cooking and heating, the GBD 2015 estimated 977,094 deaths
in 2015 associated with HAP exposures, with a significant number in women and children. An
estimated 400000 deaths in India happen as a result of acute lower respiratory infection (ALRI) in
children below five years of age, with a third of the risk attributable to HAP exposures95.
Table 3 below outlines the best available evidence on HAP exposures and various health outcomes in
India that were factored into the GBD exercise, and in the Ministry of Health Steering Committee
Report.

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1. CONCLUSION

With the multiplicity of sources, modes of exposure and complexity of outcomes associated, there is
no easy solution to address the problem of air pollution in India. Addressing it will require an
evidenceinformed, multi-sectoral approach to policymaking that aims to maximize exposure
reductions10. While several aspects of a health-centric air pollution policy are currently under
consideration, there are aspects of the issue that require more creative thinking and solution
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development. In previous sections, we have outlined the scale of the issue and barriers to effective
action on air pollution. Taking those into consideration, we outline below suggestions for areas of
intervention to address what is now a key risk factor not just to India’s health but also to its economy.

Leveraging existing resources to carry out large scale health impact studies
Our review, as well as others conducted in recent years, has shown that while there is a strong evidence
base for household exposures, the evidence base for ambient exposures require significant
strengthening. In particular, the evidence base for pregnancy outcomes, cardio-pulmonary diseases,
cardio-metabolic diseases, inter-generational effects, require further examination. While there is
considerable global evidence already available for these health outcomes, these studies were conducted
in comparatively low exposure settings that are vastly different from the annual average exposure to
particulate pollutants experienced in India. This is reflected in the Integrated Exposure- Response (IER)
curves developed for the Global Burden of Disease comparative risk factor assessment7,152.
As stated in Cohen et al. (2017), the lack of long-term cohort studies of PM2.5 associations with
mortality in countries with high levels of pollution like India, ensures that the magnitude of the excess
relative risk associated with higher levels of PM2.5 remains uncertain. Work is underway in several
cohorts in China and these are likely to publish in the next 1-2 years on the impact of PM2.5 on
cardiometabolic and cardio-pulmonary diseases. In India, at the time of writing this white paper, there
were only a handful of long-term studies underway, mostly focused on outcomes associated with
household air pollution such as the TAPHE study in peri-urban and rural Chennai, the APPLE study in
Bengaluru, and the CHAI study in peri-urban Hyderabad. Given the differences in sources of pollution
across developed, and even developing countries, it is essential to carry out long-term exposure studies.
There is also a paucity of evidence on the impact of early life or pre-natal exposures including pre-term
births, low birth weight in babies, developmental outcomes in children, and inter-generational effects.
While cohort studies can be expensive to establish and operationalize, there is of course the possibility
of leveraging existing resources to reduce costs considerably. There are several birth cohorts that have
been functioning for over a decade in the country, utilizing data from which could provide valuable
evidence on early life exposures, developmental outcomes, and inter-generational effects. There are
also cohorts that have been designed exclusively to study cardiovascular epidemiology, and the data

from these as well could be utilized. Some studies that could be utilized in such an evidence generation
effort include the Pune Maternal Nutrition Study (PNMS), New Delhi Birth Cohort (NDBC),
Prospective Urban Rural Epidemiology (PURE) study, and others. Given the paucity of funding for
biomedical research in India, and the vast resources needed to establish new long-term studies, it would

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be wise to utilize existing cohorts as much as possible in the development of the evidence base on air
pollution and health impacts.

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