Advances in Social Science, Education and Humanities Research, volume 537

Proceedings of the 2020 International Conference on Language, Communication and

Culture Studies (ICLCCS 2020)

Politeness, Language and Culture

Study of the Relativity of Politeness
Bei Gao1 Wei Zhou2,* Wen Liu2
1
East University of Heilongjiang, Harbin, Heilongjiang, China
2
Harbin Engineering University, Harbin, Heilongjiang, China
*
Corresponding author. Email: [email protected]

ABSTRACT
Politeness is a universal phenomenon in human society. Yet people's views on politeness vary from
culture to culture. And the influential works concerning politeness written by Brown & Levinson and
by Leech are criticized for having a "Western bias". It is argued that there is no universal theory of
politeness applicable to all cultures. This paper makes an analysis of the relationship between
politeness, language and culture, and based on the analysis, it probes into the relativity of politeness.

Keywords: politeness, culture, language, relativity of politeness

politeness in different cultures and the relativity of
I. INTRODUCTION politeness (Foley, W. A. 2001; Tian Jinping, &
Language serves as an indispensable means by Zhai Jianhong, 2005). Indeed, as speaking or
which people communicate with each other and communicating takes place in certain social and
achieve certain goals. Language helps bind people cultural environment, culture may exert great
together into a speech community in which people influence on people's use of language and their
"share a set of norms, rules, and expectations views on politeness. However, as is known to all,
regarding the use of language."(Yule, 2000:239) politeness is a universal phenomenon in human
Politeness, usually achieved through the use of society. Then how to get a clear view of the
language, may be either one of the goals which universals and relativity of politeness?
people tend to achieve with certain linguistic This paper attempts to analyze the relationship
choices, or one of the criteria which people are of politeness, language and culture. And based on
supposed to abide by while using language to the analysis, this paper probes into the relativity of
communicate with others. Politeness is a universal politeness.
phenomenon in human society, and it has become a
hot issue discussed by many scholars. Penelope
Brown, Stephen Levinson and Geoffrey Leech are II. THE RELATIONSHIP OF POLITENESS,
among the pioneers in the academic study of LANGUAGE AND CULTURE
politeness. Their theories of politeness have been In daily communication, people make different
most frequently cited and discussed by other linguistic choices for different purposes among
researchers. Besides, they also received many which politeness turns out to be an important one.
criticisms in numerous grounds. One of the main According to Yule, politeness, in an interaction, can
focuses is on the universals and relativity of be defined as "the means employed to show
politeness. It has been criticized that Brown and awareness of another person's face." (LoCastro,
Levinson's treatment of politeness as well as that of 2003: 112) Brown and Levinson hold that
Geoff Leech has a "western bias", and therefore "politeness involves us showing an awareness of
should not be regarded as "a universal theory other people's FACE WANTS, and FACE refers to
applicable to all languages and cultures"(Leech, our public self-image." (Tian Jin-ping & Zhai Jian-
2005:4). Many researchers prefer to emphasize the hong, 2005: 31) They specify five strategies for
cultural factors and study the differences of achieving politeness, "ranging from 'bald on-record'
*Project: The paper is supported by the Research Project of performance of the FTA (face-threatening act) to its
East University of Heilongjiang. Grant Number: non-performance." (Leech, 2005:4) And Leech also
HDFKY200211. The Research Project of Heilongjiang delivered his six maxims of politeness in 1983.
Provincial Federation of Social Sciences. Grant Number: Both Leech's and Brown & Levinson's treatments
WY2019075-C. The Research Project of Fundamental Research
Funds for the Central Universities. Grant Number: of politeness have been criticized for having a
3072020CF1206.

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 Advances in Social Science, Education and Humanities Research, volume 537

Western bias and therefore cannot "claim to present politeness? Getting an overview of the studies of
a universal theory applicable to all languages and politeness, many researchers approach to politeness
cultures." (Leech, 2005:4) Many researchers argue in different ways. Among numerous works
that politeness is influenced by many cultural and concerning politeness, Brown & Levinson's as well
social factors, so "the true nature of politeness is the as Leech's treatments of politeness turn out to be
relativity, which determines the appropriateness of the most influential ones. Brown and Levinson's
politeness in different occasions." (Wang Jianhua, formulation of politeness and face was objected by
1998:18) These give rise to some questions. Is there some researchers such as Matsumoto and Gu who
an East-West divide in politeness? What's the dealt with East Asian cultures and emphasized
relationship between politeness and culture? As cultural differences in politeness. (Foley, 2001:274)
politeness is mainly achieved through the use of Matsumoto and Gu argue that Brown and
language, it may be helpful to make an analysis of Levinson's division of face into positive and
the relationship between language and culture first. negative face is untenable for East Asian cultures,
and that their treatment of politeness and face
A. Language and culture "derives from the importance given to
Language is the principal and indispensable individualism in the Western European concept of
means whereby people communicate with each the person." (Foley, 2001:274) They hold that
other and conduct their social lives. "When it is Brown and Levinson's "individual-wants concept of
used in contexts of communication, it is bound up face" is based on the individualism and therefore
with culture in multiple and complex ways." "does not fit the traditional Eastern ethos of
(Kramsch, 2004:3) According to Claire Kramsch identifying with the group, in which each person
(2004: 3), language expresses, embodies and has a place defined by obligations and rights in
symbolizes cultural reality. People communicate relation to superiors, equals and inferiors." (Leech,
with each other and carry on their social lives 2005:7) It is true that people from different cultures
mainly with the help of language. They assigned follow different norms, rules and expectations
particular meanings to some words or expressions which are formed, conventionalized and passed
which gradually became conventionalized. In the down in their own cultures. For instance, the
course of time, people in the same speech Chinese people put more emphasis on the merits of
community gradually formed a set of norms, rules modesty than the western people. What is regarded
and expectations regarding the use of language. To by Chinese people as friendliness, such as asking
some extent, language is a carrier or reflection of some personal questions, may be offensive to
the culture. According to Bourdieu, a social western people who may regard it as intruding their
theorist, a language "is itself a set of practices that privacy. The cultural differences may help explain
imply not only a particular system of words and why people suffer from culture shock while going
grammatical rules, but also an often forgotten or abroad.
hidden struggle over the symbolic power of a In a word, politeness is closely related to
particular way of communicating, with particular culture. People from different cultures seem to
systems of classification, address and reference follow different criteria of expressing politeness.
forms, specialized lexicons and metaphors." Additionally, people do not live in a vacuum but in
(Duranti, 2002:45) Indeed, culture, which is a speech community which is full of cultural
learned, transmitted and passed down from one conventions. In Claire Kramsch's words, "etiquette,
generation to the next through linguistic expressions of politeness, social dos and don'ts
communication, imposes cultural conventions and shape people's behavior through child rearing,
norms on language users. (Kramsch, 2004) behavioral upbringing, schooling," and professional
Therefore, people in different speech communities training. (Kramsch, 2004:6) Therefore, when
may have different ways of expressing politeness, people are faced with the need to show politeness,
which are sanctioned by different cultural they are likely to be influenced by their cultural
conventions. expectations and norms.

B. Politeness and culture C. Politeness and language

Despite the nonverbal behavior concerning Language is the principal means by which
politeness, politeness is mainly achieved through people communicate with each other and carry out
the use of language. As is discussed above, culture the social activities. Politeness is one of the reasons
may impose some norms or constraints on people's why people adjust their speech or writing and make
use of language. It can be observed that people certain linguistic choices. People from different
from different cultural backgrounds usually adopt cultures appear to use different expressions of
different ways of expressing politeness. Then politeness. This may be attributed to both the
what's the relationship between politeness and language differences and differences in their
culture? How can we understand the relativity of cultural conventions and expectation of what is

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considered as polite or impolite. As is discussed account the various social and cultural factors.
above, culture imposes some constraints, norms and Different cultures form different views of values
expectations on language users. The forms and norms which demand people to act
encoding politeness have been conventionalized in accordingly. "The use of politeness in
the course of time. Language is one of the means communication is dependent on the language and
people express politeness. Politeness, in turn may social or cultural milieu," and "the forms encoding
reflect the constraints and norms which the culture politeness have often become highly
imposes on people's use of language. conventionalized." (Leech, 2005:24) In a sense,
politeness is a convention agreed on by the whole
III. THE RELATIVITY OF POLITENESS speech community and reflects the culture of that
speech community.
From the above analysis, we can see that
politeness, culture and the use of language are B. The relativity of politeness: culture-specific
closely related to one another. People's use of strategies
language reflects their culture and meanwhile is
constrained by the norms and expectations of the Born in certain cultural background, people are
culture. Politeness appears to be a universal inevitably influenced by and gradually become
phenomenon in human society. It can be either one accustomed to the conventions, norms and
of the goals which people want to achieve with expectations of that culture. It's natural that people's
certain linguistic choices, or one of the criteria views of politeness are influenced by many social
which impose constraints on people's use of and cultural factors. And there seems to be no
language in a certain speech community. Yet the principles of politeness applicable to all languages
views on politeness seem to vary from culture to and cultures. However, no one can deny the fact
culture, which gives rise to doubts on the universals that politeness is a universal phenomenon in human
of politeness and leads to the study of the relativity society. Thus there must be some common basis for
of politeness. politeness to be regarded as a universal
phenomenon. It is assumed that "the basic functions
of language are very similar in different societies,
A. Politeness: culture-loaded convention
though with different linguistic conventions, in all
From many studies of politeness, it is easy to parts of the world, because all people have similar
find that people's expressions of politeness are needs, similar relationships, and in general, share
influenced by many cultural factors. Due to the the same world." (Palmer, 1986:3) Then how to
variations in the ways people from different understand the relativity of politeness?
cultures tend to express politeness, many
researchers objected and criticized Brown & Being challenged by many researchers for
Levinson's and Leech's treatments of politeness for having a Western bias in his principles of
having a Western bias, and they hold the view that politeness, Leech reviewed the previous studies of
politeness is influenced by many social and cultural politeness and restated his principle of politeness in
factors and that there seems to be no universals of his paper, ‘Politeness: Is There an East-West
politeness. Divide", in 2005. According to Leech, there are two
ways of looking at politeness: absolute politeness
Among numerous studies of politeness, most scale and relative politeness scale. The absolute
writers do not explicitly define "politeness". politeness scale allows us to "order utterances on a
Politeness proves to be a difficult concept to scale of politeness out of context." (Leech, 2005:8)
discuss. Many researchers deal with politeness in In explaining the relative politeness scale, Leech
different approaches. Fraser provides an overview says that "this is politeness relative to norms in a
of the four main approaches to politeness, i.e. given society, for a given group, or for a given
social-norm view, conversational-maxim view, situation." (Leech, 2005:9) The relative politeness
face-saving view and the conversational-contract scale is sensitive to context and "registers ‘over-
view. (LoCastro, 2003:275) Among the four politeness' and ‘under-politeness', as well as
approaches, the face-saving view, derived from ‘politeness appropriate to the situation'." (Leech,
Brown and Levinson's model of politeness, is most 2005:9) Besides, as Brown and Levinson's
discussed and even challenged. The main focus is treatment of politeness and face has been greatly
directed to the cultural differences. criticized for having a Western bias, Leech provides
Indeed, politeness cannot be separated from the a new definition of face: "Face is the positive self-
cultural factors. Politeness exists only in the image or self-esteem that a person maintains as a
civilized human society where people need to reflection of that person's estimation by others."
communicate with each other, keep certain (Leech, 2005:27) According to Leech (2005:27),
interpersonal relationships, and conduct their social people follow certain principles of politeness in
lives. Being put in different cultural settings, order to either avoid loss of face or enhance face.
politeness can only be understood by taking into Politeness, though related to many cultural factors,

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may be one strategy people adopt to show their according to their cultural conventions. People's
concerns for each other's face needs. polite behavior is influenced by various cultural
factors. But are there universals of politeness? Is
In different cultures, people conduct their social there an East-West divide in politeness? Leech
lives in different cultural contexts in which certain avoids talking of universals of politeness, but he
norms, rules and expectations are imposed on them. does believe that there is a common pragmatic and
Therefore, when people express politeness, they are behavioral basis for polite linguistic behavior in
supposed to follow the cultural conventions and different societies, "so that (for example) when
adopt certain strategies for expressing politeness. In
Chinese speakers talk of limao (礼貌) and English
China or Japan, for instance, modesty has a higher
rating than in western societies. So, in order to act speakers talk of politeness, they are not talking
politely, people are supposed to reject the about totally unrelated phenomena." (Leech,
compliments rather than accept them by replying 2005:28) And he also argues that "despite
"Thank you". And this, according to Leech, has differences, there's no East-West divide in
something to do with the "quantitative (i.e. in politeness." (Leech, 2005:29) Maybe it's still
degree or position on a scale) differences in the difficult to talk of universals of politeness, but it
scale influencing the norm of politeness." (Leech, may be helpful to have some idea of what the
2005:25) Apart from that, "qualitative differences relativity of politeness refers to.
(i.e. in the actual social content of the scales
themselves)" may influence people's ways of References
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different strategies for expressing politeness
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[10] Wang Jianhua. Relativity of Politeness [J]. Journal of
Politeness has been a hot issue since Brown and Foreign Language 1998(3):18-22.
Levinson's theory of politeness was published. For
many years, many researchers have studied
politeness in different approaches and argued over
the relativity and universals of politeness. Are there
universals of politeness? Is there an East-West
divide in politeness? In the previous parts, this
paper makes an analysis of the relationship of
politeness, language and culture, and based on the
analysis, this paper tries to study the relativity of
politeness. Politeness, one of the goals people want
to achieve by making different linguistic choices, is
closely related to culture. It is a convention agreed
on by the speech community, and people are
supposed to follow certain norms and expectations
while expressing politeness. Politeness is relative in
the sense that it is sanctioned by cultural
conventions of a given society, for a given group,
or for a given situation, and that people adopt
different strategies for expressing politeness

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