LinAlg2 Midterm Notes

1 Linear Algebra II
1.1 Vector spaces

Denition Vector space
Consider a eld F of scalars and a set V with elements called vectors.
We dene two operations on V :
• ⊕ : V × V → V Vector addition
• ⊙ : F × V → V Scalar multiplication
V is a vector space over F if and only if these axioms hold:
1. There exists an element 0 (the zero vector) in V such that 0 ⊕ u = u for all u  V .
2. Vector addition is commutative: u ⊕ v = v ⊕ u
3. Vector addition is associative: u ⊕ (v ⊕ w) = (u ⊕ v) ⊕ w
4. For each u  V , there exists z  V (the additive inverse) such that u ⊕ z = 0
5. For all u  V , 1 ⊙ u = u
6. For all a, b  F and all u  V , a ⊙ (b ⊙ u) = (ab) ⊙ u
7. For all c  F and all u, v  V , c ⊙ (u ⊕ v) = (c ⊙ u) ⊕ (c ⊙ v)
8. For all a, b  F and all u  V , (a + b) ⊙ u = (a ⊙ u) ⊕ (b ⊙ u)
Theorem
Let V be a vector space and let u  V . Then,
1. The zero vector 0 is unique.
2. 0 ⊙ u = 0
3. The additive inverse z of u is unique.
4. −1 ⊙ u = z
Alternative notation:
additive inverse −u zero vector 0 vector addition u + v scalar multiplication cu
Denition Subspace
Let V be a vector space over F . U ⊆ V is a subspace of V if
U is a vector space over F with the same vector addition and scalar multiplication operations as V .
Only axioms 1 and 4 have to be checked to see if U is a subspace.
Theorem
Let V be a vector space over F and U ⊆ V . Then U is a subspace of V if and only if:
1. U is nonempty
2. u + v  U for all u, v  U
3. cu  U for all c  F and u  U
1.1.1 Linear combinations

Denition
Linear combination
V be a vector space over F.
For given c1 , c2 ,    , c2  F and v1 , v2    , vr  V , we say that an expression of the form c1 v1 + c2 v2 +
   + cr vr is a linear combination of v1 , v2    , vr .
Denition Span
The set of all linear combinations of v1 , v2 ,    , vr  V is called the span of v1 , v2 ,    , vr .
We denote it by span(v1 , v2    , vr ) = c1 v1 + c2 v2 +    + cr vr  c1 , c2    , cr  F
Theorem
Let V be a vector space and v1 , v2 ,    , vr  V . Then span(v1 , v2 ,    , vr ) is a subspace of V .
Denition Spanning set

We say that v1 , v2 ,    , vr is a spanning set for V (or v1 , v2 ,    , vr span V )
if every vector in V can be written as a linear combination of v1 , v2 ,    , vr .
2
Theorem
1. If v1 , v2 ,    , vr span V and one of these vectors is a linear combination of the others,
then these r − 1 vectors span V .
2. One of the vectors v1 , v2 ,    , vr is a linear combination of the others if and only if
there exist scalars c1 , c2 ,    , cr  F, not all zero, such that c1 v1 + c2 v2 +    + cr vr = 0
Denition Linear dependence and independence

The vectors v1 , v2 ,    , vr are linearly dependent if there exist scalars c1 , c2 ,    , cr  F,
not all zero, such that c1 v1 + c2 v2 +    + cr vr = 0. Otherwise, they are linearly independent.
Theorem
Let v1 , v2 ,    , vr  V be vectors. Every vector in span(v1 , v2 ,    , vr ) can be written uniquely
as a linear combination of v1 , v2 ,    , vr if and only if v1 , v2 ,    , vr are linearly independent.
1.1.2 Subspace operations

Theorem
If U, W are subspaces of a vector space V , then U  W is a subspace of V .
This is not necessarily true for U  W .
Denition Sum of subspaces
The sum of two subspaces U and W of V is dened as U + W = u + w  u  U and w  W 
Theorem
If U, W are subspaces of a vector space V , then U + W is a subspace of V .
Denition Direct sum of subspaces

The sum of two subspaces U, W is called a direct sum if U  W = 0
Every vector in a direct sum U + W can be uniquely expressed as a sum of u  U and w  W .
1.2 Bases
Denition Basis
Let V be a vector space over F . The vectors v1 , v2 ,    , vn form a basis of V if
1. v1 , v2 ,    , vn are linearly independent
2. span(v1 , v2 ,    , vn ) = V
Bases are not unique.
Lemma Replacement lemma
Let V be a nonzero vector space over F and let r be a positive integer.

r
Suppose that u1 , u2 ,    , ur span V . Let v = ci u1 be a nonzero vector in V . Then,
i=1
1. cj ̸= 0 for some j  1, 2,    , r.
2. If cj ̸= 0 then v, u1 ,    , uj−1 , uj+1    , ur span V .
3. If u1 , u2 ,    , ur  is a basis for V then v, u1 ,    , uj−1 , uj+1    , ur  is also a basis for V .
Theorem
Let n and r be positive integers and let V be a vector space over F .
Let v1 , v2 ,    , vn  be a basis of V and let u1 , u2 ,    , ur be linearly independent. Then,
1. r ≤ n
2. If r = n, then u1 , u2 ,    , ur  is a basis of V .
Theorem
If v1 , v2 ,    , vn  and u1 , u2 ,    , ur  are bases of V , then n = r.
3
Denition Dimension
Let V be a vector space and let n be a positive integer.
• If v1 , v2 ,    , vn  is a basis of v, then n is the dimension of V .
• If V = 0, then V has dimension zero.
• If V has dimension n for some n  N, then V is nite dimensional (notation: dim V = n)
• Otherwise, V is innite dimensional.
If span(v1 , v2 ,    , vr ) = V , then dim V ≤ r
If V is nite dimensional, every set of linearly independent vectors in V can be extended to a basis.
If V is nite dimensional and U is a subspace of V , then dim U ≤ dim V .
The set of sequences in R is an example of an innite-dimensional vector space.
Theorem Grassman’s formula
dim(U  W ) + dim(U + W ) = dim U + dim W
1.2.1 Linear transformations

Denition Linear transformation
Let V and W be vector spaces over the same eld F.
A function T : V → W is called a linear transformation (a linear operator if V = W ) if
T (au + bv) = aT (u) + bT (v) ∀a, b  F ∀u, v  V
Let A  Fn×m and T (x) = Ax. Then T is a linear transformation from Fm to Fn .

Derivatives and integrals are linear transformations.
Lemma
Let V and W be vector spaces over F and let T : V → W be a linear transformation. Then,
1. T (cv) = cT (v) for all c  F and v  V
2. T (0) = 0 (the rst 0 is in V , the second 0 is in W )
3. T (a1 v1 + a2 v2 +    + an vn ) = a1 T (v1 ) + a2 T (v2 ) +    + an T (vn ) ∀vk  V ∀ak  F
Denition Kernel and range

Let T : V → W be a linear transformation.
• The kernel of T is dened as ker T = v  V  T (v) = 0
• The range of T is dened as ran T = w  W  ∃v  V s.t. T (v) = w
Theorem
The kernel of T is a subspace of V and the range of T is a subspace of W .
Any element of an n-dimensional vector space can be represented by the
E-coordinate vector ⟨c1 , c2 ,    , cn ⟩  Fn by xing an ordered basis E.
Denition E-basis representation
Let E = (v1 , v2 ,    , vn ) be an ordered basis of V .
For any u  V , write u = c1 v1 + c2 v2 +    + cn vn where ck  F.
The function [ · ]E : V → Fn , dened by [u]E = ⟨c1 , c2 ,    , cn ⟩ is called the E-basis representation.
Theorem
[ · ]E : V → Fn is a linear transformation.
Theorem Isomorphism V and Fn

[ · ]E is a bijection between V and Fn .
We say that [ · ]E : V → Fn is a (linear) isomorphism and V and Fn are isomorphic.
Theorem Dimension theorem

Let T : V → W be a linear transformation. Then dim ker(T ) + dim ran(T ) = dim V
4
The range of a matrix is equal to the span of its columns.
Lemma
Let T : V → W be a linear map. Then ker(T ) = 0 if and only if T is injective.
Lemma
Let T : V → W be a linear map with dim V = dim W < ∞. Then T is injective ⇐⇒ T is surjective.
1.2.2 Matrix representations

Denition Matrix representation of a linear transformation
Let V be a n-dimensional vector space over F with basis  and linear transformation .
Then the matrix representation with respect to  is the matrix β [T ]β
where each column is a vector of the basis with T applied to it.
     

 1 0 0  

  0  1  0  
     
Every n-dimensional vector space (mapped to Fn ) has the standard basis  .  ,  .  ,    ,  . 

  ..   ..   .. 

 

0 0 1
Denition Change of basis matrix

The change of basis matrix from  to  is the n × n matrix β [I]γ
whose columns are the elements of B expressed in A.
Theorem
Let V be a nite dimensional vector space with bases ,  and linear transformation T .
Let S =γ [I]β . Then β [I]γ = S −1 and γ [T ]γ = S β [T ]β S −1
Denition Similarity
Two matrices A and B are similar if and only if A = Q−1 BQ for some Q.
1.3 Inner product spaces

Denition Inner product space over R
An inner product space over R is an R-vectorspace V together with a map
V × V → R : (v1 , v2 ) → ⟨v1 , v2 ⟩
This map satises the axioms of an inner product:

1. Linearity For any xed v2 , the map V → R : v  V → ⟨v, v2 ⟩ is linear.
2. Symmetry ⟨v1 , v2 ⟩ = ⟨v2 , v1 ⟩ for all v1 , v2  V
3. Positivity ⟨v, v⟩ ≥ 0 and if v ̸= 0, ⟨v, v⟩ > 0
Denition Hermitian inner product space (Inner product space over C)

An inner product space over C is a C-vectorspace V together with a map
V × V → C : (v1 , v2 ) → ⟨v1 , v2 ⟩
This map satises the following axioms:

1. Linearity For any xed v2 , the map V → C : v  V → ⟨v, v2 ⟩ is linear.
The map is not necessarily linear if v1 is xed instead of v2 .
2. Symmetry ⟨v1 , v2 ⟩ = ⟨v2 , v1 ⟩ for all v1 , v2  V
3. Positivity ⟨v, v⟩  R and if v ̸= 0, ⟨v, v⟩ > 0
Notation: v1 ⊥ v2 means that v1 and v2 have inner product 0.
   
a1 b1 n
 ..   ..  
The standard inner product for C is  .  ·  .  =
n
a j bj
an bn j=1
5
Denition W ⊥
Let W ⊆ V be a subspace. Then W ⊥ := v  V : ⟨v, w⟩ = 0 ∀w  W 
W ⊥ is a subspace of V .
Theorem
If V is nite-dimensional and W ⊆ V , then dim W + dim W ⊥ = dim V .
1.3.1 Norms
Denition Norm
Let V be an F-vectorspace.
A vector-space norm on V is a map ∥ · ∥ : V → R where ∥v∥ is the norm of v  V .
This map has to satisfy the following conditions for all v  V :
1. Non-negativity ∥v∥ ≥ 0
2. Positivity ∥v∥ = 0 ⇐⇒ v = 0
3. Homogeneity ∥λv∥ = λ · ∥v∥ ∀λ  F
4. Triangle inequality ∥v + w∥ ≤ ∥v∥ + ∥w∥
Theorem

Let V be an inner product space. Then we can dene a norm as ∥v∥ = ⟨v, v⟩
Theorem Cauchy-Schwarz-Bunyakovsky inequality

⟨v, w⟩ ≤ ∥v∥ · ∥w∥

LinAlg2 Midterm Notes

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

LinAlg2 Midterm Notes

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

LinAlg2 Midterm Notes

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

1 Linear Algebra II

1.1 Vector spaces

1.1.1 Linear combinations

Denition Spanning set

Denition Linear dependence and independence

1.1.2 Subspace operations

Denition Direct sum of subspaces

dim(U  W ) + dim(U + W ) = dim U + dim W

1.2.1 Linear transformations

T (au + bv) = aT (u) + bT (v) ∀a, b  F ∀u, v  V

Let A  Fn×m and T (x) = Ax. Then T is a linear transformation from Fm to Fn .

Denition Kernel and range

Theorem Isomorphism V and Fn

Theorem Dimension theorem

1.2.2 Matrix representations

Denition Change of basis matrix

1.3 Inner product spaces

This map satises the axioms of an inner product:

Denition Hermitian inner product space (Inner product space over C)

This map satises the following axioms:

Theorem Cauchy-Schwarz-Bunyakovsky inequality

You might also like