Materials Research. 2022; 25(suppl.

1): e20210487
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1590/1980-5373-MR-2021-0487

The Influence of Rotating Cage Geometry and Baffles on the Wall Shear Stress Equation in
Sweet/Sour Corrosion

Rhuan C. Souzaa* , Bernardo Coelhoa, Jefferson R. Oliveirab, Gustavo L. Vazb,

André L.C. Bonfimb, José Antônio C.P. Gomesc , Guillermo Vilalta-Alonsoa, Alysson H.S. Buenoa 

a
Universidade Federal de São João del Rei, São João del Rei, MG, Brasil.
b
Centro de Pesquisa da Petrobras (CENPES), Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brasil.
c
Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brasil.

Received: September 22, 2021; Revised: January 28, 2022; Accepted: March 06, 2022

Flow-accelerated corrosion has been studied by means of computational fluid dynamics (CFD)
techniques and rotating cage (RC) autoclave tests according to ASTM G170. This study evaluated
through CFD and laboratory tests the influence of RC geometry and baffles on the wall shear stress (τw)
proposed by the aforementioned standard. The experimental were performed at 120 °C and 2 angular
velocities (500 and 800 rpm) during 25 h in a solution with 600 mg/L of Cl- ions and 10-3 mol/L of
sodium thiosulfate. Corrosion rates were obtained by ASTM G31 and the surfaces were evaluated by
OM and XRD. Corrosion rate values and XRD analyses showed divergence between samples in different
positions in the RC and between distinct regions in the same sample. The numerical simulations and
the experimental tests showed a great influence of the baffles on τw. The conservatism in the values
obtained with this technique is caused by excessive corrosion close to the samples edges and the non-
uniformity of τw on the internal samples surfaces. Thus, the main conclusion of the study is related to
the importance of better knowledge on experimental methodology and mathematical approximations
for updating the criterion for the correct τw calculation on sample surfaces.

Keywords: Flow accelerated corrosion, rotating cage autoclave, CFD, API X65 steel, CO2/H2S.

1. Introduction
Damage caused in carbon steels pipelines by different promising methodologies for simulating pipeline corrosion
corrosive mechanisms and turbulent fluid transport are a in laboratory16-18. One of the RC advantages is the vast range
serious problem in oil and gas industry1,2. However, these of possible and applicable shear stresses on specimens, may
materials are widely used in pipes manufacture due to its vary from 20 Pa to 200 Pa16. ASTM G170 standard19 specifies
excellent cost-benefit ratio1,3-6. the equations for a maximum wall shear stress:
Among the oil and gas corrosive contaminants are −0,3 2 2,3
carbon dioxide (CO2) and hydrogen sulfide (H2S)7-10, their τw = 0, 0791.Re .ρ r .ω (1)
presence in pipeline systems generates the sweet/sour
corrosion mechanism. When CO2 and H2S hydrates inside the 2 ρω r 2
Re = (2)
wells, it dissociates and forms carbonic acid and hydrogen µ
sulfide ionization species11. Then, iron carbonate (FeCO3) Where r is the cage radius (m), Re is Reynolds number, ρ
and/or iron sulfide (FeS) films formed on the anodic steel is the fluid density (kg/m3), ω is the angular speed (rad/s)
surface, can reduce the kinetics of corrosive processes10,12, and μ is dynamic viscosity (kg/m.s). The mathematics or
or presenting non-protective characteristics, inducing new experimental procedures, used by Papavinasam20, proposed
corrosion mechanisms in the system13. this equation that is not found in the literature, highlighting
Internal flow in pipelines generates wall shear stresses, a gap in understanding the results of τw for RC.
contributing to the flow accelerated corrosion (FAC) The aim of this study is to evaluate the possibility of
mechanism. Most often, the flow regime is turbulent, improvements in experimental configurations and equations
increasing the mass transport of corrosive species toward currently used in RC tests. Then, it was carried out the CFD
the metal surface14,15. The study of these systems is carried simulations with experimental tests in order to discuss the
out using simulation by CFD and experimental tests with equation and approximates it with the real values obtained in
autoclaves. The rotating cage autoclave (RC) is one of the most experimental tests. The goal is to obtain a better distribution
of wall shear stresses and consequently to approximate the
*e-mail: [email protected] laboratory results with those found in field.
2 Souza et al. Materials Research

2. Methodology SiC paper up to 600 grit. They were positioned according

to RC magnification in the autoclave scheme (Figure 2).
2.1. Computational fluid dynamic simulations The tests were performed at 500 rpm and 800 rpm for 25 h
in 1 L of solution containing 600 mg/L of Cl- ions, 10-3 mol/L
Considering the rotating cage used in experimental tests,
of sodium thiosulfate, at 120 °C and 500 kPa (5 bar) (gauge)
2 cases were created. The major difference between them is
of CO2. In this conditions, the fluid physical properties are
the presence or not of baffles for vortex prevention. Some
ρ = 943.21 kg/m3 and μ = 0.0024605 Pa-s. The RC used
details of the geometries, such as screws, chamfers and high
consists of 2 PEEK discs of 80 mm in diameter, spaced
reliefs, were ignored in order to reduce computational cost
between them in 30 mm, each with a vertical hole of 9 mm.
and simulation time.
The meshes of both geometries were created by 2.2. Material characterization
using the sliding mesh approach (SM) for simulating the
Initially the samples were analyzed by optical microscopy
motion of rotating cage inside an autoclave. In SM model,
(OM) with an optical microscope Olympus model BX51,
2 computational grids are used: one moving along with the
grounded with SiC paper up to 1500 grit, polished with
cage and the other fixed to the vessel.
alumina 1 μm and 0.3 μm and attacked with Nital solution 3%
The application of the SM model made it possible to
for 10 s. After immersion tests, surfaces were characterized
obtain a discretized domain with 1.223.643 hybrid elements
by X-ray diffraction (XRD) with the diffratometer Shimadzu
for RC with baffles and 521.095 hybrid elements for RC
XRD – 6000 and X-ray beams focusing in the samples with
with no baffles. In both cases, the region near to specimens
was refined. Figure 1 shows the 2 meshes created. Due to 2ϴ ranging from 10 to 80°. The XRD analyses were performed
the lack of computational power, a mesh independence test on the central region of the inner and outer faces of each
was not performed. sample, and all phases identifications were made based on the
Three numerical simulations were carried out, being one crystallographic structure given by the AMCSD (American
at 800 rpm in the baffled geometry, two at 500 rpm in the Mineralogist Crystal Structure Database).
baffled and non-baffled geometries. The Eulerian-Eulerian 2.3. Sulfide potentiometric titration and iron
formulation was used to account the liquid-gas interaction
content measurement
along with the Realizable k-epsilon model, where turbulence
equations were solved for each phase. Both fluids were Over the 25 hours of testing, three aliquots of the solution
assumed incompressible and their properties at 120 °C and were collected at the intervals of 1 h, 12 h, and 25 h of
500 kPa (5 bar) (gauge) were used in the calculations. immersion. These aliquots were used to measure pH, total
Non-slip boundary conditions were applied at the walls iron, and perform a potentiometric titration to calculate the
and Standard Wall Functions were used to account high concentration of H2S generated during the test time.
gradients near these regions. The samples were drawn through valve 11 in Figure 2.
The Phased Coupled SIMPLE algorithm was used for A PEEK device allowed a pH electrode to be placed in contact
the pressure-velocity coupling and the Second Order Implicit with the withdrawn solution just after valve 11.
Method for time advancement with a time step selected to The volume retained in the collection line was measured
maintain the Courant number below one. previously and was discarded. 5 ml was withdrawn directly
into a container containing 40 ml of 2 mol/L sodium hydroxide
2.1. Experimental tests solution (NaOH) for potentiometric titration analysis and
A corrosive, dynamic environment was evaluated, 1 ml was withdrawn into a collection tube for total iron
simulating flow in pipes and CO2/H2S environment. It used content analysis with a kit (K-6210) for iron measurement
4 API X65 carbon steel samples in the rotating cage (RC), from CHEmetrics. Titration analyses were performed with
with dimensions of 30 mm x 20 mm x 2 mm, grounded with a Metrohm Titrando 905 using 0.01 mol/L silver nitrate
as titrant.

2.4. Immersion and weight loss tests

After the tests, the specimens were subjected to a chemical
pickling procedure according to ASTM G121, obtaining the
real weight loss. Corrosion rates were obtained according
to ASTM G31-7222

3. Results and Discussions

3.1. Computational fluid dynamic simulations

3.1.1. Wall shear stress (τw)

The results obtained by numerical simulations of the testing
design show a non-uniform distribution of instantaneous
Figure 1. Mesh of the RC used: with baffles for vortex prevention τw. Figure 3 show the distribution τw values on the surfaces
(A); without baffles (B). of the simulated samples with baffles at 500 rpm (A) and
 The Influence of Rotating Cage Geometry and Baffles on the Wall Shear Stress Equation in Sweet/Sour Corrosion 3

Figure 2. Autoclave scheme used in the tests.

Figure 3. τw for RC with baffles on surfaces of the coupons, 500 rpm (A) and 800 rpm (B).

800 rpm (B). Figure 4 show the case results obtained for Table 1. Maximum τw values for 3 simulated cases.
500 rpm without baffles, simulated to assess the baffles (CFD) τw (Equation) τw
Conditions
influence on fluid dynamics. The figures represent the shear max. (Pa) max. (Pa)
stresses on the samples by a color scheme, where regions in 500 rpm with baffles 8.15 15.5
red represent the highest values, and regions in blue represent 800 rpm with baffles 19.58 39.7
the lowest values. Each figure has its own scale of values. 500 rpm without baffles 3.13 15.5
Table 1 summarizes the maximum τw values found in the
three cases and the value calculated by the Equation 1 (ASTM
G170). of a single value, and with a significant conservatism built
The maximum value of τw was 8.15 Pa in the RC in, from the standard test, is not sufficient for the complete
simulations at 500 rpm with baffles (Figure 3A), while understanding of the mechanisms in the RC.
at 800 rpm (Figure 3B) this value increased to 19.58 Pa. The conservatism in corrosion rate values, for example,
The increase in rotation caused the increase in τw values, a works as a safety factor for structures. However, this study and
fact that is already well grounded in the literature20. For the several works in the literature, show that this conservatism
case where the GR was simulated without the baffles and is excessive in the vast majority of times. Furthermore,
500 rpm (Figure 4), the maximum value of τw was 3.13 Pa Papavinasam et al.20 presented, the still widely used equation,
on the samples edge, approximately 2.6 times lower than the as a first approximation for his experimental apparatus.
case with baffles (8.15 Pa) (Table 1). The maximum values of Which differs from most rotary cage vessels and autoclaves
τw, for the 3 cases, were detected in the region of half height equipped with rotary cage that are currently used by various
of the coupons, that are in agreement with Senior et al.16. industries and research centers and cited in the paper.
The values calculated by the Equation 1 were greater than CFD simulations have their proven efficiency in
the simulated values in all cases, this shows that the response reproducing the actual physics of the problem, and unlike
4 Souza et al. Materials Research

the equation, it takes into account all the physical and Ramachandran (2006) states that the flow over the coupons
geometric details of the simulated condition, and seeks the is closer to that of a flat plate moving at a slight angle of
most exact reproducibility possible, of the laboratory test attack in a fluid. Due to that, the numerical results were
condition. Therefore, it is believed that the values obtained validated from flat plane theory and showing an excellent
by CFD more accurately portray the actual fluid-dynamic coincidence between them.
stresses to which the samples are exposed. It is evident the The Figure 5 shows the velocity contours simulation
need for a detailed parametric study to better approximate results at 500 rpm and 800 rpm with baffles and without
the available equations with each experimental test condition.
baffles with 500 rpm. All planes are located in the half height
Considering that the only modification in both cases
of the rotating cage. It is possible to observe a complex flow
with vortex cutter (Figure 3) was the rotation of the RC, all
pattern, as typically in this kind of application. An important
specimens, on the external side, presented the same pattern
observation is related to the recirculation pattern created in
of stress distribution. For RC with no baffles, the distribution
of τw is also highly non-uniform and the patters of superficial the regions between baffles.
distribution of τw is quite different when compared with RC 3.2. Equation discussion
with baffles.
According to these results, it is possible to observe that Few studies exist with focus on improving the mathematical
the baffles have strong impact both in magnitude and in and geometric parameters of RC and shear stress calculation,
distribution of the τw. These differences can be observed by in an attempt to propose changes in the models and equations.
simple comparison between Figures 3 and 4. There is a gap that allows several studies on the subject.

Figure 4. τw for RC, 500 rpm with no baffles on surfaces of the coupons.

Figure 5. Velocity contours planes for the three studies cases: (a) 500 rpm with baffles, (b) 800 rpm with baffles (c) 500 rpm without baffles.
 The Influence of Rotating Cage Geometry and Baffles on the Wall Shear Stress Equation in Sweet/Sour Corrosion 5

A detailed review showed that the equation for five electrochemical systems are related to a f vs. Re graph,
calculating the specimens wall stress in RC, proposed by obtained from the Theodorsen and Regier studies30. The results
Papavinasam et al.20, is derived from the equation used for presented prove a relationship between JD and f, similar to
rotating cylinder electrodes, a methodology already established that established by the Chilton-Colburn analogy (Equation 5).
in the literature23-25. The tangential wall stress or wall shear Figure 6 shows the point cloud that characterize the JD and
stress (τw), for 2 concentric cylinders, the inner rotates at Re ratio for the five systems studied.
a speed n (in rpm) and the exterior is stationary, with the It is observed that in the range of 1000 < Re < 100000,
space between them filled by a fluid, a system similar to a the points can be adjusted, on a log-log scale, by Equation 6:
rotating cylinder electrode assembly, can be determined by
J D = 0, 0791Re−0,3 (6)
the classic Equation 326:
f According to Chilton-Colburn analogy, valid for the
τw = ρu 2 (3) study of corrosion processes, Equation 7 is:
2
f
Where f is the Fanning friction coefficient of the fluid on the J D= = 0, 0791Re−0,3 (7)
2
surface, ρ the density and u the tangential velocity in the wall
of the inner cylinder (u = (2πn/60)r = ωr), with r the inner Replacing Equation 7 in Equation 4, the wall shear stress
cylinder radius. Replacing u in Equation 3 has Equation 4: in the determined by Equation 8, with Re to the cylinder
(Equation 9):
f
τw = ρr2 (4)
2 τ w = 0, 0791Re−0,3 ρ r 2ω 2 (8)
In experimental studies of corrosive mechanisms, when 2 ρ ur
flow is turbulent (Re > 200), τw and the mass transfer coefficient Re = (9)
µ
(JD) are variables that are closely related according to the
Chilton-Colburn analogy25,27,28, expressed by Equation 5: The modification steps of Equation 8 to Equation 1 were
not found in the literature, where the only difference is the
f
JD = (5) angular velocity (ω) exponent, from 2 to 2.3. Works used in
2
the above deductions and by Papavinasam in their proposition
This analogy is satisfactory in applications that do not of the RC equation make it clear that all approximations are
have form drag forces, as happens in the internal pipe flow, valid for the specific conditions evaluated by them. Currently,
and is valid for 2000 < Re < 300000 and 0.6 < Sc < 2.5. Sc is the tests have been done in autoclaves, with variations in
Schmidt’s number29. The JD and f relationship is considered fluid volume, vessel diameter, rotation, presence of baffles,
valid and still used by numerous analytical and experimental different cage models among other modifications31-33, which
works. Papavinasam20 cited the work of Eisenberg and his makes it impossible to use Equation 1 as a prediction of
collaborators29 in your proposition. In the study, JD results for specimens τw.

Figure 6. Correlation between JD and Re for an internal cylinder in rotation. Points obtained in the 5 evaluated systems with the coefficient
of friction (f/2)29.
6 Souza et al. Materials Research

In addition to the need to adjust the τw equation for each Several authors report the influence of the material
specific condition, the ASTM G170 standard19, through microstructure on the corrosion rate and the precipitation
Equation 1, provides only a maximum value of τw generalizing of corrosion products on the surface40,41. According to the
all regions of all RC specimens, which according to CFD literature40,42-46, cementite presents a more positive potential
results (Figures 3 and 4) is not a representative value of the than the ferritic phase. This fact generates a micro galvanic
entire test. Several authors are dedicated to studying the factors couple between the Fe3C grains (cathodic side), and the
that approximate the results obtained in laboratory tests with ferrite (α-Fe) grains (anodic side), and promotes a preferential
GR and the data observed in the real field conditions16,34-38. dissolution of α-Fe.
However, an equation or more appropriate experimental The preferential decay of ferrite contributes to the
variation for the technique has not been proposed yet. precipitation/nucleation of corrosion products because it
It is evident and proven the efficiency of this technique increases the release of Fe2+ into solution.
in internal corrosion FAC studies. However, it is also known Studies such as the one by Di Bonaventura et al.47,
the great conservatism embedded in the corrosion rate values show that due to dissolution of the ferrite regions, portions
obtained37,39. Among the factors responsible for this conservatism of Fe3C are exposed and receive direct mechanical action
is the excessive corrosion that occurs at the specimens attack from the flow.
edges and the heterogeneous distribution of τw, especially The cementite is brittle, however, for the practical
on the internal faces of the samples (Figures 3 and 4). These conditions encountered, the forces of the flow are not able
exaggerated values imply excessive conservatism in material to remove the cementite from the surface of the material.
selections, corrosion inhibitors and operating conditions in In addition, cathodic reactions tend to occur on this remaining
the oil and gas industries38. cementite structure. Where sulfide and carbonate films are
initially deposited45,48.
3.3. Material characterization
Figure 7 shows API X65 carbon steel micrographs 3.4. Autoclave tests
with 100x and 1000x magnifications. It is possible to Figure 8 shows the impact of using the baffles on the
observe a ferritic/pearlitic microstructure, with ferrite and flow pattern inside the vessel in the 2 evaluated rotations
perlite grains in a homogeneous distribution (Figure 7A). (500 and 800 rpm).
Predominantly, the fine perlite colonies are located in the Several authors16,49,50 also report a vortex increase with
ferrite grain boundaries, which present an irregularity in increased rotation. Without the baffles, the tendency is that
sizes and shapes (Figure 7B). this vortex to penetrate inside the cage.

Figure 7. API X65 carbon steel microstructure. (A) 100 x e (B) 1000x.

Figure 8. Influence of baffles on the formed vortex. 500 rpm and 800 rpm without baffles (A and B), 500 rpm and 800 rpm with baffles
(C and D).
 The Influence of Rotating Cage Geometry and Baffles on the Wall Shear Stress Equation in Sweet/Sour Corrosion 7

Papavinasam49, divides flow patterns into four regions showed that the 500 rpm tests showed a greater number of
with respect to the vortex formed: adhered products in surfaces.
1. Homogeneous zone: The vortex width and height 1 L of solution was used inside the autoclave in the
increase as rotation increases. experiments, and the results (Figure 9A and B) proved a
2. Wall affected zone: The vortex height continues change in the physical-chemical properties of the solution.
to increase, but the width is already limited by the In the field, the medium does not change significantly, since
vessel wall. the flow, constantly “renews” the solution in contact with
3. Turbulent zone: The vortex penetrates the cage and a substrate area53. Becoming clear the need to improve the
creates a turbulent flow with mixing between the technique of tests with RC in autoclaves, in order to renew
liquid and gas phases. the electrolyte inside the vessel54,55.
4. Top cover affected zone: The liquid level rises and
3.6. Surface characterization
reaches the vessel cover, thereby a recirculation and
a major change in the flow pattern. Immediately after the autoclave was opened, the
It is possible to observe in Figure 8 the baffles efficiency specimens were cleaned with acetone and dried with hot air.
in not allowing the vortex evolution and penetration inside Figures 10 and 11 show the external and internal sides of the
the cage. From these results, all tests will be performed with 4 specimens tested in each rotation with baffles (500 rpm
baffles, which improves the homogeneity of the fluid inside and 800 rpm respectively)
the autoclave28,36. It is clear the non-uniformity of corrosion on the inner side
and on the outside, as well as the difference in the corrosion
3.5. Potentiometric titration, Measurement of products formation within the same sample.
iron content and pH evolution DRX analyses were performed on both sides of each
sample for the characterization of corrosion products.
Figure 9 shows the evolution of H2S concentration
The XRD analyses are shown in Figure 12.
values, generated through the sodium thiosulfate reaction,
The samples tested at 500 rpm presented a dense and
pH and total iron concentration in the solution over the 25 h
uniform film on the outer face and a mixture of different
of immersion. corrosion products. In samples macrographs (Figure 10) it
H2S concentrations generated (Figure 9A) prove the is possible to observe a dense gray film characterized as
efficiency of the generation of this through the sodium sulfide films by DRX analyses (Figure 12A) and regions with
thiosulfate reaction, as proposed by Tsujikawa51. Dependence the darker corrosion product predominance on the internal
on H2S generation with subtract corrosion is evident by the side of the specimens, possibly being iron carbonate and
fact that 800 rpm tests showed higher values than tests at chukanovite. These sweet corrosion products appear with
500 rpm. The values found for the 2 conditions tried to a peaks of greater intensity on the inner face of the DRX
stable level after the first hours of testing. analysis (Figure 12B). Sample 1 presented lighter film
pH (Figure 9B) has a significant increase in the first deflating on the outside.
hour of immersion, showing that the corrosive mechanism The 500 rpm tested samples present a large amount of
alters the studied environment pH. The total iron content sulfides, in addition to chukanovite, siderite and oxides as
shown in Figure 9C suggests a greater aggressiveness of magnetite, possibly formed during disassembly and storage
the 800 rpm tests, which presented higher Fe values after process until the DRX analyses.
12 h and 25 h of immersion. These results are in accordance A brittle film of iron sulfide layer in its different morphologies
with Rogowska et al.52 that relate after the hydradiation of have possibly contributed to the lowest corrosion rate values
CO2 and with the evolution of the corrosive mechanisms, observed in this condition.
the release of Fe2+ and the increase of CO32- concentration According to Wen and his collaborators56, carbon steels
contribute to the increase of the pH in the medium, as can when in contact with an H2S containing environment and
be seen in the Figure 9B. water, immediately form an adherent film on the anodic
The iron content reduction shown in Figure 9C, over the material surface, as well as found in previous works57.
immersion time, was possibly due to the formation reactions The various corrosion products forms tend to be mainly non-
of corrosion products that consume Fe2+. Subsequent results stoichiometric iron sulfide compounds. H2S concentrations

Figure 9. H2S concentration values (A), pH (B) and total iron (C) during the immersion period in the 2 rotations.
8 Souza et al. Materials Research

Figure 10. Specimens after 25 h of immersion at 500 rpm, before the pickling process.

Figure 11. Specimens after 25 h immersion at 800 rpm, before the pickling process.

and temperature variations result in major morphology and outside faces do not present any adherent film formation,
crystalline structure changes58. while a heterogeneous corrosion products film covers the
The images of the specimens exposed to 800 rpm inner side (Figure 11).
(Figure 11) make clear the difference between the fluid On the internal samples surfaces, large regions were
dynamics outside and inside the rotating cage, in accordance noticed (Figure 11) containing dark crystals similar to
with CFD results (Figure 3B). It is possible to note that the iron carbonate and chukanovite crystals presented in the
 The Influence of Rotating Cage Geometry and Baffles on the Wall Shear Stress Equation in Sweet/Sour Corrosion 9

Figure 12. DRX analysis for the 4 samples tested at 500 rpm, external (A) and internal (B) and 800 rpm external (C) and internal (D).
(1- Ferrite, 2- Cementite, 3- Chukanovite, 4- Siderite, 5- Hematite, 6- Magnetite, 7- Mackinawite, 8- Greigite, 9- Pyrite, 10- Pyrrhotite,
11- Smythite, 12- Trolite, 13- Marcasite).

Figure 13. Corrosion rate for each specimen (A) and average value for each rotation (B).

literature57,59,60 and found in DRX analyses (Figure 12D). 3.7. Weight loss and corrosion rate
These crystals preferentially formed where the iron sulfide
After characterization, the pickling process provided
film failed or presented pores and cracks.
the real weight loss and the corrosion rate of each sample
All the samples tested at 800 rpm (Figure 11) presented (Figure 13A). Figure 13B shows the mean corrosion rate
little or no adhered corrosion products on the external face. values for the 2 evaluated rotations.
Only ferrite was identified by the DRX, this phase is present The increase in rotation generated an increase in corrosion
in the steel microstructure (Figure 7). rate, this result was already expected and already well
The inner faces presented predominantly iron carbonate, discussed in the literature35,37,63, CFD results (Figures 3 and 4)
and few indications of macknawite, suggesting that the had already suggested this behavior.
increase in rotation may have impaired the adhesion of The specimens 1 and 3 (Figure 13A) presented higher
sulfide films, consequently favored the FeCO3 precipitation corrosion rate for the 2 rotations, which makes clear the
(Figure 11 and 12-D). Probably due to increased rotation influence of shear stress. Figure 3 and 4 shows the regions
and high τw values (Figure 3), the film of iron sulfide, with the highest τw value due to the internal flow imposed by
naturally brittle and fragile61,62, may have been released, the single hole in the cage discs. This result is in line with
allowing a greater carbonate crystals formation. The CFD the work in literature16,35 that also showed this difference,
results corroborate these assertions, since the wall shear and the cage geometry influence on the corrosion rate.
stresses in the 800 rpm tests were 2,6 times higher than The graph of Figure 13A and the large standard deviation
500 rpm. in Figure 13B clearly show the non-uniformity of corrosion
10 Souza et al. Materials Research

rate values for specimens in different positions in the RC. 10. Barker R, Burkle D, Charpentier T, Thompson H, Neville
This variation compromises the conclusions obtained A. A review of iron carbonate (FeCO3) formation in the oil
with the technique, emphasizing the need to improve the and gas industry. Corros Sci. 2018;142:312-41. http://dx.doi.
org/10.1016/j.corsci.2018.07.021.
experimental methodology.
11. Umoren SA, Solomon MM, Saji VS. Corrosion inhibitors
for sour oilfield environment (H2S corrosion). In: Saji VS,
4. Conclusions Umoren SA, editors. Corrosion inhibitors in the oil and gas
industry. Weinheim: Wiley-VCH; 2020. p. 229-54. http://dx.doi.
• It is evident the need for an update in the ASTM
org/10.1002/9783527822140.ch8.
G170 equation. As seen, the equation currently used 12. Yin ZF, Zhao WZ, Bai ZQ, Feng YR, Zhou WJ. Corrosion
is limited to the geometry and conditions used by behavior of SM 80SS tube steel in stimulant solution containing
the author for such a proposition; H2S and CO2. Electrochim Acta. 2008;53(10):3690-700. http://
• The RC evaluated by CFD presented a non-uniformity dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.electacta.2007.12.039.
in the distributions of τw, having the influence of 13. Gayosso MJH, Olivares GZ, Fragoso SB, del Valle GEB, Oidor
this non-uniform distribution on the corrosion rate, DMG, Gómez VÁR. Corrosion behavior of API 5L X52 steel
proven by the surfaces characterization results; under high concentrations of H2S/CO2 Gases. Mater Sci Appl.
2016;07(10):623-43.
• The environment physicochemical analyses showed
14. Cabrera-Sierra R, Cosmes-López LJ, Castaneda-López H,
an increase in pH and Fe and justify the need to Calderón JT, Hallen López JM. Corrosion studies of carbon
renew the test solution over the immersion period; steel immersed in NACE brine by weight loss, EIS and XRD
• The increase in RC rotation promotes an increase techniques. Int J Electrochem Sci. 2016;11:10185-98.
in average and maximum τw, thus increasing the 15. Ajmal TS, Arya SB, Udupa KR. Effect of hydrodynamics on
corrosion rate. This increase may be due to the the flow accelerated corrosion (FAC) and electrochemical
negative impact of the higher rotation alum in the impedance behavior of line pipe steel for petroleum industry.
formation and adhesion of corrosion products; Int J Press Vessels Piping. 2019;174:42-53.
16. Senior N, Boisvert P, Runstedtler A, Arafin M. Simulating
• The results of CFD and DRX show that corrosion
liquid pipeline flow using the rotating cage method. Corrosion.
products have suffered great influence from the τw 2015;2015:13.
distributions. FeS, naturally brittle and fragile, tends 17. Viçosa IN. Construção e teste de um sistema de ‘Rotating
to detach in regions with the highest incidence of Cage’ para realização de medidas eletroquímicas em altas
flow, enabling nucleation and or precipitation of tensões de cisalhamento para avaliação da corrosão em aço
FeCO3 films in these regions. carbono utilizado em dutos de transporte de petróleo [projeto
de graduação]. Rio de Janeiro: Universidade Federal do Rio
de Janeiro; 2015.
5. References 18. Arismendi Florez JJ, Ferrari JV. Fluid flow effects on CO2
1. Bandeira, M. C. E., Spigarollo, D., Moreira, R. M. & Mattos, corrosion: a review of applications of rotating cage methodology.
O. R. Influence of small amount of H2S on the CO2 corrosion Anti-Corros Methods Mater. 2019;66(4):507-19.
of carbon steel at oil production conditions. In: INTERCORR 19. ASTM: American Society for Testing and Materials. ASTM
2016; 2016; Búzios, RJ. Proceedings. Rio de Janeiro: ABRACO; G170: standard guide for inhibitors in the laboratory. West
2016. Conshohocken: ASTM; 2012. p. 1-16.
2. Kahyarian A, Brown B, Nesic S. Discussion on “Electrochemistry 20. Papavinasam S, Revie RW, Attard M, Demoz A, Sun H, Donini
of CO2 corrosion of mild steel: effect of CO2 on iron dissolution JC, et al. Inhibitor selection for internal corrosion control of
reaction” by A. Kahyarian, B. Brown, S. Nesic, [Corros. Sci. pipelines. In: CORROSION 2000; 2000; Orlando, Florida.
129 (2017) 146–151]. Corros Sci. 2018;133:417-22. Proceedings. Texas: NACE; 2000.
3. Almeida TC, Bandeira MCE, Moreira RM, Mattos OR. New 21. ASTM: American Society for Testing and Materials. ASTM-G1:
insights on the role of CO2 in the mechanism of carbon steel standard practice for preparing, cleaning, and evaluating corrosion
corrosion. Corros Sci. 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j. test: significance. West Conshohocken: ASTM; 1999.
corsci.2017.02.016. 22. ASTM: American Society for Testing and Materials. ASTM
4. Wei L, Pang X, Zhou M, Gao K. Effect of exposure angle on G31-72: standard practice for laboratory immersion corrosion
the corrosion behavior of X70 steel under supercritical CO2 testing of metals. West Conshohocken: ASTM; 2004.
and gaseous CO2 environments. Corros Sci. 2017;121:57-71. 23. Silverman DC. Rotating cylinder electrode for velocity sensitivity
5. Kahyarian A, Brown B, Nesic S. Mechanism of CO2 corrosion testing. Corrosion. 1984;40(5):220-6.
of mild steel: a new narrative. In: CORROSION 2018; 2018; 24. Gabe DR. The rotating cylinder electrode. J Appl Electrochem.
Phoenix, Arizona. Proceedings. Texas: NACE; 2018. 1974;4(2):91-108.
6. Zeng Z, Lillard RS, Cong H. Effect of salt concentration on 25. Efird KD, Wright EJ, Boros JA, Hailey TG. Correlation of
the corrosion behavior of carbon steel in CO2 environment. steel corrosion in pipe flow with jet impingement and rotating
Corrosion. 2016;72(6):805-23. cylinder tests. Corrosion. 1993;49(12):992-1003.
7. Jin P, Robbins W, Bota G. Effect of sulfur compounds on 26. White FM. Mecânica dos fluidos. Porto Alegre: AMGH; 2011.
formation of protective scales in naphthenic acid corrosion in 27. Silverman DC. Rotating cylinder electrode-geometry relationships
non-turbulent flow. Corros Sci. 2018;131:223-34. for prediction of velocity-sensitive corrosion. Corrosion.
8. Zhang H, Pang X, Gao K. Localized CO2 corrosion of carbon 1988;44(1):42-9. http://dx.doi.org/10.5006/1.3582024.
steel with different microstructures in brine solutions with an 28. Runstedtler A, Huang J, Boisvert P, Senior N. Parametric wall
imidazoline-based inhibitor. Appl Surf Sci. 2018;442:446-60. shear stress characterization of the rotating cage test method.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.apsusc.2018.02.115. Corrosion. 2006;41:106-8.
9. Elgaddafi R, Ahmed R, Shah S. Modeling and experimental 29. Eisenberg M, Tobias CW, Wilke CR. Ionic mass transfer and
studies on CO2-H2S corrosion of API carbon steels under high- concentration polarization at rotating electrodes. J Electrochem
pressure. J Petrol Sci Eng. 2017;156:682-96. Soc. 1954;101(6):306-20.
 The Influence of Rotating Cage Geometry and Baffles on the Wall Shear Stress Equation in Sweet/Sour Corrosion 11

30. Theodorsen T, Regier A. Experiments on drag of revolving 47. Di Bonaventura M, Brown B, Singer M, Nesic S. Effect of flow
disks, cylinders, and streamline rods at high speeds. Washington: and steel microstructure on the formation of iron carbonate.
NASA; 1945. p. 367-84. In: CORROSION 2018; 2018; Phoenix, Arizona. Proceedings.
31. Zeng Y, Shi C, Arafin M, Zavadil R. Influence of impurity Texas: NACE; 2018.
hydrogen sulfide on the corrosion performance of pipeline 48. Farelas F, Brown B, Nesic S. Iron carbide and its influence on
steels in supercritical carbon dioxide stream. In: Corrosion the formation of protective iron carbonate in CO2 corrosion of
2016 Conference & Expo; 2016; Houston. Proceedings. Texas: mild steel. In: CORROSION 2013; 2013; Orlando, Florida.
NACE; 2016. Proceedings. Texas: NACE; 2013.
32. Zhao Y, Li X, Zhang C, Zhang T, Xie J, Zeng G, et al. Investigation 49. Papavinasam, S. Rotating cage and jet impingement techniques.
of the rotation speed on corrosion behavior of HP-13Cr stainless
In: Yang L, editor. Techniques for corrosion monitoring. London:
steel in the extremely aggressive oilfield environment by using
Woodhead Publishing; 2008. p. 323-44.
the rotating cage test. Corros Sci. 2018;145:307-19.
50. Papavinasam S, Attard M, Revie RW, Bojes J. Rotating cage: a
33. Hirano S, Sunaba T, Al Jaberi M, Al Alawi F. Evaluation
compact laboratory methodology for simultaneously evaluating
of corrosion inhibitor performance under high temperature/
high salinity sweet conditions. In: International Petroleum corrosion inhibition and drag reducing properties of chemicals.
Exhibition & Conference; 2018; Abu Dhabi. Proceedings. Abu In: CORROSION 2002; 2002; Denver, Colorado. Proceedings.
Dhabi: Society of Petroleum Engineers; 2018. http://dx.doi. Texas: NACE; 2002.
org/10.2118/193016-ms. 51. Tsujikawa S, Miyasaka A, Ueda M, Ando S, Shibata T,
34. Ramachandran P. Numerical simulation of the rotating cage Haruna T, et al. Alternative for evaluating sour gas resistance
problem. In: 33rd National and 3rd International Conference on of low-alloy steels and corrosion-resistant alloys. Corrosion.
Fluid Mechanics and Fluid Power; 2017; Bombay. Proceedings. 1993;49(5):409-19.
Bombay: IIT Bombay; 2017. 52. Rogowska M, Gudme J, Rubin A, Pantleon K, Ambat R. Effect
35. Vera JR, Parsi M, Kara M, Sharma P, Li X, Jatale A. Appropriate of Fe ion concentration on corrosion of carbon steel in CO2
rotating cage speed for testing inhibitors under field simulated environment. Corros Eng Sci Technol. 2016;51(1):25-36.
flow conditions. In: CORROSION 2017; 2017; New Orleans, 53. Zhong X, Brown B, Li W, Nesic S, Singer M. How to maintain
Louisiana. Proceedings. Texas: NACE; 2017. a stable solution chemistry when simulating CO2 corrosion in a
36. Kumar A, Ling S, Pacheco JL, Desai SK, Reddy RV. Effects of small volume laboratory system. In: Corrosion 2016 Conference
rotating cage autoclave design on shear stress and flow pattern. & Expo; 2016; Houston. Proceedings. Texas: NACE; 2016.
Corros. 2013;2013:1-13. 54. Ascencio M, Pekguleryuz M, Omanovic S. An investigation
37. Spigarollo D, Bandeira M, Nogueira IV, Moreira R, Mattos OR. of the corrosion mechanisms of WE43Mg alloy in a modified
Bringing new functionalities to rotating cage autoclave assembly. simulated body fluid solution: the effect of electrolyte renewal.
In: INTERCORR 2018; 2018; São Paulo, SP. Proceedings. Rio
Corros Sci. 2015;91:297-310.
de Janeiro: ABRACO; 2018.
55. Moreira R, Nascimento C, Bandeira M, Mattos O. Influência
38. Diehl B No, Oliveira J, Baptista I, Bandeira, M. Influência do
da renovação de meio corrosivo no comportamento do aço X65
teor de água na avaliação da corrosão de colunas de produção
por meio da técnica de gaiola rotatória. In: INTERCORR 2016; quanto a corrosão em meios de CO2 e H2S. In: INTERCORR
2016; Búzios, RJ. Proceedings. Rio de Janeiro: ABRACO; 2018; 2018; São Paulo, SP. Proceedings. Rio de Janeiro:
2016. ABRACO; 2018.
39. Bandeira MCE, Moreira R, Assunção F, Mattos O, Vaz G, Oliveira 56. Wen X, Bai P, Luo B, Zheng S, Chen C. Review of recent
J, et al. Carbon steel corrosion on production environment, progress in the study of corrosion products of steels in a hydrogen
evaluating the impact of CO2 partial pressure, BSW and oil sulphide environment. Corros Sci. 2018;139:124-40.
characteristics on tubular life extend. In: Corrosion 2021 57. Souza RC, Santos BAF, Gonçalves MC, Mendes EP Jr, Simões TA,
Conference & Expo; 2021. Proceedings. Texas: NACE; 2021. Oliveira JR, et al. The role of temperature and H2S (thiosulfate)
40. Farelas F, Galicia M, Brown B, Nesic S, Castaneda H. on the corrosion products of API X65 carbon steel exposed to
Evolution of dissolution processes at the interface of carbon sweet environment. J Petrol Sci Eng. 2019;180:78-88.
steel corroding in a CO2 environment studied by EIS. Corros 58. Shi F, Zhang L, Yang J, Lu M, Ding J, Li H. Polymorphous
Sci. 2010;52(2):509-17. FeS Corrosion products of pipeline steel under highly sour
41. Zhang GA, Cheng YF. Corrosion of X65 steel in CO2-saturated conditions. Corros Sci. 2016;102:103-13.
oilfield formation water in the absence and presence of acetic 59. Ko M, Ingham B, Laycock N, Williams DE. In situ synchrotron
acid. Corros Sci. 2009;51(8):1589-95. X-ray diffraction study of the effect of chromium additions
42. Ezuber HM. Influence of temperature and thiosulfate on the to the steel and solution on CO2 corrosion of pipeline steels.
corrosion behavior of steel in chloride solutions saturated in Corros Sci. 2014;80:237-46.
CO2. Mater Des. 2009;30(9):3420-7.
60. Pandarinathan V, Lepková K, van Bronswijk W. Chukanovite
43. Kappes MA. Evaluation of thiosulfate as a substitute for hydrogen
(Fe2(OH)2CO3) identified as a corrosion product at sand-deposited
sulfide in sour corrosion fatigue studies [thesis]. Ohio: Ohio
carbon steel in CO2-saturated brine. Corros Sci. 2014;85:26-32.
State University; 2011.
61. Kahyarian, A., Brown, B. N. & Nesic, S. CO2 corrosion, H2S
44. Sun JB, Zhang GA, Liu W, Lu MX. The formation mechanism
of corrosion scale and electrochemical characteristic of low corrosion, organic acid corrosion: a unifying perspective on
alloy steel in carbon dioxide-saturated solution. Corros Sci. corrosion mechanisms in weak acid solutions. In: CORROSION
2012;57:131-8. 2019 Conference & Expo; 2019; Nashville, Tennessee.
45. Tang J, Shao Y, Guo J, Zhang T, Meng G, Wang F. The effect Proceedings. Texas: NACE; 2019.
of H2S concentration on the corrosion behavior of carbon steel 62. Lee K-LJ. A mechanistic modeling of CO2 corrosion of mild
at 90°C. Corros Sci. 2010;52(6):2050-8. steel in the presence of H2S. Ohio: Ohio University; 2004.
46. Zhao W, Zou Y, Matsuda K, Zou Z. Characterization of the 63. Papavinasam S, Doiron A, Revie RW. Effect of rotating cage
effect of hydrogen sulfide on the corrosion of X80 pipeline geometry on flow pattern and corrosion rate. Corrosion.
steel in saline solution. Corros Sci. 2016;102:455-68. 2003;2003:1-19.