Experiment 7: FM Modulators/: 7.3 Theory Part

Experiment 7: FM Modulators/Demodulators
:Educational Objectives 1./7

Studying the operation and characteristics of varactor diode.
Understanding the operation of voltage controlled oscillator.
.Implementing a frequency modulator with voltage-controlled oscillator
Studying the principle of phase-locked loop.
Understanding the characteristics of the PLL LM565.
Demodulating FM signal using PLL.
Demodulating FM signal using FM to AM conversion discriminator
:EQUIPMENT REQUIRED 7.2

1. Module KL-92001
2. Module KL-93004
3. Oscilloscope
Spectrum Analyzer .4
7.3 Theory Part:

Principle of Frequency Modulation Operation:
Frequency modulation (FM) is a process in which the carrier frequency is varied
by the amplitude of the modulating signal (i.e., intelligence signal). The FM signal
can be expressed by the following equation:
If x(λ)=Amcos(2πfm λ), then
Where
θ (t) = instantaneous modulated frequency
fc = carrier frequency
fm = modulating frequency
β = modulation index = Am(fΔ /fm)
The frequency of FM signal xFM(t) may be expressed as
Varactor Diode:
The varactor diode, sometimes called tuning diode, is the diode whose capacitance
is proportional to the amount of the reverse bias voltage across p-n
junction.Increasing the reverse bias voltage applied across the diode decreases the
capacitance due to the depletion region width becomes wider. Conversely, when
the reverse bias voltage decreased, the depletion region width becomes narrower
and the capacitance increased. When an ac voltage is applied across the diode, the
capacitance varies with the change of the amplitude.
A relationship between a varactor diode and a conventional capacitor is shown in

Fig. 7-1. In fact, a reverse-biased varactor diode is similar to a capacitor. When a p
and n semiconductors combined together, a small depletion region is formed
because of the diffusion of minority carriers. The positive and negative charges
occupy n and p sides of junction, respectively. This just likes a capacitor.
The amount of internal junction capacitance can be calculated by the capacitance
formula.
Frequency demodulator, also called frequency discriminator, is a circuit, which

converts instantaneous frequency variations to linear voltage changes. There are
many types of circuit used in communication system such as FM to AM
conversion, balanced, and phase-shift discriminators and phase-locked loop (PLL)
frequency demodulator. In this experiment we will introduce the operations of
PLL frequency demodulator and FM to AM conversion discriminator.
Phase-Locked Loop (PLL) operation
The PLL is an electronic feedback control system, as illustrated by the block
diagram in Fig. 8-1, of locking the output and input signals in good agreements in
both frequency and phase. In radio communication, if a carrier frequency drifts
due to transmission, the PLL in receiver circuit will track the carrier frequency
automatically.
The PLL in the following experiments is used in two different ways: (1) as a
demodulator, where it is used to follow phase or frequency modulation and (2) to
track a carrier signal which may vary in frequency with time. In general, a PLL
circuit includes the following sections:
1. Phase Detector (PD)
2. Low Pass Filter (LPF)
3. Voltage Controlled Oscillator (VCO)
The phase detector within the PLL locks at its two inputs and develops an output
that is zero if these two input frequencies are identical. If the two input frequencies
are not identical, then the output of detector, when passed through the low-pass
filter removing the ac components, is a dc level applied to the VCO input. This
action closes the feedback loop since the dc level applied to the VCO input
changes the VCO output frequency in an attempt to make it exactly match the
input frequency. If the VCO output frequency equals the input frequency, the PLL
has achieved lock, and the control voltage will be zero for as long as the PLL
inputfrequency remains constant. The parameters of PLL shown in Fig. 8-1 are as
follows:
Kd = phase detector gain in volts/radian
Ka = amplifier gain in volt/volt
Ko = VCO gain in kHz/volt
KL = KdKaKo =closed loop gain in kHz/volt
LM565 PLL Basic Characteristics

The LM565 is a general-purpose phase-locked loop and is widely used in
frequency demodulation. In designing with the LM565, the important parameters
of interest are as follows:
1. Free-running Frequency
Fig. 8-4 shows a PLL circuit with LM565. In the absence of the input signal, the
output frequency of the VCO is called the free-running frequency fo. In the PLL
circuit of Fig. 8-4, the free-running frequency of LM565 is determined by the
timing components C2 and VR1, and can be found by
2. Lock Range:
Initially, the PLL is in already-locked state and the VCO is running at some
frequency. If the input frequency fi is away from the VCO frequency fo, locking
may still occur. When the input frequency reaches a specific frequency where the
PLL loses lock, the frequency difference of fi and fo is called the lock range of the
loop. The lock range of LM565 can be found by
3. Capture Range:
Initially, the loop is unlocked and the VCO is running at some frequency. If the
input frequency fi is close to the VCO frequency fo, unlocking may maintain.
When the input frequency reaches a specific frequency where the PLL locks, the
frequency difference of fi and fo is called the capture range of the loop. The
capture range of LM565 can be found by
FM-to-AM Conversion Discriminator:

Fig. 8-6 shows the blocks of FM to AM discriminator. The inputs FM signal is
first converted into the AM signal by the differentiator, and then the output AM
signal is demodulated by the envelope detector to recover the original audio signal.
The Result
Table 7-1
DC Biase
input
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
(V)
Output
Frequenc
2.1 2.3 2.4 2.5 2. 2.6 2. 2.8 2.7 2.8 2.88 2.
y
(MHz) 9 2 3 4 6 3 7 5 8 8 5 9
Relationship between Frequency (MHZ) ,DC bias (v)

Table 7.2
Input Output
freque Input waveform
ncy waveform
3khz
8khz
Table 7-3 (C3 = 0.1µF, fo = 2k)
Input volteg
(V) 2.7 3.0 3.3 3.9 4.2 4.5
Output
Frequency 3.4k 2.21k 2.6k 2.26k 2.63 2.7
(kHz)
Input volteg
4.5
(V) 2.7 3 3.3 3.6 3.9 4.2
Output
Frequency 3.2k 2.84k 2.44k 2.k 1.58 1.15
0.68
(kHz)
:Conclusion
Through this experiment, we have explored how varying the frequency of a
carrier signal can be used to transmit information in a more efficient and noise-
.resistant manner compared to AM (Amplitude Modulation)
We have observed that FM modulation offers advantages such as improved signal
quality and resistance to amplitude variations and noise, making it a popular
choice for broadcasting music, speech, and data. The ability to demodulate and
retrieve the original information from the FM signal with relative ease showcases
the practicality of this modulation technique.
This experience has deepened our understanding of the principles behind FM
modulation and its applications in real-world scenarios, including radio
broadcasting, two-way communication systems, and even mobile phone networks.
As we move forward in the world of electronics and telecommunications, the
knowledge gained from this experiment will undoubtedly contribute to our ability
to design and implement more robust and efficient communication systems.
Regenerate

Experiment 7: FM Modulators/: 7.3 Theory Part

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Experiment 7: FM Modulators/: 7.3 Theory Part

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Experiment 7: FM Modulators/: 7.3 Theory Part

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Experiment 7: FM Modulators/Demodulators

:Educational Objectives 1./7

:EQUIPMENT REQUIRED 7.2

7.3 Theory Part:

If x(λ)=Amcos(2πfm λ), then

A relationship between a varactor diode and a conventional capacitor is shown in

Frequency demodulator, also called frequency discriminator, is a circuit, which

LM565 PLL Basic Characteristics

FM-to-AM Conversion Discriminator:

Relationship between Frequency (MHZ) ,DC bias (v)

You might also like