Space Science &

Technology
Chapter
2
Outer Space refers to the void that exists between celestial bodies. There is no boundary
where outer space said to begin, but according to space treaties Kármán line located at
an altitude of 100 km above sea level is conventionally used as the start of outer space.
Space can also be regarded as a resource available for exploitation because it forms part
of man’s environment similar to land, air and water. Space research involves dual use
technology with application in both civilian and defence sectors. Indian space research
also involves dual use technology and other countries that possess this technology include
Russia, USA, European Union, Israel, Japan and China.

What is an Orbit?
An orbit is a regular and repeating curved trajectory of an object in space. An object in
an orbit is called a Satellite, it can be artificial satellite or natural satellite like earth and
other planets. The earth, like any other planets in space, rotates around the sun, in its
own orbital path at a constant speed.
How an Orbit is formed?
Orbit is a result of perfect balance between the momentum of an object and the force
of gravity. “ When an object is in motion, it will be in motion unless some external forces
applied to it- Newtons First Law”. When an object is released into space, it follows a
straight trajectory, but due to the earths gravity the object is pulled towards it and the
trajectory become curved shaped and due this repeated action, it becomes an orbit.

Object speeds Gravity attracts Object continues to The result is a balance of

by a planet the object to try to move forward, forces pushing the object
with a lot of the planet and but is pulled down out and pulling it in,
momentum vice versa by gravity. making a circular orbit.

Note: The trajectory of an orbit can be circular or elliptical.

Types of Orbits
On the Basis of Altitude
„„ Near Earth Orbit (NEO): Being the orbit closest to the Earth, satellite orbiting here
has to overcome greater gravitational pull of the earth. Generally experimental satellites
are launched in the NEO. Ex. Aryabhatt and Rohini.
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„„ Low Earth Orbit (LEO): This orbit lies at an altitude between 160 Km to 2000 Km
above the earth’s surface. Objects that are in the Low Earth Orbit are subject to
atmospheric drag. “ Atmospheric Drag is a process of reduction of the altitude of a
satellite’s orbit due to frequent collision of gas molecules and it is a cause of orbital
decay.” So, Higher the orbital altitude, lower will be the atmospheric density and drag.
However, beyond 1000 Km above the earth’s surface, objects will be subject to Earth’s
“Van Allen Radiation Zone”- It is a very sensitive zone, filled with energetic charged
particles from solar winds and cosmic rays, that are captured by the earths magnetic
field leading to varying levels of radiations. So, to avoid catastrophes, missions to LEO
aims for altitude between 160 Km to 1000 Km above the earths surface.
LEO is the circular orbit in which Remote Sensing Satellites (RSS) are launched. Remote
Sensing Satellites follow a circular orbit moving from North pole to South pole, therefore
this orbit is also known as Polar Orbit. In a 24 hour period, polar orbiting satellites will
view most of the Earth twice: once in daylight and once in darkness. Moreover, Within
LEO, high bandwidth communication can be experienced with low time lag.
„„ Middle Earth Orbit (MEO): MEO is also called Immediate circular Orbit, lies at an
altitude between 2000 Km to 35786 Km, but most commonly satellite operates at an
altitude between 20200 Km to 20650 to avoid unwanted hazards. Satellite in this orbit
has an orbital period of 2-24 hours and an orbital period of 12 hours can be achieved
by satellites in this region, thus this will allow these satellites to orbit the earth twice
a day. The most common use of satellites in this region is for navigation, such as the
GPS, Glonass and Galileo constellations. Communications satellites that cover the
North and South Pole are also put in MEO. On the contrary, due to comparatively high
altitude more ground coverage can be achieved.
Nevertheless, MEO has disadvantages too. With the increase in altitude as compared
to LEO, propagation delay will begin to creep into the transmission of signals. Thus the
power required to transmit the signal will increase.
„„ Geosynchronous Earth Orbit (GEO): A Geosynchronous Earth orbit lies at the highest
altitude of approximately 36000 Km above the earth’s equator. The orbital period is
equal to the earth’s rotational period around its axis, which allows satellites to match
Earth’s rotation. This position is a valuable spot for monitoring weather, communications
and surveillance. A Satellite in the Geosynchronous orbit can see or track one spot of
the planet all the time. Satellites in this orbit can be used for military and commercial
purposes such as telephone, internet and television. It also ensures a stable connectivity
as it can spot a single area over months or years.

On the Basis of Application

„„ Geostationary Orbit (GSO): The geostationary orbit is a special case of geosynchronous
orbit in which a satellite moves in a circular geosynchronous orbit in the equatorial
plane in the direction of the earth’s rotation. The satellite in this orbit has the same
orbital period as the rotation of the earth around its axis, making it appear stationary
relative to a fixed spot on the earth. This allows for them to provide constant coverage
of an area. This orbit is good for providing television broadcasting, weather monitoring
and communication services.
„„ Sun Synchronous Orbit (SSO): It is a special type of polar orbit. Here the orbital plane
of the satellite is always at the same constant angle relative to the sun-earth line during
all seasons. A sun-synchronous orbit crosses over the equator at approximately the

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same local time each day (and night). This orbit keeps the angle of sunlight on the
surface of the earth as consistent as possible, though the angle will change from season
to season. This consistency means that scientists can compare images from the same
season over several years. Generally, remote sensing satellites are launched in this orbit.
„„ Highly Elliptical Orbit (HEO): Satellites in Highly Elliptical Orbit have orbits that are
close to the earth at one point of their orbit, but are much farther away from the earth
at other times. Often highly-elliptical orbits are used to serve areas to the far north or
south of the earth, which cannot be reached using geostationary satellites.
„„ Transfer Orbit (TO): Transfer orbit is an intermediate orbit into which a spacecraft is
first launched and from where the satellite subsequently lifts off, with the help of its
propulsion system, to its designated orbit.
zz Polar Transfer Orbit (PTO): It is an orbit at an altitude of about 100 km below the
Polar or Low Earth Orbit. Remote Sensing satellites are launched into this orbit first
and then using its own propulsion, system it lifts itself to the desired orbit.
zz Geostationary Transfer Orbit (GTO): This orbit is located at a height of about 200
km below the geostationary orbit. GSS are first launched in GTO and then lifts itself
using its own propulsion system to the desired orbit.

Indian Space Programme

Genesis
The space research activities were initiated in our country during the early 1960’s,
when applications using satellites were in experimental stages even in the United States.
Dr. Vikram Sarabhai, the founding father of Indian space programme, recognized the
benefits of space technologies for India.
Dr. Sarabhai was convinced and envisioned that the resources in space have the potential
to address the real problems of man and society. He convened an army of able and brilliant
scientists, anthropologists, communicators and social scientists from all corners of the
country to spearhead the Indian space programme.
The INCOSPAR (Indian National Committee for Space Research) was initiated under
the leadership of Dr. Sarabhai and Dr. Ramanathan. In 1967, the first ‘Experimental
Satellite Communication Earth Station (ESCES)’ located in Ahmedabad was operationalized,
which also doubled as a training centre for the Indian as well as international scientists
and engineers.
The Satellite Instructional Television Experiment (SITE), was hailed as ‘the largest
sociological experiment in the world’ during 1975-76. It benefited around 200,000 people,
covering 2400 villages of six states and transmitted development oriented programmes
using the American Technology Satellite (ATS-6).
SITE was followed by the Satellite Telecommunication Experiments Project (STEP), a
joint project of ISRO and Post and Telegraphs Department (P&T) using the Franco-German
Symphonie satellite during 1977-79. Conceived as a sequel to SITE which focused on
Television, STEP was for telecommunication experiments.
The first Indian spacecraft ‘Aryabhata’ was developed and was launched using a Soviet
Launcher in 1975. Another major landmark was the development of the first launch vehicle
SLV-3 with a capability to place 40 kg in Low Earth Orbit (LEO), which had its first
successful flight in 1980.

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In the experimental phase during 80’s, end-to-end capability demonstration was done
in the design, development and in-orbit management of space systems together with the
associated ground systems for the users. Bhaskara-I & II missions were pioneering steps
in the remote sensing area, whereas ‘Ariane Passenger Payload Experiment (APPLE)’ became
the forerunner for the future communication satellite system. Development of the complex
Augmented Satellite Launch Vehicle (ASLV), also demonstrated newer technologies like
the use of strap-on, bulbous heat shield, closed loop guidance and digital autopilot. This
paved the way for learning the many nuances of launch vehicle design for complex missions,
leading the way for the realisation of operational launch vehicles such as PSLV and GSLV.
During the operational phase in 90’s, major space infrastructure was created under
two broad classes: one for the communication, broadcasting and meteorology through a
multi-purpose Indian National Satellite system (INSAT), and the other for Indian Remote
Sensing Satellite (IRS) system. The development and operationalisation of Polar Satellite
Launch Vehicle (PSLV) and development of Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle
(GSLV) were significant achievements during this phase.

Organizational Setup
The Space Commission formulates the policies and oversees the implementation of the
Indian space programme to promote the development and application of space science
and technology for the socio-economic benefit of the country.

Prime Minister

PRL Space Commission

Department of Space
NARL
ANTRIX
NE-SAC
SCL ISRO
IIST

VSSC IPSC SDSCSHAR ISAC SAC NRSC

IPRC IISU DECU MCF ISTRAC LEOS IIRS

PRL: Physical Research Laboratory, NARL: National Atmospheric Research Laboratory,
NE-SAC: North Eastern Space Applications Centre, SCL: Semi-Conductor Laboratory,
IIST: Indian Institute of Space Science and Technology, ISRO: Indian Space Research
Organisation, Antrix: Antrix Corporation Limited, VSSC: Vikram Sarabhai Space Cenre,
LPSC: Liquid Propulsion Systems Centre, SDSC: Satish Dhawan Space Centre,
ISAC: ISRO Satellite Centre, SAC: Space Applications Centre, NRSCL: National Remote
Sensing Centre, IPRC: ISRO Propulsion Complex, IISU: ISRO Inertial Systems Unit,
DECU: Development and Educational Communication Unit, MCF: Master Control Facility,
ISTRAC: ISRO Telemetry, Tracking and Command Network, LEOS: Laboratory for
Electro-optic Systems, IIRS: Indian Institute of Remote Sensing.

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Department of Space (DOS) implements these programmes through, mainly Indian

Space Research Organisation (ISRO), Physical Research Laboratory (PRL), National
Atmospheric Research Laboratory (NARL), North Eastern-Space Applications Centre (NE-
SAC) and Semi-Conductor Laboratory (SCL).

ISRO
The Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) is the space agency of the Government
of India headquartered in Bangalore. Its vision is to harness space technology for national
development while pursuing space science research and planetary exploration.
ISRO was formed in 1969 and it superseded the erstwhile Indian National Committee
for Space Research (INCOSPAR) established in 1962 by the efforts of then PM of India,
Jawaharlal Nehru, and his close aide and scientist Vikram Sarabhai. The establishment
of ISRO thus institutionalized space activities in India. It is managed by the Department
of Space, which reports to the Prime Minister of India.

Indian Launch Vehicles

The first experimental Satellite Launch Vehicle (SLV-3) was developed in 1980. An
Augmented version of this, ASLV, was launched successfully in 1992. India has made
tremendous strides in launch vehicle technology to achieve self-reliance in satellite launch
vehicle programme with the operationalisation of Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV)
and Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle (GSLV).

Fig. Satellite Launch Vehicles

Initial Launch Vehicles of India

„„ Satellite Launch Vehicle (SLV): Satellite Launch Vehicle-3 (SLV-3) was India’s first
experimental satellite launch vehicle, which was an all solid fuel, four stage vehicle
capable of placing 40 kg class payloads in Low Earth Orbit (LEO). It was first launched
in 1980 when Rohini satellite, RS-1, was placed in orbit, thereby making India the sixth
member of an exclusive club of space-faring nations.
„„ Augmented Satellite Launch Vehicle (ASLV): The ASLV is a five stage, all-solid
propellant vehicle, capable of placing 150 kg class satellites into 400 km circular orbits.
The ASLV Programme was designed to augment the payload capacity to 150 kg, thrice
that of SLV-3, for Low Earth Orbits (LEO). Under the ASLV programme, four
developmental flights were conducted.

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Operational Launch Vehicles of India

Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV)
Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV) is the third generation launch vehicle of India. It
is the first Indian launch vehicle to be equipped with liquid stages. After its first successful
launch in October 1994, PSLV emerged as the reliable and versatile workhorse launch
vehicle of India. The vehicle successfully launched two spacecraft – Chandrayaan-1 in 2008
and Mars Orbiter Spacecraft in 2013 – that later travelled to the Moon and Mars respectively.
PSLV earned its title ‘the Workhorse of ISRO’ through consistently delivering various
satellites to Low Earth Orbits, particularly the IRS series of satellites. It can take up to
1,750 kg of payload to Sun-Synchronous Polar Orbits of 600 km altitude. Due to its
unmatched reliability, PSLV has also been used to launch various satellites into
Geosynchronous and Geostationary orbits, like satellites from the IRNSS constellation.
PSLV has four stages using solid and liquid propulsion systems alternately. In the first
stage, PSLV uses the S139 solid rocket motor that is augmented by 6 solid strap-on
boosters. In the second stage, an Earth storable liquid rocket engine known as the Vikas
engine is used. The third stage of PSLV is a solid rocket motor that provides the upper
stages high thrust after the atmospheric phase of the launch. The fourth or uppermost
stage of PSLV, comprises two Earth storable liquid engines. PSLV uses 6 solid rocket
strap-on motors to augment the thrust provided by the first stage in its PSLV-G and PSLV-
XL variants. However, strap-ons are not used in the core alone version (PSLV-CA).

Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle (GSLV)

Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle Mark II (GSLV Mk II) is the largest launch
vehicle developed by India, which is currently in operation. This fourth generation launch
vehicle is a three stage vehicle with four liquid strap-ons. The indigenously developed
cryogenic Upper Stage (CUS), which is flight proven, forms the third stage of GSLV Mk II.
From January 2014, the vehicle has achieved four consecutive successes.
GSLV’s primary payloads are INSAT class of communication satellites that operate from
Geostationary orbits and hence are placed in Geosynchronous Transfer Orbits by GSLV.
Further, GSLV’s capability of placing up to 5 tonnes in Low Earth Orbits broadens the
scope of payloads from heavy satellites to multiple smaller satellites.
The first stage of GSLV was also derived from the PSLV’s first stage. The 138 tonne
solid rocket motor is augmented by 4 liquid strap-ons. One Vikas engine is used in the
second stage of GSLV. The stage was derived from the second stage of PSLV where the
Vikas engine has proven its reliability. The third stage uses CE-7.5, India’s first cryogenic
engine, developed under the Cryogenic Upper Stage Project (CUSP). CE-7.5 has a staged
combustion operating cycle.

Sounding Rockets
Sounding rockets are one or two stage solid propellant rockets used for probing the
upper atmospheric regions and for space research. They also serve as easily affordable
platforms to test or prove prototypes of new components or subsystems intended for use
in launch vehicles and satellites. With the establishment of the Thumba Equatorial Rocket
Launching Station (TERLS) in 1963 at Thumba, a location close to the magnetic equator,
there was a quantum jump in the scope for aeronomy and atmospheric sciences in India.
The launch of the first sounding rocket from Thumba near Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala
on 21 November 1963, marked the beginning of the Indian Space Programme.

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ISRO started launching indigenously made sounding rockets from 1965 and experience
gained was of immense value in the mastering of solid propellant technology. In 1975, all
sounding rocket activities were consolidated under the Rohini Sounding Rocket (RSR)
Programme. RH-75, with a diameter of 75mm was the first truly Indian sounding rocket,
which was followed by RH-100 and RH-125 rockets. The sounding rocket programme was
the bedrock on which the edifice of launch vehicle technology in ISRO could be built.

Future Launchers
GSLV Mk III
GSLV Mk III is a three-stage heavy lift launch vehicle developed by ISRO. The vehicle
has two solid strap-ons, a core liquid booster and a cryogenic upper stage.
GSLV Mk III is designed to carry 4 ton class of satellites into Geosynchronous Transfer
Orbit (GTO) or about 10 tons to Low Earth Orbit (LEO), which is about twice the capability
of GSLV Mk II.
The first experimental flight of LVM3, the LVM3-X/CARE mission lifted off from
Sriharikota on December 18, 2014 and successfully tested the atmospheric phase of flight.
Crew module Atmospheric Reentry Experiment was also carried out in this flight. The
module reentered, deployed its parachutes as planned and splashed down in the Bay of
Bengal. The first developmental flight of GSLV Mk III, the GSLV-Mk III-D1 successfully
placed GSAT-19 satellite into a Geosynchronous Transfer Orbit (GTO) on June 05, 2017
from SDSC SHAR, Sriharikota.

Indigenous Cryogenic Upper Stage (CUS)

A cryogenic rocket stage is more efficient and provides more thrust for every kilogram
of propellant it burns compared to solid and earth-storable liquid propellant rocket stages.
Specific impulse (a measure of the efficiency) achievable with cryogenic propellants (liquid
Hydrogen and liquid Oxygen) is much higher compared to liquid and solid propellants,
giving it a substantial payload advantage.
ISRO’s Cryogenic Upper Stage Project (CUSP) envisaged the design and development of
the indigenous Cryogenic Upper Stage to replace the stage procured from Russia and used
in GSLV flights. However, the cryogenic rocket stage has certain advantages and
disadvantages:
„„ Advantages: High energy per unit mass, clean fuel, economical in long run.
„„ Disadvantages: Storage, huge initial capital investment, very sophisticated technology
requiring high level of technical expertise.

RLV-TD
Reusable Launch Vehicle – Technology Demonstrator (RLV-TD) is one of the most
technologically challenging endeavours of ISRO towards developing essential technologies
for a fully reusable launch vehicle to enable low cost access to space. The configuration
of RLV-TD is similar to that of an aircraft and combines the complexity of both launch
vehicles and aircraft. The winged RLV-TD has been configured to act as a flying test bed
to evaluate various technologies, namely, hypersonic flight, autonomous landing and
powered cruise flight. In future, this vehicle will be scaled up to become the first stage of
India’s reusable two stage orbital launch vehicle.

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RLV-TD was successfully flight tested on May 23, 2016 from Satish Dhawan Space
Centre SHAR, Shriharikota, validating the critical technologies such as autonomous
navigation, guidance & control, reusable thermal protection system and re-entry mission
management.

Scramjet Engine -TD

The first experimental mission of ISRO’s Scramjet Engine towards the realisation of an
Air Breathing Propulsion System was successfully conducted on August 28, 2016 from
Satish Dhawan Space Centre SHAR, Sriharikota.
The Scramjet engine designed by ISRO uses Hydrogen as fuel and the Oxygen from the
atmospheric air as the oxidiser. This test was the maiden short duration experimental test
of ISRO’s Scramjet engine with a hypersonic flight at Mach 6. ISRO’s Advanced Technology
Vehicle (ATV), which is an advanced sounding rocket, was the solid rocket booster used
for the test of Scramjet engines at supersonic conditions.

Indian Satellites
ISRO has established two major space systems, the Indian National Satellite System
(INSAT) series for communication, television broadcasting and meteorological services
which are Geostationary Satellites, and Indian Remote Sensing Satellites (IRS) system for
resources monitoring and management which are Earth Observation Satellites.

Communication Satellites
The Indian National Satellite (INSAT) system is one of the largest domestic communication
satellite systems in Asia-Pacific region with nine operational communication satellites
placed in geostationary orbit. Established in 1983 with commissioning of INSAT-1B, it
initiated a major revolution in India’s communications sector and sustained the same
later. GSAT-17 joins the constellation of INSAT System consisting 15 operational satellites,
namely -INSAT-3A, 3C, 4A, 4B, 4CR and GSAT-6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 12, 14, 15, 16 and 18.
The INSAT system with more than 200 transponders in the C, Extended C and Ku-
bands provide services to the telecommunications, television broadcasting, satellite news
gathering, societal applications, weather forecasting, disaster warning and search and
rescue operations.

ISRO’s New Communication Satellites to Usher in High-speed Internet Era

Recently, ISRO has launched India’s high throughput communication satellite GSAT-
31 from a spaceport in French Guiana followed by GSAT-7A. These Satellites will augment
the Ku-band transponder capacity in Geostationary Orbit and is planning to usher in an
age of high-speed internet connectivity in the country with the launch of heavy-duty
communication satellites. GSAT-11 & GSAT-20 will be launched from Europe & India
respectively. GSAT-29 will be launched through the GSLV MK III from India. On June 5,
2017 ISRO had launched GSAT-19, which too carried Ka-band and Ku-band high
bandwidth communication transponders. The satellites will use multiple spot beams (a
special kind of transponder that operates at a high frequency) that will increase internet
speed and connectivity. Together, all these satellites will provide high bandwidth connectivity
of up to 100 gigabit per second. These satellites will reuse beams (signals) several times
in order to cover the entire country. In contrast, traditional satellite uses a broad single
beam (not concentrated) to cover wide regions.

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