Electromagnetic Theory and Transmission Lines

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UNIT – I- Electrostatics
Contents
 Basics of coordinate system
 Coulomb’s Law
 Electric Field Intensity - Fields due to Different Charge Distributions
 Electric Flux Density
 Gauss Law and Applications,
 Electric Potential,
 Relations between E and V
 Maxwell’s Equations for Electrostatic Fields
 Energy Density
 Dielectric Constant
 Isotropic and Homogeneous Dielectrics,
 Continuity Equation
 Relaxation Time
 Poisson's and Laplace's Equations
 Capacitance - Parallel plate
 Problems.
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MALLA REDDY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY DEPT. OF ECE
INTRODUCTION
VECTOR ALGEBRA
Vector Algebra is a part of algebra that deals with the theory of vectors and vector spaces.
Most of the physical quantities are either scalar or vector quantities.
SCALAR QUANTITY:
Scalar is a number that defines magnitude. Hence a scalar quantity is defined as a
quantity that has magnitude only. A scalar quantity does not point to any direction i.e. a
scalar quantity has no directional component.
For example when we say, the temperature of the room is 30o C, we don‘t specify the direction.
Hence examples of scalar quantities are mass, temperature, volume, speed etc.
A scalar quantity is represented simply by a letter – A, B, T, V, S.
VECTOR QUANTITY:
A Vector has both a magnitude and a direction. Hence a vector quantity is a

quantity that has both magnitude and direction.
Examples of vector quantities are force, displacement, velocity, etc.
A vector quantity is represented by a letter with an arrow over it or a bold letter.
UNIT VECTORS:
When a simple vector is divided by its own magnitude, a new vector is created known as
the unit vector. A unit vector has a magnitude of one. Hence the name - unit vector.
A unit vector is always used to describe the direction of respective vector.
Hence any vector can be written as the product of its magnitude and its unit vector. Unit Vectors
along the co-ordinate directions are referred to as the base vectors. For example unit vectors
along X, Y and Z directions are ax, ay and az respectively.
̅̅̅̅ ):
Position Vector / Radius Vector (𝑂𝑃
A Position Vector / Radius vector define the position of a point(P) in space relative to
the origin(O).Hence Position vector is another way to denote a point in space.
̅̅̅̅ = 𝑥𝑎̅𝑥 + 𝑦𝑎̅𝑦 + 𝑧𝑎̅𝑧 3

𝑂𝑃
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Displacement Vector
Displacement Vector is the displacement or the shortest distance from one point to another.
Vector Multiplication
When two vectors are multiplied the result is either a scalar or a vector depending on how
they are multiplied. The two important types of vector multiplication are:
 Dot Product/Scalar Product (A.B)

 Cross product (A x B)
1. DOT PRODUCT (A. B):
Dot product of two vectors A and B is defined as:

𝐴̅. 𝐵̅ = │𝐴̅││𝐵̅│ cos 𝜃𝐴𝐵
Where 𝜃𝐴𝐵 is the angle formed between A and B.

Also 𝜃𝐴𝐵 ranges from 0 to π i.e. 0 ≤ 𝜃𝐴𝐵 ≤ π
The result of A.B is a scalar, hence dot product is also known as Scalar Product.
Properties of Dot Product:
1. If A = (Ax, Ay, Az) and B = (Bx, By, Bz) then
𝐴̅. 𝐵̅= AxBx + AyBy + AzBz
2. 𝐴̅. 𝐵̅= |A| |B|, if cos𝜃𝐴𝐵 =1 which means θ AB = 00
This shows that A and B are in the same direction or we can also say that A and B are
parallel to each other.
3. 𝐴̅. 𝐵̅ = - |A| |B|, if cos 𝜃𝐴𝐵 =-1 which means 𝜃𝐴𝐵 = 1800.
This shows that A and B are in the opposite direction or we can also say that A and B are
antiparallel to each other.
4.
5. 𝐴̅. 𝐵̅ = 0, if cos 𝜃𝐴𝐵 =0 which means 𝜃𝐴𝐵 = 900.
This shows that A and B are orthogonal or perpendicular to each other.
5. Since we know the Cartesian base vectors are mutually perpendicular to each other, we have
𝑎̅𝑥 . 𝑎̅𝑥 = 𝑎̅𝑦 . 𝑎̅𝑦 = 𝑎̅𝑧 . 𝑎̅𝑧 = 1
𝑎̅𝑥 . 𝑎̅𝑦 = 𝑎̅𝑦 . 𝑎̅𝑧 = 𝑎̅𝑧 . 𝑎̅𝑥 = 0
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2. Cross Product (A X B):
Cross Product of two vectors A and B is given as:
𝐴̅𝑋 𝐵̅ = │𝐴̅││𝐵̅│ sin 𝜃𝐴𝐵 𝑎̅𝑁
Where 𝜃𝐴𝐵 is the angle formed between A and B and 𝑎̅𝑁 is a unit vector normal to both A and B.
Also θ ranges from 0 to π i.e. 0 ≤ 𝜃𝐴𝐵 ≤ π
The cross product is an operation between two vectors and the output is also a vector.
Properties of Cross Product:
1. If A = (Ax, Ay, Az) and B = (Bx, By, Bz) then,
The resultant vector is always normal to both the vector A and B.
2. 𝐴̅𝑋𝐵̅ = 0, if sin 𝜃𝐴𝐵 = 0 which means 𝜃𝐴𝐵 = 00 or 1800;

This shows that A and B are either parallel or antiparallel to each other.
̅ ̅ ̅ ̅ ̅ 𝑁 , if sin 𝜃𝐴𝐵 = 0 which means 𝜃𝐴𝐵 = 900.

6.3. 𝐴𝑋𝐵 =│𝐴││𝐵 │𝑎
This shows that A and B are orthogonal or perpendicular to each other.
4. Since we know the Cartesian base vectors are mutually perpendicular to each other, we have
𝑎̅𝑥 𝑋 𝑎̅𝑥 = 𝑎̅𝑦 𝑋 𝑎̅𝑦 = 𝑎̅𝑧 𝑋𝑎̅𝑧 = 0
𝑎̅𝑥 𝑋 𝑎̅𝑦 = 𝑎̅𝑧 , 𝑎̅𝑦 𝑋 𝑎̅𝑧 = 𝑎̅𝑥 , 𝑎̅𝑧 𝑋 𝑎̅𝑥 = 𝑎̅𝑦
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CO-ORDINATE SYSTEMS
Co-Ordinate system is a system of representing points in a space of given dimensions by

coordinates, such as the Cartesian coordinate system or the system of celestial longitude and
latitude.
In order to describe the spatial variations of the quantities, appropriate coordinate system is
required. A point or vector can be represented in a curvilinear coordinate system that may be
orthogonal or non-orthogonal. An orthogonal system is one in which the coordinates are mutually
perpendicular to each other.
The different co-ordinate system available are:
 Cartesian or Rectangular co-ordinate system.(Example: Cube, Cuboid)
 Circular Cylindrical co-ordinate system.(Example : Cylinder)
 Spherical co-ordinate system. (Example: Sphere)
The choice depends on the geometry of the application.

A set of 3 scalar values that define position and a set of unit vectors that define direction form
a co-ordinate system. The 3 scalar values used to define position are called co-ordinates. All
coordinates are defined with respect to an arbitrary point called the origin.
1. Cartesian Co-ordinate System / Rectangular Co-ordinate System (x,y,z)
A Vector in Cartesian system is represented as (Ax, Ay, Az) Or

𝐴̅ = 𝐴𝑥 𝑎̅𝑥 + 𝐴𝑦 𝑎̅𝑦 + 𝐴𝑧 𝑎̅𝑧
Where𝑎̅𝑥 ,𝑎̅𝑦 and 𝑎̅𝑧are the unit vectors in x, y, z direction respectively.
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Range of the variables:
It defines the minimum and the maximum value that x, y and z can have in Cartesian system.
-∞ ≤ x,y,z ≤ ∞
Differential Displacement / Differential Length (dl):
It is given as
̅ = 𝑑𝑥𝑎̅𝑥 + 𝑑𝑦𝑎̅𝑦 + 𝑑𝑧𝑎̅𝑧

𝑑𝑙
Differential length for a line parallel to x, y and z axis are respectively given as:
dl = 𝑑𝑥𝑎̅𝑥 ---( For a line parallel to x-axis).

dl = 𝑑𝑦𝑎̅𝑦 ---( For a line Parallel to y-axis).
dl = 𝑑𝑧𝑎̅𝑧 ---( For a line parallel to z-axis).
If there is a wire of length L in z-axis, then the differential length is given as dl = dz az. Similarly
if the wire is in y-axis then the differential length is given as dl = dy ay.
Differential Normal Surface (ds):
Differential surface is basically a cross product between two parameters of the surface.
The differential surface (area element) is defined as
̅̅̅ = 𝑑𝑠𝑎̅𝑁
𝑑𝑠
Where𝑎̅𝑁 , is the unit vector perpendicular to the surface.
For the 1st figure,

̅̅̅
𝑑𝑠 = 𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧𝑎̅𝑥
2nd figure,
̅̅̅
𝑑𝑠 = 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑧𝑎̅𝑦
3rd figure,
̅̅̅
𝑑𝑠 = 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑎̅𝑧
Differential Volume:
The differential volume element (dv) can be expressed in terms of the triple product.
𝑑𝑣 = 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧
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2. Circular Cylindrical Co-ordinate System
A Vector in Cylindrical system is represented as (Ar, AǾ, Az) or
𝐴̅ = 𝐴𝑟 𝑎̅𝑟 + 𝐴∅ 𝑎̅∅ + 𝐴𝑧 𝑎̅𝑧
Where𝑎̅𝑟 , 𝑎̅∅ and 𝑎̅𝑧 are the unit vectors in r, Φ and z directions respectively.
The physical significance of each parameter of cylindrical coordinates:
1. The value r indicates the distance of the point from the z-axis. It is the radius of the
cylinder.
2. The value Φ, also called the azimuthal angle, indicates the rotation angle around the z-
axis. It is basically measured from the x axis in the x-y plane. It is measured anti
clockwise.
3. The value z indicates the distance of the point from z-axis. It is the same as in the
Cartesian system. In short, it is the height of the cylinder.
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It defines the minimum and the maximum values of r, Φ and z.
0≤r≤∞
0 ≤ Φ ≤ 2π
-∞ ≤ z ≤ ∞
Figure shows Point P and Unit vectors in Cylindrical Co-ordinate System.
Differential Displacement / Differential Length (dl):
It is given as
̅ = 𝑑𝑟𝑎̅𝑟 + 𝑟𝑑𝜑𝑎̅𝜑 + 𝑑𝑧𝑎̅𝑧

𝑑𝑙
Differential length for a line parallel to r, Φ and z axis are respectively given as:
dl = 𝑑𝑟𝑎̅𝑟 ---( For a line parallel to r-direction).

dl = 𝑟𝑑𝜑𝑎̅𝜑 ---( For a line Parallel to Φ-direction).
dl = 𝑑𝑧𝑎̅𝑧 ---( For a line parallel to z-axis).
̅̅̅
𝑑𝑠 = 𝑑𝑠𝑎̅𝑁
This surface describes a circular disc. Always remember- To define a circular disk we
need two parameter one distance measure and one angular measure. An angular parameter
will always give a curved line or an arc.
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In this case dΦ is measured in terms of change in arc.
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Arc is given as:

Arc= radius * angle
̅̅̅
𝑑𝑠 = 𝑟𝑑𝑟𝑑𝜑𝑎̅𝑧
̅̅̅ = 𝑑𝑟𝑑𝑧𝑎̅𝜑
𝑑𝑠
̅̅̅
𝑑𝑠 = 𝑟𝑑𝑟𝑑𝜑𝑎̅𝑟
𝑑𝑣 = 𝑟𝑑𝑟𝑑𝜑𝑑𝑧
3. Spherical coordinate System:
Spherical coordinates consist of one scalar value (r), with units of distance, while the other two
scalarvalues (θ, Φ) have angular units (degrees or radians).
A Vector in Spherical System is represented as (Ar ,AӨ, AΦ) or

𝐴̅ = 𝐴𝑟 𝑎̅𝑟 + 𝐴𝜃 𝑎̅𝜃 + 𝐴𝜑 𝑎̅𝜑
Where𝑎̅𝑟 ,𝑎̅𝜃 and 𝑎̅𝜑 are the unit vectors in r, θ and Φ direction respectively.
The physical significance of each parameter of spherical coordinates:
1. The value r expresses the distance of the point from origin (i.e. similar to
altitude). It is the radius of the sphere.
2. The angle θ is the angle formed with the z- axis (i.e. similar to latitude). It is also
called the co-latitude angle. It is measured clockwise.
3. The angle Φ, also called the azimuthal angle, indicates the rotation angle around the z-
axis (i.e. similar to longitude). It is basically measured from the x axis in the x-y plane.
It is measured counter-clockwise.
It defines the minimum and the maximum value that r, θ and υ can have in spherical co-ordinate
system.
0≤r≤∞
0≤θ≤π
0 ≤ Φ≤ 2π
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Differential length:
It is given as
̅ = 𝑑𝑟𝑎̅𝑟 + 𝑟𝑑𝜃𝑎̅𝜃 + 𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜑𝑎̅𝜑
𝑑𝑙
Differential length for a line parallel to r, θ and Φ axis are respectively given as:
dl = 𝑑𝑟𝑎̅𝑟 --(For a line parallel to r axis)
dl = 𝑟𝑑𝜃𝑎̅𝜃 ---( For a line parallel to θ direction)
dl = 𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜑𝑎̅𝜑 --(For a line parallel to Φ direction)
̅̅̅ = 𝑑𝑠𝑎̅𝑁
𝑑𝑠
̅̅̅
𝑑𝑠 = 𝑟𝑑𝑟𝑑𝜃𝑎̅𝜑
̅̅̅
𝑑𝑠 = 𝑟 2 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜑𝑑𝜃𝑎̅𝑟
̅̅̅
𝑑𝑠 = 𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝑟𝑑𝜑𝑎̅𝜃
𝑑𝑣 = 𝑟 2 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝑟𝑑𝜑𝑑𝜃
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Coordinate transformations:
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DIVERGENCE THEOREM:
It states that the net outward flux of a vector field A through a closed surface S is equal to the
volume integral of the divergence of the field A inside the surface.
STOKES THEOREM:
It states that the circulation of a vector field A around a closed path L is equal to the
surface integral of the curl of A over the open surface S bounded by L.
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Electrostatics:
Electrostatics is a branch of science that involves the study of various phenomena caused by
electric charges that are slow-moving or even stationary. Electric charge is a fundamental
property of matter and charge exist in integral multiple of electronic charge. Electrostatics as the
study of electric charges at rest.
The two important laws of electrostatics are
 Coulomb‘s Law.
 Gauss‘s Law.
Both these laws are used to find the electric field due to different charge configurations.
Coulomb‘s law is applicable in finding electric field due to any charge configurations where as
Gauss‘s law is applicable only when the charge distribution is symmetrical.
Coulomb's Law
Coulomb's Law states that the force between two point charges Q1and Q2 is directly
proportional to the product of the charges and inversely proportional to the square of the distance
between them.
A point charge is a charge that occupies a region of space which is negligibly small compared to
the distance between the point charge and any other object.
Point charge is a hypothetical charge located at a single point in space. It is an idealized model of
a particle having an electric charge.
Mathematically, , where k is the proportionality constant.
In SI units, Q1 and Q2 are expressed in Coulombs(C) and R is in meters.
Force F is in Newtons (N) and , is called the permittivity of free space.
(We are assuming the charges are in free space. If the charges are any other dielectric medium,
we will use instead where is called the relative permittivity or the dielectric
constant of the medium).
Therefore ....................... (1) 14
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As shown in the Figure 1 let the position vectors of the point charges Q1and Q2 are given by
and . Let represent the force on Q1 due to charge Q2.
Fig 1: Coulomb's Law
The charges are separated by a distance of . We define the unit vectors as
and
can be defined as .
Similarly the force on Q1 due to charge Q2 can be calculated and if represents this force then
we can write
When we have a number of point charges, to determine the force on a particular charge due to all
other charges, we apply principle of superposition. If we have N number of charges
Q1,Q2,.........QN located respectively at the points represented by the position vectors , ,......
, the force experienced by a charge Q located at is given by,
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Electric Field:
Electric field due to a charge is the space around the unit charge in which it experiences a force.
Electric field intensity or the electric field strength at a point is defined as the force per unit
charge.
Mathematically,
E=F/Q
OR
F=EQ
The force on charge Q is the product of a charge (which is a scalar) and the value of the
electric field (which is a vector) at the point where the charge is located. That is
or,
The electric field intensity E at a point r (observation point) due a point charge Q located at
(source point) is given by:
For a collection of N point charges Q1 ,Q2 ,.........QN located at , ,...... , the electric field
intensity at point is obtained as
The expression (6) can be modified suitably to compute the electric filed due to a continuous
distribution of charges.
In figure 2 we consider a continuous volume distribution of charge (t) in the region denoted as
the source region.
For an elementary charge , i.e. considering this charge as point charge, we can
write the field expression as:
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Fig 2: Continuous Volume Distribution of Charge
When this expression is integrated over the source region, we get the electric field at the point P
due to this distribution of charges. Thus the expression for the electric field at P can be written
as:
...............volume charge...........................
Similar technique can be adopted when the charge distribution is in the form of a line charge
density or a surface charge density.
.....................line charge ................
..................surface charge......................
Electric Lines of Forces:

Electric line of force is a pictorial representation of the electric field.
Electric line of force (also called Electric Flux lines or Streamlines) is an imaginary straight or
curved path along which a unit positive charge tends to move in an electric field.
Properties Of Electric Lines Of Force:
1. Lines of force start from positive charge and terminate either at negative
charge or move to infinity.
2. Similarly lines of force due to a negative charge are assumed to start at
infinity and terminate at the negative charge.
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3. The number of lines per unit area, through a plane at right angles to the lines, is
proportional to the magnitude of E. This means that, where the lines of force are close
together, E is large and where they are far apart E is small.
4. If there is no charge in a volume, then each field line which enters it must also leave it.
5. If there is a positive charge in a volume then more field lines leave it than enter it.
6. If there is a negative charge in a volume then more field lines enter it than leave it.
7. Hence we say Positive charges are sources and Negative charges are sinks of the field.
8. These lines are independent on medium.
9. Lines of force never intersect i.e. they do not cross each other.
10. Tangent to a line of force at any point gives the direction of the electric field E at that
point.
Electricfluxdensity:
As stated earlier electric field intensity or simply ‘Electric field' gives the strength of the field at
a particular point. The electric field depends on the material media in which the field is being
considered. The flux density vector is defined to be independent of the material media (as we'll
see that it relates to the charge that is producing it).For a linear isotropic medium under
consideration; the flux density vector is defined as:
We define the electric flux as
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Gauss's Law:
Gauss's law is one of the fundamental laws of electromagnetism and it states that the total
electric flux through a closed surface is equal to the total charge enclosed by the surface.
Fig 3: Gauss's Law
Let us consider a point charge Q located in an isotropic homogeneous medium of dielectric

constant . The flux density at a distance r on a surface enclosing the charge is given by
If we consider an elementary area ds, the amount of flux passing through the elementary area is
given by
But , is the elementary solid angle subtended by the area at the location of Q.
Therefore we can write
For a closed surface enclosing the charge, we can write
which can seen to be same as what we have stated in the definition of Gauss's Law.
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This equation is called the 1st Maxwell's equation of electrostatics.
Application of Gauss's Law:
Gauss's law is particularly useful in computing or where the charge distribution has some
symmetry. We shall illustrate the application of Gauss's Law with some examples.
1. due to an infinite line charge
As the first example of illustration of use of Gauss's law, let consider the problem of
determination of the electric field produced by an infinite line charge of density LC/m. Let us
consider a line charge positioned along the z-axis as shown in Fig. 4(a) (next slide). Since the
line charge is assumed to be infinitely long, the electric field will be of the form as shown in Fig.
4(b) (next slide).
If we consider a close cylindrical surface as shown in Fig. 2.4(a), using Gauss's theorm we can
write,
Considering the fact that the unit normal vector to areas S1 and S3 are perpendicular to the
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electric field, the surface integrals for the top and bottom surfaces evaluates to zero. Hence we
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can write,
Fig 4: Infinite Line Charge
2. Infinite Sheet of Charge
As a second example of application of Gauss's theorem, we consider an infinite charged sheet
covering the x-z plane as shown in figure 5. Assuming a surface charge density of for the
infinite surface charge, if we consider a cylindrical volume having sides placed symmetrically
as shown in figure 5, we can write:
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Fig 5: Infinite Sheet of Charge
It may be noted that the electric field strength is independent of distance. This is true for the
infinite plane of charge; electric lines of force on either side of the charge will be perpendicular
to the sheet and extend to infinity as parallel lines. As number of lines of force per unit area gives
the strength of the field, the field becomes independent of distance. For a finite charge sheet, the
field will be a function of distance.
3. Uniformly Charged Sphere

Let us consider a sphere of radius r0 having a uniform volume charge density of rv C/m3. To
determine everywhere, inside and outside the sphere, we construct Gaussian surfaces of
radius r < r0 and r > r0 as shown in Fig. 6 (a) and Fig. 6(b).
For the region ; the total enclosed charge will be
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Fig 6: Uniformly Charged Sphere
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By applying Gauss's theorem,
Therefore
For the region ; the total enclosed charge will be
By applying Gauss's theorem,
Electric Potential / Electrostatic Potential (V):

If a charge is placed in the vicinity of another charge (or in the field of another charge), it
experiences a force. If a field being acted on by a force is moved from one point to another, then
work is either said to be done on the system or by the system.
Say a point charge Q is moved from point A to point B in an electric field E, then the
work done in moving the point charge is given as:
WA→B = - ∫AB (F . dl) = - Q ∫AB(E . dl)
where the – ve sign indicates that the work is done on the system by an external agent.
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The work done per unit charge in moving a test charge from point A to point B is the
electrostatic potential difference between the two points(VAB).
VAB = WA→B / Q
- ∫AB(E . dl)
- ∫InitialFinal (E . dl)
If the potential difference is positive, there is a gain in potential energy in the movement,
external agent performs the work against the field. If the sign of the potential difference is
negative, work is done by the field.
The electrostatic field is conservative i.e. the value of the line integral depends only on
end points and is independent of the path taken.
- Since the electrostatic field is conservative, the electric potential can also be written as:
𝐵
𝑉𝐴𝐵 = − ∫ ̅ ̅
𝐸 . 𝑑𝑙
𝐴
𝑝0 𝐵
̅ −∫ 𝐸
̅ . 𝑑𝑙
𝑉𝐴𝐵 = − ∫ 𝐸 ̅
̅ . 𝑑𝑙
𝐴 𝑝0
𝐵 𝐴
̅+ ∫ 𝐸
̅ . 𝑑𝑙
𝑉𝐴𝐵 = − ∫ 𝐸 ̅
̅ . 𝑑𝑙
𝑝0 𝑝0
𝑉𝐴𝐵 = 𝑉𝐵 − 𝑉𝐴
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Thus the potential difference between two points in an electrostatic field is a scalar field that
is defined at every point in space and is independent of the path taken.
- The work done in moving a point charge from point A to point B can be written as:
𝐵
WA→B = - Q [VB – VA] = −𝑄 ∫𝐴 𝐸̅ . 𝑑𝑙 ̅
- Consider a point charge Q at origin O.
Now if a unit test charge is moved from point A to Point B, then the potential difference between
them is given as:
- Electrostatic potential or Scalar Electric potential (V) at any point P is given by:
𝑃
̅
𝑉 = − ∫ 𝐸̅ . 𝑑𝑙
𝑃0
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The reference point Po is where the potential is zero (analogues to ground in a circuit).
The reference is often taken to be at infinity so that the potential of a point in space is
defined as
𝑃
̅
𝑉 = − ∫ 𝐸̅ . 𝑑𝑙
∞
Basically potential is considered to be zero at infinity. Thus potential at any point ( rB = r) due
to a point charge Q can be written as the amount of work done in bringing a unit positive
charge frominfinity to that point (i.e. rA → ∞)
Electric potential (V) at point r due to a point charge Q located at a point with position vector
r1 is given as:
Similarly for N point charges Q1, Q2 ….Qn located at points with position vectors r1,
r2, r3…..rn, theelectric potential (V) at point r is given as:
The charge element dQ and the total charge due to different charge distribution is given as:
dQ = ρldl → Q = ∫L (ρldl) → (Line Charge)
dQ = ρsds → Q = ∫S (ρsds) → (Surface Charge)
dQ = ρvdv → Q = ∫V (ρvdv) → (Volume Charge)
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Second Maxwell’s Equation of Electrostatics:

The work done per unit charge in moving a test charge from point A to point B is the
electrostatic potential difference between the two points(VAB).
VAB = VB – VA
Similarly,
VBA = VA – VB
Hence it‘s clear that potential difference is independent of the path taken. Therefore
VAB = - VBA
VAB+ VBA = 0
∫AB (E . dl) + [ - ∫BA (E . dl) ] = 0
The above equation is called the second Maxwell‘s Equation of Electrostatics in integral form..
The above equation shows that the line integral of Electric field intensity (E) along a closed path
is equal to zero.
In simple words―No work is done in moving a charge along a closed path in an electrostatic
field.
Applying Stokes‘ Theorem to the above Equation, we have:
If the Curl of any vector field is equal to zero, then such a vector field is called an Irrotational or
Conservative Field. Hence an electrostatic field is also called a conservative field.
The above equation is called the second Maxwell‘s Equation of Electrostatics in differential
form.
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Relationship Between Electric Field Intensity (E) and Electric Potential (V):
Since Electric potential is a scalar quantity, hence dV (as a function of x, y and z variables) can
be written as:
Hence the Electric field intensity (E) is the negative gradient of Electric potential (V).
The negative sign shows that E is directed from higher to lower values of V i.e. E is opposite to
the direction in which V increases.
Energy Density In Electrostatic Field / Work Done To Assemble Charges:
In case, if we wish to assemble a number of charges in an empty system, work is required to do

so. Also electrostatic energy is said to be stored in such a collection.
Let us build up a system in which we position three point charges Q1, Q2 and Q3 at position r1,
r2 and r3 respectively in an initially empty system.
Consider a point charge Q1 transferred from infinity to position r1 in the system. It takes no
work to bring the first charge from infinity since there is no electric field to fight against (as the
system is empty i.e. charge free).
Hence, W1 = 0 J
Now bring in another point charge Q2 from infinity to position r2 in the system. In this case we
have to do work against the electric field generated by the first charge Q1.
Hence, W2 = Q2 V21
where V21 is the electrostatic potential at point r2 due to Q1.
- Work done W2 is also given as:
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Now bring in another point charge Q3 from infinity to position r3 in the system. In this case
we have to do work against the electric field generated by Q1 and Q2.
Hence, W3 = Q3 V31 + Q3 V32 = Q3 ( V31 + V32 )
where V31 and V32 are electrostatic potential at point r3 due to Q1 and Q2 respectively.
The work done is simply the sum of the work done against the electric field generated by
point charge Q1 and Q2 taken in isolation:
- Thus the total work done in assembling the three charges is given as:
WE = W1 + W2 + W3
0 + Q2 V21 + Q3 ( V31 + V32 )
Also total work done ( WE ) is given as:
If the charges were positioned in reverse order, then the total work done in assembling them
is given as:
WE = W3 + W2+ W1
= 0 + Q2V23 + Q3( V12+ V13)
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Where V23 is the electrostatic potential at point r2 due to Q3 and V12 and V13 are electrostatic
potential at point r1 due to Q2 and Q3 respectively.
- Adding the above two equations we have,
2WE = Q1 (V12 + V13) + Q2 (V21 + V23) + Q3 (V31 + V32)

= Q1 V1 + Q2 V2 + Q3 V3
Hence
WE =1 / 2 [Q1V1 + Q2V2 + Q3V3]
where V1, V2 and V3 are total potentials at position r1, r2 and r3 respectively.
- The result can be generalized for N point charges as:
The above equation has three interpretation: This equation represents the potential energy of the
system.This is the work done in bringing the static charges from infinity and assembling them in
the required system. This is the kinetic energy which would be released if the system gets
dissolved i.e. the charges returns back to infinity.
In place of point charge, if the system has continuous charge distribution ( line, surface or
volume charge), then the total work done in assembling them is given as:
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Since ρv = ∇ . D and E = - ∇ V,
Substituting the values in the above equation, work done in assembling a volume charge
distribution in terms of electric field and flux density is given as:
The above equation tells us that the potential energy of a continuous charge distribution
is stored in an electric field.
The electrostatic energy density wE is defined as:
ELECTROSTATICS-II
Properties of Materials and Steady Electric Current:

Electric field can not only exist in free space and vacuum but also in any material medium. When
an electric field is applied to the material, the material will modify the electric field either by
strengthening it or weakening it, depending on what kind of material it is.
Materials are classified into 3 groups based on conductivity / electrical property:
 Conductors (Metals like Copper, Aluminum, etc.) have high conductivity (σ >> 1).
 Insulators / Dielectric (Vacuum, Glass, Rubber, etc.) have low conductivity (σ << 1).
 Semiconductors (Silicon, Germanium, etc.) have intermediate conductivity.
Conductivity (σ) is a measure of the ability of the material to conduct electricity. It is
the reciprocal of resistivity (ρ). Units of conductivity are Siemens/meter and mho.
The basic difference between a conductor and an insulator lies in the amount of free electrons
available for conduction of current. Conductors have a large amount of free electrons where as
insulators have only a few number ofelectrons for conduction of current. Most of the conductors
obey ohm‘s law. Such conductors are also called ohmic conductors.
Due to the movement of free charges, several types of electric current can be caused.
The different types of electric current are:
 Conduction Current.
 Convection Current.
 Displacement Current.
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Electric current:
Electric current (I) defines the rate at which the net charge passes through a wire of
cross sectional surface area S.
Mathematically,
If a net charge ΔQ moves across surface S in some small amount of time Δt, electric current(I)
is defined as:
How fast or how speed the charges will move depends on the nature of the material medium.
Current density:
Current density (J) is defined as current ΔI flowing through surface ΔS.
Imagine surface area ΔS inside a conductor at right angles to the flow of current. As the
area approaches zero, the current density at a point is defined as:
The above equation is applicable only when current density (J) is normal to the surface.
In case if current density(J) is not perpendicular to the surface, consider a small area ds of
the conductor at an angle θ to the flow of current as shown:
In this case current flowing through the area is given as:
dI = J dS cosθ = J . dS and 𝐼 = ∫𝑆 𝐽 ̅ . ̅̅̅

𝑑𝑠
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Where angle θ is the angle between the normal to the area and direction of the current.
From the above equation it‘s clear that electric current is a scalar quantity.
CONVECTION CURRENT DENSITY:
Convection current occurs in insulators or dielectrics such as liquid, vacuum and rarified gas.
Convection current results from motion of electrons or ions in an insulating medium. Since
convection current doesn‘t involve conductors, hence it does not satisfy ohm‘s law. Consider a
filament where there is a flow of charge ρv at a velocity u = uy ay.
- Hence the current is given as:
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Where uy is the velocity of the moving electron or ion and ρ v is the free volume charge density.
- Hence the convection current density in general is given as:
J = ρv u
Conduction Current Density:
Conduction current occurs in conductors where there are a large number of free electrons.
Conduction current occurs due to the drift motion of electrons (charge carriers). Conduction
current obeys ohm‘s law.
When an external electric field is applied to a metallic conductor, conduction current
occurs due to the drift of electrons.
The charge inside the conductor experiences a force due to the electric field and hence should
accelerate but due to continuous collision with atomic lattice, their velocity is reduced. The net
effect is that the electrons moves or drifts with an average velocity called the drift
velocity (υd) which is proportional to the applied electric field (E).
Hence according to Newton‘s law, if an electron with a mass m is moving in an electric

field E with anaverage drift velocity υd, the the average change in momentum of the free
electron must be equal to the applied force (F = - e E).
The drift velocity per unit applied electric field is called the mobility of electrons (μe).
υd = - μe E
where μe is defined as:
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Consider a conducting wire in which charges subjected to an electric field are moving with
drift velocity υd.
Say there are Ne free electrons per cubic meter of conductor, then the free volume
charge density(ρv)within the wire is
ρv= - e Ne
The charge ΔQ is given as:

ΔQ = ρv ΔV = - e Ne ΔS Δl = - e Ne ΔS υd Δt
- The incremental current is thus given as:
The conduction current density is thus defined as:
where σ is the conductivity of the material.
The above equation is known as the Ohm‘s law in point form and is valid at every point
in space.
In a semiconductor, current flow is due to the movement of both electrons and
holes, hence conductivity is given as:
σ = ( Ne μe + Nh μh )e
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DIELECTRC CONSTANT:
It is also known as Relative permittivity.
If two charges q 1 and q 2 are separated from each other by a small distance r. Then by
using the coulombs law of forces the equation formed will be
In the above equation is the electrical permittivity or you can say it, Dielectric constant.
If we repeat the above case with only one change i.e. only change in the separation
medium between the charges. Here some material medium must be used. Then the
equation formed will be.
Now after division of above two equations
In the above figure
is the Relative Permittivity. Again one thing to notice is that the dielectric constant is
represented by the symbol (K) but permittivity by the symbol
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CONTINUITY EQUATION:
The continuity equation is derived from two of Maxwell's equations. It states that the
divergence of the current density is equal to the negative rate of change of the charge density,
Derivation
One of Maxwell's equations, Ampère's law, states that
Taking the divergence of both sides results in
but the divergence of a curl is zero, so that
Another one of Maxwell's equations, Gauss's law, states that
Substitute this into equation (1) to obtain
which is the continuity equation.
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LAPLACE'S AND POISSON'S EQUATIONS:
A useful approach to the calculation of electric potentials is to relate that potential to the
charge density which gives rise to it. The electric field is related to the charge density by the
divergence relationship
and the electric field is related to the electric potential by a gradient relationship
Therefore the potential is related to the charge density by Poisson's equation
In a charge-free region of space, this becomes LaPlace's equation
This mathematical operation, the divergence of the gradient of a function, is called the
LaPlacian. Expressing the LaPlacian in different coordinate systems to take advantage of the
symmetry of a charge distribution helps in the solution for the electric potential V. For example,
if the charge distribution has spherical symmetry, you use the LaPlacian in spherical polar
coordinates.
Since the potential is a scalar function, this approach has advantages over trying to calculate the
electric field directly. Once the potential has been calculated, the electric field can be computed
by taking the gradient of the potential.
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Polarization of Dielectric:
If a material contains polar molecules, they will generally be in random orientations when
no electric field is applied. An applied electric field will polarize the material by orienting
the dipole moments of polar molecules.
This decreases the effective electric

field between the plates and will
increase the capacitance of the parallel
plate structure. The dielectric must be
a good electric insulator so as to
minimize any DC leakage current
through a capacitor.
The presence of the dielectric decreases the electric field produced by a given charge density.
The factor k by which the effective field is decreased by the polarization of the
dielectric is called the dielectric constant of the material.
Capacitance:
The capacitance of a set of charged parallel plates is increased by the insertion of adielectric
material. The capacitance is inversely proportional to the electric field between the plates,
and the presence of the dielectric reduces the effective electric field. The dielectric is
characterized by a dielectric constant k, and the capacitance is multiplied by that factor.
Parallel Plate Capacitor
Show
The capacitance of flat, parallel metallic plates of area A and separation d is given by
the expression above where:
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= permittivity of space and
k = relative permittivity of the dielectric material between the plates.
k=1 for free space, k>1 for all media, approximately =1 for air.
The Farad, F, is the SI unit for capacitance and from the definition of capacitance is seen to
be equal to a Coulomb/Volt.
Series and parallel Connection of capacitors

Capacitors are connected in various manners in electrical circuits; series and parallel connections
are the two basic ways of connecting capacitors. We compute the equivalent capacitance for such
connections.
Series Case: Series connection of two capacitors is shown in the figure 1. For this case we can
write,
.......................(1)
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Fig 1.: Series Connection of Capacitors
Fig 2: Parallel Connection of Capacitors

The same approach may be extended to more than two capacitors connected in series.
Parallel Case: For the parallel case, the voltages across the capacitors are the same.
The total charge
Therefore,
Capacitance of Parallel Plates:
The electric field between two large parallel plates

is given by
43
The voltage difference between the two plates can be expressed in terms of the workdone on
a positive test charge q when it moves from the positive to the negative plate.
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It then follows from the definition of capacitance that
Spherical Capacitor:
The capacitance for spherical or cylindrical conductors can be obtained by evaluating

the voltage difference between the conductors for a given charge on each.
By applying Gauss' law to an charged conducting sphere, the electric field outside it is found to
be
The voltage between the spheres can be found by integrating the electric field along a radial line:
From the definition of capacitance, the capacitance is
Isolated Sphere Capacitor:

An isolated charged conducting sphere has capacitance. Applications for such a capacitor may
not be immediately evident, but it does illustrate that a charged sphere has stored some energy as
a result of being charged. Taking the concentric sphere capacitance expression:
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and taking the limits gives
Further confirmation of this comes from examining the potential of a charged conducting sphere:
Cylindrical Capacitor:
For a cylindrical geometry like a coaxial cable, the capacitance is usually stated as a
capacitance per unit length. The charge resides on the outer surface of the inner conductor and
the inner wall of the outer conductor. The capacitance expression is
The capacitance for cylindrical orspherical conductors can be obtained by evaluating the voltage
difference between the conductors for a given charge on each. By applying Gauss' law to an
infinite cylinder in a vacuum, the electric field outside a charged cylinder is found to be
The voltage between the cylinders can be found by integrating the electric field along a
radial line:
From the definition of capacitance and including the case where the volume is filled
by a dielectric of dielectric constant k, the capacitance per unit length is defined above.
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Solved problems:
Problem1:
Problem-2
Problem-3
Problem-4
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Problem-5
Problem-6
Problem-7
Problem-8
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Problem-9
Problem-10
Problem-11
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Problem-12
Problem-13
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UNIT-II
MAGNETOSTATICS
Contents:
 Biot - Savart's Law
 Ampere's Circuital Law and Applications
 Magnetic Flux Density
 Maxwell’s Equations for Magnetostatic Fields
 Magnetic Scalar and Vector Potentials
 Forces due to Magnetic Fields
 Ampere's Force Law
 Inductance and Magnetic Energy
 Illustrative Problem.
Maxwell's Equations (Time Varying Fields):
 Faraday's Law
 Transformer EMF
 Displacement Current Density
 Maxwell's Equations in Different Final Forms
 Conditions at a Boundary Surface: Dielectric - Dielectric,
 Illustrative Problems.
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Introduction:
In previous chapters we have seen that an electrostatic field is produced by static or stationary charges.
The relationship of the steady magnetic field to its sources is much more complicated.
The source of steady magnetic field may be a permanent magnet, a direct current or an electric
field changing with time. In this chapter we shall mainly consider the magnetic field produced by
a direct current. The magnetic field produced due to time varying electric field will be discussed
later.
There are two major laws governing the magneto static fields are:
 Biot-Savart Law
 Ampere's Law
Usually, the magnetic field intensity is represented by the vector . It is customary to represent the
direction of the magnetic field intensity (or current) by a small circle with a dot or cross sign
depending on whether the field (or current) is out of or into the page as shown in Fig. 2.1.
(or l ) out of the page (or l ) into the page

Fig. Representation of magnetic field (or current)
Biot- Savart’s Law:
This law relates the magnetic field intensity dH produced at a point due to a differential
current element as shown in Fig.
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The magnetic field intensity at P can be written as,
where is the distance of the current element from the point P.

The value of the constant of proportionality 'K' depends upon a property called permeability of
the medium around the conductor. Permeability is represented by symbol 'm' and the constant 'K'
is expressed in terms of 'm' as
Magnetic field 'B' is a vector and unless we give the direction of 'dB', its description is not
complete. Its direction is found to be perpendicular to the plane of 'r' and 'dl'.
If we assign the direction of the current 'I' to the length element 'dl', the vector product dl x r has
magnitude r dl sinq and direction perpendicular to 'r' and 'dl'.
Hence, Biot–Savart law can be stated in vector form to give both the magnitude as well as
direction of magnetic field due to a current element as
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Similar to different charge distributions, we can have different current distribution such as
line current, surface current and volume current. These different types of current densities are
shown in Fig. 2.3.
Line Current Surface Current Volume Current
Fig. 2.3: Different types of current distributions
By denoting the surface current density as K (in amp/m) and volume current density as J
(in amp/m2) we can write:
( It may be noted that )
Employing Biot -Savart Law, we can now express the magnetic field intensity H. In terms of
these current distributions as
............................. for line current............................
........................ for surface current ....................
....................... for volume current......................
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̅ Due to infinitely long straight conductor:

𝑯
We consider a finite length of a conductor carrying a current placed along z-axis as shown in
the Fig 2.4. We determine the magnetic field at point P due to this current carrying conductor.
Fig. 2.4: Field at a point P due to a finite length current carrying conductor
With reference to Fig. 2.4, we find that
Applying Biot - Savart's law for the current element We can write,
Substituting we can write,
We find that, for an infinitely long conductor carrying a current I , and

Therefore
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Ampere's Circuital Law:
Ampere's circuital law states that the line integral of the magnetic field (circulation of H )
around a closed path is the net current enclosed by this path. Mathematically,
The total current I enc can be written as,
By applying Stoke's theorem, we can write
Which is the Ampere's circuital law in the point form and Maxwell’s equation for magneto static
fields.
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Applications of Ampere's circuital law:
̅ and 𝐵̅ due to any type of current distribution.

1. It is used to find 𝐻
̅ ̅
2. If 𝐻 or 𝐵 is known then it is also used to find current enclosed by any closed path.
We illustrate the application of Ampere's Law with some examples.
̅ Due to infinitely long straight conductor :( using Ampere's circuital law)

𝑯
We compute magnetic field due to an infinitely long thin current carrying conductor as
shown in Fig. 2.5. Using Ampere's Law, we consider the close path to be a circle of
radius as shown in the Fig. 4.5.
If we consider a small current element , is perpendicular to the plane

containing both and . Therefore only component of that will be present is
,i.e., .
By applying Ampere's law we can write,
Fig. Magnetic field due to an infinite thin current carrying conductor
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̅ Due to infinitely long coaxial conductor :( using Ampere's circuital law)

𝑯
We consider the cross section of an infinitely long coaxial conductor, the inner conductor
carrying a current I and outer conductor carrying current - I as shown in figure 2.6. We
compute the magnetic field as a function of as follows:
In the region
In the region
Fig. 2.6: Coaxial conductor carrying equal and opposite currents in the region
In the region
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Magnetic Flux Density:
In simple matter, the magnetic flux density related to the magnetic field intensity as
where called the permeability. In particular when we consider the free space
where H/m is the permeability of the free space. Magnetic flux density is
measured in terms of Wb/m 2 .
The magnetic flux density through a surface is given by:
Wb
In the case of electrostatic field, we have seen that if the surface is a closed surface, the net flux
passing through the surface is equal to the charge enclosed by the surface. In case of magnetic
field isolated magnetic charge (i. e. pole) does not exist. Magnetic poles always occur in pair (as
N-S). For example, if we desire to have an isolated magnetic pole by dividing the magnetic bar
successively into two, we end up with pieces each having north (N) and south (S) pole as shown
in Fig. 6 (a). This process could be continued until the magnets are of atomic dimensions; still
we will have N-S pair occurring together. This means that the magnetic poles cannot be isolated.
Fig. 6: (a) Subdivision of a magnet (b) Magnetic field/ flux lines of a straight current carrying
conductor
Maxwell’s 2nd equation for static magnetic fields:
Similarly if we consider the field/flux lines of a current carrying conductor as shown in Fig. 6
(b), we find that these lines are closed lines, that is, if we consider a closed surface, the number
of flux lines that would leave the surface would be same as the number of flux lines that would
enter the surface.
From our discussions above, it is evident that for magnetic field, 59
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......................................in integral form

which is the Gauss's law for the magnetic field.
By applying divergence theorem, we can write:
Hence, ................................... in point/differential form

which is the Gauss's law for the magnetic field in point form.
Magnetic Scalar and Vector Potentials:

In studying electric field problems, we introduced the concept of electric potential that simplified
the computation of electric fields for certain types of problems. In the same manner let us relate
the magnetic field intensity to a scalar magnetic potential and write:
From Ampere's law , we know that
Therefore,
But using vector identity, we find that is valid only where .
Thus the scalar magnetic potential is defined only in the region where . Moreover, Vm in
general is not a single valued function of position. This point can be illustrated as follows. Let us
consider the cross section of a coaxial line as shown in fig 7.
In the region , and
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Fig. 7: Cross Section of a Coaxial Line

If Vm is the magnetic potential then,
If we set Vm = 0 at then c=0 and
We observe that as we make a complete lap around the current carrying conductor , we reach
again but Vm this time becomes
We observe that value of Vm keeps changing as we complete additional laps to pass through the
same point. We introduced Vm analogous to electostatic potential V.
But for static electric fields,
and
whereas for steady magnetic field wherever but even if

along the path of integration.
We now introduce the vector magnetic potential which can be used in regions where
current density may be zero or nonzero and the same can be easily extended to time varying
cases. The use of vector magnetic potential provides elegant ways of solving EM field problems.
Since and we have the vector identity that for any vector , , we
can write .
Here, the vector field is called the vector magnetic potential. Its SI unit is Wb/m.
Thus if can find of a given current distribution, can be found from through a curl
operation. We have introduced the vector function and related its curl to . A vector
function is defined fully in terms of its curl as well as divergence. The choice of is made as
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By using vector identity,
Great deal of simplification can be achieved if we choose .
Putting , we get which is vector poisson equation.

In Cartesian coordinates, the above equation can be written in terms of the components as
The form of all the above equation is same as that of
for which the solution is
In case of time varying fields we shall see that , which is known as Lorentz condition, V being
the electric potential. Here we are dealing with static magnetic field, so .
By comparison, we can write the solution for Ax as
Computing similar solutions for other two components of the vector potential, the vector
potential can be written as
This equation enables us to find the vector potential at a given point because of a volume current
density .
Similarly for line or surface current density we can write
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.
The magnetic flux through a given area S is given by
Substituting
Vector potential thus have the physical significance that its integral around any closed path is
equal to the magnetic flux passing through that path.
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Forces due to magnetic fields
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To further illustrate the concept of inductance, let us consider two closed

loops C1 and C2 as shown in the figure 8, S1 and S2 are respectively the areas of C1 and C2 .
Fig:8
If a current I1 flows in C1 , the magnetic flux B1 will be created part of which will be linked to
C2 as shown in Figure 8:
In a linear medium, is proportional to I 1. Therefore, we can write
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where L12 is the mutual inductance. For a more general case, if C2 has N2 turns then
and
or
i.e., the mutual inductance can be defined as the ratio of the total flux linkage of the second
circuit to the current flowing in the first circuit.
As we have already stated, the magnetic flux produced in C1 gets linked to itself and if C1 has
N1 turns then , where is the flux linkage per turn.

Therefore, self inductance
=
As some of the flux produced by I1 links only to C1 & not C2.
Further in general, in a linear medium, and
Magnetic energy or Energy stored in Magnetic Field:

So far we have discussed the inductance in static forms. In earlier chapter we discussed
the fact that work is required to be expended to assemble a group of charges and this work is
stated as electric energy. In the same manner energy needs to be expended in sending currents
through coils and it is stored as magnetic energy. Let us consider a scenario where we consider a
coil in which the current is increased from 0 to a value I. As mentioned earlier, the self
inductance of a coil in general can be written as
or
If we consider a time varying scenario, 68
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We will later see that is an induced voltage.
is the voltage drop that appears across the coil and thus voltage opposes the
change of current.
Therefore in order to maintain the increase of current, the electric source must do an work
against this induced voltage.
(Joule)
which is the energy stored in the magnetic circuit.
We can also express the energy stored in the coil in term of field quantities.
For linear magnetic circuit
Now,
where A is the area of cross section of the coil. If l is the length of the coil
Al is the volume of the coil. Therefore the magnetic energy density i.e., magnetic energy/unit
volume is given by
In vector form
J/mt3
is the energy density in the magnetic field.
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MAXWELL’S EQUATIONS (Time varying Fields)
Introduction:
In our study of static fields so far, we have observed that static electric fields are produced by
electric charges, static magnetic fields are produced by charges in motion or by steady current.
Further, static electric field is a conservative field and has no curl, the static magnetic field is
continuous and its divergence is zero. The fundamental relationships for static electric fields
among the field quantities can be summarized as:
(1)
(2)
For a linear and isotropic medium,
(3)
Similarly for the magnetostatic case
(4)
(5)
(6)
It can be seen that for static case, the electric field vectors and and magnetic field
vectors and form separate pairs.

In this chapter we will consider the time varying scenario. In the time varying case we
will observe that a changing magnetic field will produce a changing electric field and vice versa.
We begin our discussion with Faraday's Law of electromagnetic induction and then
present the Maxwell's equations which form the foundation for the electromagnetic theory.
Maxwell's equations represent one of the most elegant and concise ways to state the
fundamentals of electricity and magnetism. From them one can develop most of the working
relationships in the field. Because of their concise statement, they embody a high level of
mathematical sophistication and are therefore not generally introduced in an introductory
treatment of the subject, except perhaps as summary relationships.
These basic equations of electricity and magnetism can be used as a starting point for advanced
courses, but are usually first encountered as unifying equations after the study of electrical and
magnetic phenomena.
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Symbols Used
E = Electric field ρ = charge density i = electric current
B = Magnetic field ε0 = permittivity J = current density
D = Electric displacement μ0 = permeability c = speed of light
H = Magnetic field strength M = Magnetization P = Polarization
Integral form in the absence of magnetic or polarizable media:
I. Gauss' law for electricity
Gauss' law for magnetism
III. Faraday's law of induction
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IV. Ampere's law
Differential form in the absence of magnetic or polarizable media:
Gauss' law for magnetism
IV. Ampere's law
Differential form with magnetic and/or polarizable media:

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II. Gauss' law for magnetism
IV. Ampere's law
Faraday's Law:
Michael Faraday, in 1831 discovered experimentally that a current was induced in a conducting
loop when the magnetic flux linking the loop changed. In terms of fields, we can say that a time
varying magnetic field produces an electromotive force (emf) which causes a current in a closed
circuit. The quantitative relation between the induced emf (the voltage that arises from
conductors moving in a magnetic field or from changing magnetic fields) and the rate of change
of flux linkage developed based on experimental observation is known as Faraday's law.
Any change in the magnetic environment of a coil of wire will cause a voltage (emf) to be
"induced" in the coil. No matter how the change is produced, the voltage will be generated.
The change could be produced by changing the magnetic field strength, moving a magnet
toward or away from the coil, moving the coil into or out of the magnetic field, rotating the coil
relative to the magnet, etc.
Faraday's law is a fundamental relationship which comes from Maxwell's equations. It serves as
a succinct summary of the ways a voltage (or emf) may be generated by a changing magnetic
environment. The induced emf in a coil is equal to the negative of the rate of change of
magnetic flux times the number of turns in the coil. It involves the interaction of charge with
magnetic field.
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When two current carrying conductors are placed next to each other, we notice that each induces
a force on the other. Each conductor produces a magnetic field around itself (Biot– Savart law)
and the second experiences a force that is given by the Lorentz force.
Mathematically, the induced emf can be written as
Emf = Volts
where is the flux linkage over the closed path.
A non zero may result due to any of the following:

(a) time changing flux linkage a stationary closed path.
(b) relative motion between a steady flux a closed path.
(c) a combination of the above two cases.
The negative sign in equation (7) was introduced by Lenz in order to comply with the
polarity of the induced emf. The negative sign implies that the induced emf will cause a current
flow in the closed loop in such a direction so as to oppose the change in the linking magnetic
flux which produces it. (It may be noted that as far as the induced emf is concerned, the closed
path forming a loop does not necessarily have to be conductive).
If the closed path is in the form of N tightly wound turns of a coil, the change in the
magnetic flux linking the coil induces an emf in each turn of the coil and total emf is the sum of
the induced emfs of the individual turns, i.e.,
Emf = Volts
By defining the total flux linkage as
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The emf can be written as
Emf =
Continuing with equation (3), over a closed contour 'C' we can write
Emf =
where is the induced electric field on the conductor to sustain the current.
Further, total flux enclosed by the contour 'C ' is given by
Where S is the surface for which 'C' is the contour.

From (11) and using (12) in (3) we can write
By applying stokes theorem
Therefore, we can write
which is the Faraday's law in the point form
We have said that non zero can be produced in a several ways. One particular case is when a
time varying flux linking a stationary closed path induces an emf. The emf induced in a
stationary closed path by a time varying magnetic field is called a transformer emf .
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Inconsistency of amperes law
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Boundary Condition for Magnetic Fields:
Similar to the boundary conditions in the electro static fields, here we will consider the behavior
of and at the interface of two different media. In particular, we determine how the
tangential and normal components of magnetic fields behave at the boundary of two regions
having different permeabilities.
The figure 4.9 shows the interface between two media having permeabities and , being
the normal vector from medium 2 to medium 1.
o determine the condition for the normal component of the flux density vector , we consider a
small pill box P with vanishingly small thickness h and having an elementary area for the
faces. Over the pill box, we can write
....................................................(4.36)
Since h --> 0, we can neglect the flux through the sidewall of the pill box.
...........................(4.37)
and ..................(4.38)
where
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Since is small, we can write
or, ...................................(4.40)
That is, the normal component of the magnetic flux density vector is continuous across the
interface.
In vector form,
...........................(4.41)
To determine the condition for the tangential component for the magnetic field, we consider a
closed path C as shown in figure 4.8. By applying Ampere's law we can write
Since h -->0 ,
We have shown in figure 4.8, a set of three unit vectors , and such that they
satisfy (R.H. rule). Here is tangential to the interface and is the vector
perpendicular to the surface enclosed by C at the interface.
if Js = 0, the tangential magnetic field is also continuous. If one of the medium is a perfect
conductor Js exists on the surface of the perfect conductor.
In vector form we can write,
Therefore,
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Solved problems:
Problem1:
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Problem2:
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Problem3:
Problem4:
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Problem5:
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Problem6:
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Problem7:
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Problem8:
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UNIT – III
EM Wave Characteristics - I:
 Wave Equations for Conducting and Perfect Dielectric Media

 Uniform Plane Waves - Definition, Relation between E & H
 Wave Propagation in Lossless and Conducting Media
 Wave Propagation in Good Conductors and Good Dielectrics
EM Wave Characteristics - II:
 Reflection and Refraction of Plane Waves - Normal for both perfect Conductor and
Perfect dielectric
 Brewster Angle
 Critical Angle
 Total Internal Reflection
 Surface Impedance
 Poynting Vector
 Poynting Theorem
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Wave equations:
The Maxwell's equations in the differential form are
Let us consider a source free uniform medium having dielectric constant , magnetic
permeability and conductivity . The above set of equations can be written as
Using the vector identity ,
We can write from 2
Substituting from 1
But in source free( ) medium (eq3)
In the same manner for equation eqn 1
Since from eqn 4, we can write
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These two equations
are known as wave equations.
Uniform plane waves:

A uniform plane wave is a particular solution of Maxwell's equation assuming electric
field (and magnetic field) has same magnitude and phase in infinite planes perpendicular to the
direction of propagation. It may be noted that in the strict sense a uniform plane wave doesn't
exist in practice as creation of such waves are possible with sources of infinite extent. However,
at large distances from the source, the wave front or the surface of the constant phase becomes
almost spherical and a small portion of this large sphere can be considered to plane. The
characteristics of plane waves are simple and useful for studying many practical scenarios
Let us consider a plane wave which has only Ex component and propagating along z .
Since the plane wave will have no variation along the plane perpendicular to z
i.e., xy plane, . The Helmholtz's equation reduces to,
The solution to this equation can be written as
are the amplitude constants (can be determined from boundary conditions).
In the time domain,
assuming are real constants.
Here, represents the forward traveling wave. The plot of

for several values of t is shown in the Figure below
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Figure : Plane wave traveling in the + z direction

As can be seen from the figure, at successive times, the wave travels in the +z direction.
If we fix our attention on a particular point or phase on the wave (as shown by the dot) i.e. ,
= constant
Then we see that as t is increased to , z also should increase to so that
Or,
Or,
When ,
we write = phase velocity .
If the medium in which the wave is propagating is free space i.e.,
Then
Where 'C' is the speed of light. That is plane EM wave travels in free space with the speed of
light.
The wavelength is defined as the distance between two successive maxima (or minima or
any other reference points).
i.e.,
or,
or,
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Substituting ,
or,
Thus wavelength also represents the distance covered in one oscillation of the wave.
Similarly, represents a plane wave traveling in the -z direction.
The associated magnetic field can be found as follows:
From (6.4),
where is the intrinsic impedance of the medium.
When the wave travels in free space
is the intrinsic impedance of the free space.

In the time domain,
Which represents the magnetic field of the wave traveling in the +z direction.
For the negative traveling wave,
For the plane waves described, both the E & H fields are perpendicular to the direction of
propagation, and these waves are called TEM (transverse electromagnetic) waves.
The E & H field components of a TEM wave is shown in Fig below 94
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Figure : E & H fields of a particular plane wave at time t.
Poynting Vector and Power Flow in Electromagnetic Fields:

Electromagnetic waves can transport energy from one point to another point. The electric and
magnetic field intensities asscociated with a travelling electromagnetic wave can be related to the
rate of such energy transfer.
Let us consider Maxwell's Curl Equations:
Using vector identity
the above curl equations we can write
.............................................(1)
In simple medium where and are constant, we can write
and
Applying Divergence theorem we can write, 95
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...........................(2)
The term represents the rate of change of energy stored in the electric
and magnetic fields and the term represents the power dissipation within the volume.
Hence right hand side of the equation (6.36) represents the total decrease in power within the
volume under consideration.
The left hand side of equation (6.36) can be written as where

2
(W/mt ) is called the Poynting vector and it represents the power density vector associated with
the electromagnetic field. The integration of the Poynting vector over any closed surface gives
the net power flowing out of the surface. Equation (6.36) is referred to as Poynting theorem and
it states that the net power flowing out of a given volume is equal to the time rate of decrease in
the energy stored within the volume minus the conduction losses.
Poynting vector for the time harmonic case:
For time harmonic case, the time variation is of the form , and we have seen that
instantaneous value of a quantity is the real part of the product of a phasor quantity and when
is used as reference. For example, if we consider the phasor
then we can write the instanteneous field as
.................................(1)
when E0 is real.
Let us consider two instanteneous quantities A and B such that
..................(2)
where A and B are the phasor quantities.
i.e,
Therefore,
..............................(3)
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Since A and B are periodic with period , the time average value of the product form AB,
denoted by can be written as
.....................................(4)
Further, considering the phasor quantities A and B, we find that
and , where * denotes complex conjugate.
..............................................(5)
The poynting vector can be expressed as
...................................(6)
If we consider a plane electromagnetic wave propagating in +z direction and has only

component, from (6.42) we can write:
Using (6)
........................................(7)
where and , for the plane wave under consideration.

For a general case, we can write
.....................(8)
We can define a complex Poynting vector
and time average of the instantaneous Poynting vector is given by .

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Polarization of plane wave:

The polarization of a plane wave can be defined as the orientation of the electric field
vector as a function of time at a fixed point in space. For an electromagnetic wave, the
specification of the orientation of the electric field is sufficient as the magnetic field components
are related to electric field vector by the Maxwell's equations.
Let us consider a plane wave travelling in the +z direction. The wave has both E x and Ey
components.
The corresponding magnetic fields are given by,
Depending upon the values of Eox and Eoy we can have several possibilities:
1. If Eoy = 0, then the wave is linearly polarised in the x-direction.
2. If Eoy = 0, then the wave is linearly polarised in the y-direction.
3. If Eox and Eoy are both real (or complex with equal phase), once again we get a linearly
polarised wave with the axis of polarisation inclined at an angle , with respect to the x-
axis. This is shown in fig1 below
Fig1 : Linear Polarisation

4. If Eox and Eoy are complex with different phase angles, will not point to a single spatial
direction. This is explained as follows:
Let
Then,
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and ....................................(2)
To keep the things simple, let us consider a =0 and . Further, let us study the nature of the
electric field on the z =0 plain.
From equation (2) we find that,
.....................................(3)
and the electric field vector at z = 0 can be written as
.............................................(4)
Assuming , the plot of for various values of t is hown in figure 2
Figure 2 : Plot of E(o,t)

From equation (6.47) and figure (6.5) we observe that the tip of the arrow representing electric
field vector traces qn ellipse and the field is said to be elliptically polarised.
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Figure 3: Polarisation ellipse

The polarisation ellipse shown in figure 3 is defined by its axial ratio(M/N, the ratio of
semimajor to semiminor axis), tilt angle (orientation with respect to xaxis) and sense of
rotation(i.e., CW or CCW). Linear polarisation can be treated as a special case of elliptical
polarisation, for which the axial ratio is infinite.
In our example, if , from equation the tip of the arrow representing electric field
vector traces out a circle. Such a case is referred to as Circular Polarisation. For circular
polarisation the axial ratio is unity
Figure 5: Circular Polarisation (RHCP)

Further, the circular polarisation is aside to be right handed circular polarisation (RHCP) if the
electric field vector rotates in the direction of the fingers of the right hand when the thumb points
in the direction of propagation-(same and CCW). If the electric field vector rotates in the
opposite direction, the polarisation is asid to be left hand circular polarisation (LHCP) (same as
CW).In AM radio broadcast, the radiated electromagnetic wave is linearly polarised with the
field vertical to the ground( vertical polarisation) where as TV signals are horizontally polarised
waves. FM broadcast is usually carried out using circularly polarised waves.In radio
communication, different information signals can be transmitted at the same frequency at
orthogonal polarisation ( one signal as vertically polarised other horizontally polarised or one as
RHCP while the other as LHCP) to increase capacity. Otherwise, same signal can be transmitted
at orthogonal polarisation to obtain diversity gain to improve reliability of transmission.
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Behaviour of Plane waves at the inteface of two media:

We have considered the propagation of uniform plane waves in an unbounded
homogeneous medium. In practice, the wave will propagate in bounded regions where several
values of will be present. When plane wave travelling in one medium meets a different
medium, it is partly reflected and partly transmitted. In this section, we consider wave reflection
and transmission at planar boundary between two media.
Fig 6 : Normal Incidence at a plane boundary

Case1: Let z = 0 plane represent the interface between two media. Medium 1 is characterised by
and medium 2 is characterized by .Let the subscripts 'i' denotes incident,
'r' denotes reflected and 't' denotes transmitted field components respectively.
The incident wave is assumed to be a plane wave polarized along x and travelling in medium 1
along direction. From equation (6.24) we can write
..................(1)
......................(2)
where and .
Because of the presence of the second medium at z =0, the incident wave will undergo partial
reflection and partial transmission.The reflected wave will travel along in medium 1.
The reflected field components are:
...............................................(3)
.........(4)
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............................................(5)
............................................(6)
where and
In medium 1,
and
and in medium 2,
and
Applying boundary conditions at the interface z = 0, i.e., continuity of tangential field
components and noting that incident, reflected and transmitted field components are tangential at
the boundary, we can write
&
From equation 3to 6 we get,
................................................................(7)
..............................................................(8)
Eliminating Eto ,
or,
or,
...............(8)
is called the reflection coefficient.
From equation (8), we can write
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or,
........................................(9)
is called the transmission coefficient.
We observe that,
........................................(10)
The following may be noted
(i) both and T are dimensionless and may be complex
(ii)
Let us now consider specific cases:
Case I: Normal incidence on a plane conducting boundary
The medium 1 is perfect dielectric and medium 2 is perfectly conducting .
From (9) and (10)

= -1
and T =0
Hence the wave is not transmitted to medium 2, it gets reflected entirely from the interface to the
medium 1.
& .................................(11)
Proceeding in the same manner for the magnetic field in region 1, we can show that,
...................................................................................(12)
The wave in medium 1 thus becomes a standing wave due to the super position of a forward
travelling wave and a backward travelling wave. For a given ' t', both and vary
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Figure 7: Generation of standing wave

Zeroes of E1(z,t) and Maxima of H1(z,t).
Maxima of E1(z,t) and zeroes of H1(z,t).
Case2: Normal incidence on a plane dielectric boundary : If the medium 2 is not a perfect
conductor (i.e. ) partial reflection will result. There will be a reflected wave in the
medium 1 and a transmitted wave in the medium 2.Because of the reflected wave, standing wave
is formed in medium 1.
From equation (10) and equation (13) we can write
..................(14)
Let us consider the scenario when both the media are dissipation less i.e. perfect dielectrics (
)
..................(15)
In this case both and become real numbers.

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..................(16)
From (6.61), we can see that, in medium 1 we have a traveling wave component with amplitude
TEio and a standing wave component with amplitude 2JE io. The location of the maximum and the
minimum of the electric and magnetic field components in the medium 1from the interface can
be found as follows. The electric field in medium 1 can be written as
..................(17)
If i.e. >0
The maximum value of the electric field is
..................(18)
and this occurs when
or , n = 0, 1, 2, 3.......................(19)
The minimum value of is
.................(20)
And this occurs when
or , n = 0, 1, 2, 3.............................(21)
For i.e. <0
The maximum value of is which occurs at the zmin locations and the minimum
value of is which occurs at zmax locations as given by the equations (6.64) and
(6.66).
From our discussions so far we observe that can be written as
.................(22) 105
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The quantity S is called as the standing wave ratio.

As the range of S is given by
From (6.62), we can write the expression for the magnetic field in medium 1 as
.................(23)
From (6.68) we find that will be maximum at locations where is minimum and vice
versa.
In medium 2, the transmitted wave propagates in the + z direction.
Oblique Incidence of EM wave at an interface: So far we have discuss the case of normal
incidence where electromagnetic wave traveling in a lossless medium impinges normally at the
interface of a second medium. In this section we shall consider the case of oblique incidence. As
before, we consider two cases
i.When the second medium is a perfect conductor.
ii.When the second medium is a perfect dielectric.
A plane incidence is defined as the plane containing the vector indicating the direction of
propagation of the incident wave and normal to the interface. We study two specific cases when
the incident electric field is perpendicular to the plane of incidence (perpendicular
polarization) and is parallel to the plane of incidence (parallel polarization). For a general
case, the incident wave may have arbitrary polarization but the same can be expressed as a linear
combination of these two individual cases.
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Critical angle:
In geometric optics, at a refractive boundary, the smallest angle of incidence at which total
internal reflection occurs. The critical angle is given by
Where Өc is the critical angle, n 1 is the refractive index of the less dense medium, and n 2 is the
refractive index of the denser medium.
Angle of incidence: The angle between an incident ray and the normal to a reflecting or
refracting surface
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UNIT-IV
TRANSMISSION LINES-I
 Types of transmission lines

 Transmission line Parameters- Primary & Secondary Constants
 Transmission Line Equations
 Expressions for Characteristics Impedance
 Propagation Constant
 Phase and Group Velocities
 Infinite Line Concepts
 Lossless transmission line
 Distortion
 Condition for Distortionlessness transmission
 Minimum Attenuation
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Malla reddy college of engineering and technology DEPT.OF ECE
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UNIT – V
Transmission Lines – II
 SC and OC Lines
 Input Impedance Relations
 Reflection Coefficient
 VSWR
 λ/4, λ 2, λ /8 Lines - Impedance Transformations
 Smith Chart - Configuration and Applications,
 Single Stub Matching
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MALLA REDDY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY DEPT.OF ECE
Transmission Lines – Smith Chart &

Impedance Matching
(Intensive Reading)
1 The Smith Chart
Transmission line calculations − such as the determination of input impedance using equation
(4.30) and the reflection coefficient or load impedance from equation (4.32) − often involves
tedious manipulation of complex numbers. This tedium can be alleviated using a graphical
method of solution. The best known and most widely used graphical chart is the Smith chart.
The Smith chart is a circular plot with a lot of interlaced circles on it. When used correctly,
impedance matching can be performed without any computation. The only effort required is
the reading and following of values along the circles.
The Smith chart is a polar plot of the complex reflection coefficient, or equivalently, a
graphical plot of normalized resistance and reactance functions in the reflection-coefficient
plane. To understand how the Smith chart for a lossless transmission line is constructed,
examine the voltage reflection coefficient of the load impedance defined by
V Z − Z0
Γ L = refl = L = Γ re + j Γim , (1)
Vinc Z L + Z 0
where Γ re and Γim are the real and imaginary parts of the complex reflection coefficient Γ L .
The characteristic impedance Z0 is often a constant and a real industry normalized value, such
as 50 Ω, 75 Ω, 100 Ω, and 600 Ω. We can then define the normalised load impedance by
z L = Z L / Z 0 = ( R + jX ) / Z 0 = r + jx . (2)
With this simplification, we can rewrite the reflection coefficient formula in (1) as
(Z − Z0 ) / Z0 zL − 1
Γ L = Γ re + j Γim = L = . (3)
(Z L + Z0 ) / Z0 zL + 1
The inverse relation of (3) is
jθ
1 + ΓL 1 + ΓL e
zL = = (4)
1 − Γ L 1 − Γ L e jθ
or
(1 + Γ re ) + j Γim
r + jx = . (5)
(1 − Γ re ) − j Γim
Multiplying both the numerator and the denominator of (5) by the complex conjugate of the
denominator and separating the real and imaginary parts, we obtain
1 − Γ re 2 − Γim 2
r= (6)
(1 − Γ re ) 2 + Γ im 2
and
2Γim 2
x= . (7)
(1 − Γ re ) 2 + Γim 2
Equation (6) can be rearranged as

2 2
⎛ r ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞
⎜ Γ re − ⎟ + Γim = ⎜
2
⎟ . (8)
⎝ 1+ r ⎠ ⎝1+ r ⎠
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This equation is a relationship in the form of a parametric equation ( x − a ) 2 + ( y − b) 2 = R 2

⎛ r ⎞
in the complex plane (Γ re , Γim ) of a circle centred at the coordinates ⎜ , 0 ⎟ and having a
⎝ r + 1 ⎠
1
radius of . Different values of r yield circles of different radii with centres at different
r +1
positions on the Γ re -axis. The following properties of the r-circles are noted:
• The centres of all r-circles lie on the Γ re -axis.
• The circle where there is no resistance (r = 0) is the largest. It is centred at the origin and
has a radius of 1.
• The r-circles become progressively smaller as r increases from 0 to ∞, ending at the
(Γ re = 1, Γim = 0) point for an open circuit.
• All the r-circles pass through the point (Γ re = 1, Γim = 0) .
See Figure 1 for further details.
Γim
r = 0 (short)
r =1
0.5 Γ re
0 1
r=∞
(open)
Figure 1: The r-circles in the complex plane (Γ re , Γim ) .
Similarly, (7) can be rearranged as

2 2
⎛ 1⎞ ⎛1⎞
(Γ re − 1) 2 + ⎜ Γim − ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟ . (9)
⎝ x⎠ ⎝ x⎠
Again, (9) is a parametric equation of the type ( x − a ) 2 + ( y − b) 2 = R 2 in the complex plane
⎛ 1⎞ 1
(Γr , Γi ) of a circle centred at the coordinates ⎜ 1, ⎟ and having a radius of . Different
⎝ x⎠ x
values of x yield circles of different radii with centres at different positions on the Γ re = 1
line. The following properties of the x-circles are noted:
• The centres of all x-circles lie on the Γ re = 1 line; those for x > 0 (inductive reactance) lie
above the Γ re -axis, and those for x < 0 lie below the Γ re -axis.
• The x = 0 circle becomes the Γ re -axis.
• The x-circles become progressively smaller as x increases from 0 to ∞, ending at the
(Γ re = 1, Γim = 0) point for an open circuit.
• All the x-circles pass through the point (Γ re = 1, Γim = 0) .
See Figure 2 for further details.

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Γim
Γ re
Figure 2: The x-circles in the complex plane (Γ re , Γim ) .
To complete the Smith chart, the two circles' families are superimposed. The Smith chart
therefore becomes a chart of r- and x-circles in the (Γ re , Γim ) -plane for Γ ≤ 1 . The
intersection of an r-circle and an x-circle defines a point which represents a normalized load
impedance z L = r + j x . The actual load impedance is Z L = Z 0 z L = Z 0 ( r + j x) . As an
illustration, the impedance Z L = 85 + j 30 in a Z 0 = 50 Ω -system is represented by the point
P in Figure 3. Here z L = 1.7 + j 0.6 at the intersection of the r = 1.7 and the x = 0.6 circles.
Values for Γ re and Γim may then be obtained from the projections onto the horizontal and
vertical axes (see Figure 4). These are approximately given by Γ re ≈ 0.3 and Γim ≈ 0.16 .
Point Psc at (Γ re = −1, Γim = 0) corresponds to r = 0 and x = 0 and therefore represents a
short-circuit. Poc at (Γ re = 1, Γim = 0) corresponds to an infinite impedance therefore
represents an open circuit.
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Γim
Γ re
Γ re = 1 line
Figure 3: Smith chart with rectangular coordinates.
Constant
Resistance r
Γim
Constant
Reactance x
Γ re 0 1
Figure 4: Direct extraction of the reflection coefficient Γ = Γ re + j Γim along the horizontal
and vertical axes.
Instead of having a Smith chart marked with Γ re and Γim marked in rectangular coordinates,
the same chart can be marked in polar coordinates, so that every point in the Γ-plane is
specified by a magnitude Γ and a phase angle θ . This is illustrated in Figure 5, where
several Γ -circles are shown in dashed lines and some θ -angles are marked around the
Γ = 1 circle. The Γ -circles are normally not shown on commercially available Smith charts,
but once the point representing a certain z L = r + jx is located, it is simply a matter of
drawing a circle centred at the origin through the point. The ratio of the distance to the point
and the radius to the edge of the chart is equal to the magnitude of Γ of the load reflection
coefficient, and the angle that a line to that point makes with the real axis represents θ . If, for
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example the point z L = 1.7 + j 0.6 is marked on the Smith chart at point P, we find that
ΓL = 1 / 3 and θ = 28° .
Each Γ -circle intersects the real axis at two points. In Figure 5 we designate the point on the
positive real axis as PM and on the negative real axis as Pm. Since x = 0 along the real axis,
both these points represent situations of a purely resistive load, Z L = R L . Obviously, R L > Z 0
at PM where r > 1 , and R L < Z 0 at Pm where r < 1 . Since S = R L / Z 0 for R L > Z 0 , the value
of the r-circle passing through the point PM is numerically equal to the standing wave ratio.
For the example where z L = 1.7 + j 0.6 , we find that r = 2 at PM , so that S = r = 2.
Figure 5: Smith chart in polar coordinates.
Example 1:
Consider a characteristic impedance of 50 Ω with the following impedances:
Z1 = 100 + j50 Ω Z2 = 75 − j100 Ω Z3 = j200 Ω Z4 = 150 Ω
Z5 = ∞ (an open circuit) Z6 = 0 (a short circuit) Z7 = 50 Ω Z8 = 184 − j900 Ω
The normalized impedances shown below are plotted in Figure 6.

z1 = 2 + j z2 = 1.5 − j2 z3 = j4 z4 = 3
z5 = ∞ z6 = 0 z7 = 1 z8 = 3.68 − j18
It is also possible to directly extract the reflection coefficient Γ on the Smith chart of Figure 6.
Once the impedance point is plotted (the intersection point of a constant resistance circle and
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of a constant reactance circle), simply read the rectangular coordinates projection on the
horizontal and vertical axis. This will give Γ re , the real part of the reflection coefficient, and
Γim , the imaginary part of the reflection coefficient. Alternatively, the reflection coefficient
may be obtained in polar form by using the scales provided on the commercial Smith chart.
Γ1 = 0.4 + 0.2 j Γ2 = 0.51 − 0.4 j Γ3 = 0.875 + 0.48j Γ4 = 0.5

= 0.45 ∠ 27° = 0.65 ∠−38° = 0.998 ∠29° = 0.5 ∠0°
Γ5 = 1 Γ6 = −1 Γ7 = 0 Γ8 = 0.96 − 0.1 j
= 1 ∠0° = 1 ∠180° = 0 = 0.97 ∠−6°
Z1
Z3
Z5
Z6
Z8
Z7
Z4 Z2
Figure 6: Points plotted on the Smith chart for Example 1.
The Smith chart is constructed by considering impedance (resistance and reactance). It can be
used to analyse these parameters in both the series and parallel worlds. Adding elements in a
series is straightforward. New elements can be added and their effects determined by simply
moving along the circle to their respective values. However, summing elements in parallel is
another matter, where admittances should be added.
We know that, by definition, Y = 1/Z and Z = 1/Y. The admittance is expressed in mhos or Ω−1
or alternatively in Siemens or S. Also, as Z is complex, Y must also be complex. Therefore
Y = G + jB , (10)
where G is called the conductance and B the susceptance of the element. When working with
admittance, the first thing that we must do is normalize y = Y/Y0. This results in
y = g + jb = 1/ z . So, what happens to the reflection coefficient? We note that
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z − 1 ( z − 1) / z 1 − y ⎛ y −1⎞
Γ= = = = −⎜ ⎟. (11)
z + 1 ( z + 1) / z 1 + y ⎝1+ y ⎠
Thus, for a specific normalized impedance, say z1 = 1.7 + j 0.6 , we can find the
corresponding reflection coefficient as Γ1 = 0.33 ∠ 28° . From (11), it then follows that the
reflection coefficient for a normalized admittance of y2 = 1.7 + j 0.6 will be
Γ 2 = −Γ1 = 0.33 ∠ (28° + 180°) .
This also implies that for a specific normalized impedance z, we can find y = 1/ z by rotating
through an angle of 180° around the centre of the Smith chart on a constant radius (see Figure
7).
Figure 7: Results of the 180° rotation
Note that while z and y = 1/z represent the same component, the new point has a different
position on the Smith chart and a different reflection value. This is due to the fact that the plot
for z is an impedance plot, but for y it is an admittance plot. When solving problems where
elements in series and in parallel are mixed together, we can use the same Smith chart by
simply performing rotations where conversions from z to y or y to z are required.
2 Smith Charts and transmission line circuits

So far we have based the construction of the Smith chart on the definition of the voltage
reflection coefficient at the load. The question is: what happens when we connect the load to a
length of transmission line as in Figure 8.
Figure 8: Finite transmission line terminated with load impedance ZL.
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On a lossless transmission line with k = β , the input impedance at a distance z ' from the load
is given by
V ( z ') 1 + Γ L e − j 2β z '
Zi = = Z0 . (12)
I ( z ') 1 − Γ L e − j 2β z '
The normalised impedance is then
Z ( z ') 1 + Γ L e − j 2βz ' 1 + Γi
zi = i = = . (13)
Z0 1 − Γ L e − j 2β z ' 1 − Γ i
Consequently, the reflection coefficient seen looking into the lossless transmission line of
length z ′ is given by
Γ i = Γ L e − j 2β z ′ = Γ L e j θ e − j 2β z ′ (14)
This implies that as we move along the transmission line towards the generator, the
magnitude of the reflection coefficient does not change; the angle only changes from a value
of θ at the load to a value of (θ − 2 β z ′) at a distance z ′ from the load. On the Smith chart,
we are therefore rotating on a constant Γ circle. One full rotation around the Smith chart
requires that 2 β z ′ = 2π , so that z ′ = π / β = λ / 2 where λ is the wavelength on the
transmission line.
Two additional scales in Δz ′ / λ are usually provided along the perimeter of the Γ = 1 circle
for easy reading of the phase change 2 β Δz ′ due to a change in line length Δz ′ . The outer
scale is marked in “wavelengths towards generator” in the clockwise direction (increasing z ′ )
and “wavelengths towards load” in the counter-clockwise direction (decreasing z ′ ). Figure 9
shows a typical commercially available Smith chart.
Each Γ -circle intersects the real axis at two points. Refer to Figure 5. We designate the point
on the positive real axis as PM and on the negative real axis as Pm. Since x = 0 along the real
axis, both these points represent situations of a purely resistive input impedance,
Z i = Ri + j 0 . Obviously, Ri > Z 0 at PM where r > 1 , and Ri < Z 0 at Pm where r < 1 . At the
point PM we find that Z i = Ri = S Z 0 , while Z i = Ri = Z 0 / S at Pm. The point PM on an
impedance chart corresponds to the positions of a voltage maximum (and current minimum)
on the transmission line, while Pm represents a voltage minimum (and current maximum).
Given an arbitrary normalised impedance z, the value of the r-circle passing through the point
PM is numerically equal to the standing wave ratio. For the example, if z = 1.7 + j 0.6 , we find
that r = 2 at PM , so that S = r = 2 .
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Figure 9: The Smith chart.

Example 2:
Use the Smith chart to find the impedance of a short-circuited section of a lossless 50 Ω co-
axial transmission line that is 100 mm long. The transmission line has a dielectric of relative
permittivity ε r = 9 between the inner and outer conductor, and the frequency under
consideration is 100 MHz.
For the transmission line, we find β = ω μ 0 ε 0 ε r = 6.2875 rad/m and

that
λ = 2π / β = 0.9993 ≈ 1 m. The transmission line of length z ′ = 100 mm is therefore
z ′ / λ = 0.1 wavelengths long.
• Since z L = 0 , enter the Smith chart at a point Psc.
• Move along the perimeter of the chart ( Γ = 1 ) by 0.1 “wavelengths towards the
generator” in a clockwise direction to point P1.
• At P1 , read r = 0 and x ≈ 0.725 , or z i = j 0.725 . Then Z i = j 0.725 × 50 = j 36.3 Ω .
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P1
P3 '
P3
P2 '
P2
Psc
O PM Poc
Figure 10: Smith chart calculations for Example 2 and Example 3.
Example 3: A lossless transmission line of length 0.434λ and characteristic impedance 100 Ω
is terminated in an impedance 260 + j180 Ω. Find the voltage reflection coefficient, the
standing-wave ratio, the input impedance, and the location of a voltage maximum on the line.
Given z ′ = 0.434 λ , Z 0 = 100 Ω and Z L = 260 + j180 Ω . Then

• Enter the Smith chart at z L = Z L / Z 0 = 2.6 + j 1.8 shown as point P2 in Figure 10.
• With the centre at the origin, draw a circle of radius OP2 = ΓL = 0.6 .
• Draw the straight line OP2 and extend it to P2′ on the periphery. Read 0.220 on
“wavelengths towards generator” scale. The phase angle θ of the load reflection may
either be read directly from the Smith chart as 21° on the "Angle of Reflection
Coefficient" scale. Therefore Γ L = 0.6 e j 21π /180 = 0.6 e j 0.12 π .
• The Γ = 0.6 circle intersects the positive real axis OPsc at r = S = 4 . Therefore the
voltage standing-wave ratio is 4.
• The find the input impedance, move P2′ at 0.220 by a total of 0.434 “wavelengths toward
the generator” first to 0.500 (same as 0.000) and then further to 0.434−
(0.500−0.220)=0.154 to P3′ .
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• Join O and P3′ by a straight line which intersects the Γ = 0.6 circle at P3 . Here r = 0.69
and x = 1.2 , or z i = 0.69 + j1.2 . Then Z i = (0.69 + j1.2) × 100 = 69 + j 120 Ω .
• In going from P2 to P3 , the Γ = 0.6 circle intersects the positive real axis at PM where
there is a voltage maximum. Thus the voltage maximum appears at 0.250−0.220=0.030
wavelengths from the load.
3 Transmission line impedance matching.

Transmission lines are often used for the transmission of power and information. For RF
power transmission, it is highly desirable that as much power as possible is transmitted from
the generator to the load and that as little power as possible is lost on the line itself. This will
require that the load be matched to the characteristic impedance of the line, so that the
standing wave ratio on the line is as close to unity as possible. For information transmission it
is essential that the lines be matched, because mismatched loads and junctions will result in
echoes that distort the information-carrying signal.
Impedance matching by quarter-wave transformer

For a lossless transmission line of length l, characteristic impedance of Z 0 = R0 and
terminated in a load impedance Z L , the input impedance is given by
Z + jR0 tan βl
Z i = R0 L
R0 + jZ L tan β l
(15)
Z L + jR0 tan(2π l / λ )
= R0 .
R0 + jZ L tan(2π l / λ )
If the transmission line has a length of l = λ / 4 , this reduces to

Z + jR0 tan(π / 2)
Z i = R0 L
R0 + jZ L tan(π / 2)
Z L / tan(π / 2) + jR0
= R0
R0 / tan(π / 2) + jZ L
(16)
0 + jR0
= R0
0 + jZ L
( R0 ) 2
= .
ZL
This presents us with a simple way of matching a resistive load Z L = R L to a real-valued
input impedance of Z i = Ri : insert a quarter-wave transformer with characteristic impedance
R0 . From (16), we have Ri = ( R0 ) 2 / RL , or
R0 = Ri RL . (17)
Note that the length of the transmission line has to be chosen to be equal to a quarter of a
transmission line wavelength at the frequency where matching is desired. This matching
method is therefore frequency sensitive, since the transmission line section will no longer be a
quarter of a wavelength long at other frequencies. Also note that since the load is usually
matched to a purely real impedance Z i = Ri , this method of impedance matching can only be
applied to resistive loads Z L = R L , and is not useful for matching complex load impedances
to a lossless (or low-loss) transmission line.
Example 4
A signal generator has an internal impedance of 50 Ω. It needs to feed equal power through a
lossless 50 Ω transmission line with a phase velocity of 0.5c to two separate resistive loads of
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64 Ω and 25 Ω at a frequency of 10 MHz. Quarter-wave transformers are used to match the

loads to the 50 Ω line, as shown in Figure 11.
(a) Determine the required characteristic impedances and physical lengths of the quarter-
wavelength lines.
(b) Find the standing-wave ratios on the matching line sections.
Figure 11: Impedance matching by quarter-wave transformers (Example 4).
(a) To feed equal power to the two loads, the input resistance at the junction with the main
line looking toward each load must be
Ri1 = 2 R0 = 100 Ω and Ri 2 = 2 R0 = 100 Ω
Therefore
′ = Ri1 RL1 = 80 Ω
R01
′ = Ri 2 RL 2 = 50 Ω
R02
Assume that the matching sections use the same dielectric as the main line. We know that
1 1 c
up = = = .
με μ0ε0εr 2
We can therefore deduce that it uses a dielectric with a relative permittivity of ε r = 4 .
u p 2π
λ= = = 15 m.
f k
The length of each transmission line section is therefore l = λ / 4 = 3.75 m .
(b) Under matched conditions, there are no standing waves on the main transmission line, i.e.
S = 1. The standing wave ratios on the two matching line sections are as follows:
Matching section No. 1:
R − R01 ′ 64 − 80
Γ L1 = L1 = = −0.11
′
RL1 + R01 64 + 80
1 + Γ L1 1 + 0.11
S1 = = = 1.25
1 − Γ L1 1 − 0.11
Matching section No. 2:
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′
RL 2 − R02 25 − 50
ΓL2 = = = −0.33
′
RL 2 + R02 25 + 50
1 + ΓL2 1 + 0.33
S2 = = = 1.99
1 − ΓL2 1 − 0.33
Single stub matching
In matching of impedances, we are only allowed to use reactive components (i.e. equivalent
to inductors and capacitors – no resistors). Recall that for short-circuited and open-circuited
lossless transmission line sections of length l, the input impedance was given by
Z i , s = jZ 0 tan β l = jZ 0 tan(2π l / λ ) , (18)

and
Z i ,o = − jZ 0 cot β l = − jZ 0 cot(2π l / λ ) , (19)
where Z 0 = R0 is purely real. The impedances in (18) and (19) are purely reactive
(imaginary), and therefore these transmission line sections act as inductors or capacitors,
depending on the line length. We are going to make use of these elements (called transmission
line stubs) to design matching circuits. In practice, it is more convenient to use short-circuited
stubs. Short-circuited stubs are usually used in preference to open-circuited stubs because an
infinite terminating impedance is more difficult to realise than a zero terminating impedance.
Radiation from the open end of a stub makes it appear longer than it is, and compensation for
these effects makes the use of open-circuited stubs more cumbersome. A short-circuited stub
of an adjustable length is much easier to construct than an open-circuited stub.
It is also more common to connect these stubs in parallel with the main line. For parallel
connections, it is convenient to use admittances rather than impedances. In thee cases, we use
the Smith chart as an admittance chart to design the matching networks.
A single-stub matching circuit is depicted in Figure 12. Note that the short-circuited stub is
connected in parallel with the main line. In order to match the complex load impedance Z L to
the characteristic impedance of the lossless main line, Z 0 = R0 , we need to determine the
lengths d and l.
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Figure 12: Impedance matching by single stub method.

For the transmission line to be matched at the point B − B ′ , the basic requirement is
Yi = YB + Ys
1 (20)
= Y0 = .
R0
In terms of normalised admittances, (23) becomes
yi = yB + ys = 1 . (21)
where y B = g B + jbB = YB / Y0 for the load section and y s = Ys / Y0 for the short-circuited
stub. Note that y s = − j cot(2π l / λ ) is purely imaginary. It can therefore only contribute to
the imaginary part of y i . The position of B − B ′ (or, in other words, the length d) must be
chosen such that g B = 1 , i.e.
yB = 1 + jbB . (22)
Next, the length l is chosen such that
ys = − jbB , (23)
which yields y i = y B + y s = (1 + jbB ) + (− jbB ) = 1 . The circuit is therefore matched at
B − B ′ , and at any point left of B − B ′ as well.
If we use the Smith chart, we would rotate on a Γ -circle in a clockwise direction (towards
the generator) when transforming the normalised load admittance to the admittance y B .
However, according to (23), y B must also be located on the g = 1 circle.
The use of the Smith chart for the purpose of designing a single-stub matching network is best
illustrated by means of an example.
Example 5: A 50 Ω transmission line is connected to a load impedance Z L = 35 − j 37.5 Ω .

Find the position and length of a short-circuited stub required to match the load at a frequency
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of 200 MHz. Assume that the transmission line is a co-axial line with a dielectric for which
εr = 9 .
Given Z 0 = R0 = 50 Ω and Z L = 35 − j 47.5 Ω . Therefore z L = Z L / Z 0 = 0.7 − j 0.95 .

• Enter the Smith chart at z L shown as point P1 in Figure 13.
• Draw a Γ -circle centred at O with radius OP1 .
• Draw a straight line from P1 through O to point P2′ on the perimeter, intersecting the Γ -
circle at P2 , which represents y L . Note 0.109 at P2′ on the “wavelengths toward
generator” scale.
• Note the two points of intersection of the Γ -circle with the g = 1 circle:
o At P3 : y B1 = 1 + j1.2 = 1 + jbB1
o At P4 : y B 2 = 1 − j1.2 = 1 + jbB 2
• Solutions for the position of the stub:
o For P3 (from P2′ to P3′ ) d1 = (0.168 − 0.109)λ = 0.059λ
o For P4 (from P2′ to P4′ ) d 2 = (0.332 − 0.109)λ = 0.223λ
• Solutions for the length of the short-circuited stub to provide y s = − jbB :
o For P3 (from Psc on the extreme right of the admittance chart to P3′′ , which
represents y s = − jbB1 = − j1.2 ): l1 = (0.361 − 0.250)λ = 0.111λ
o For P4 (from Psc on the extreme right of the admittance chart to P4′′ , which
represents y s = − jbB 2 = j1.2 ): l 2 = (0.139 + 0.250)λ = 0.389λ
To compute the physical lengths of the transmission line sections, we need to calculate the
wavelength on the transmission line. Therefore
u p 1 / με c / ε r
λ= = = ≈ 0 .5 m .
f f f
Thus:
d1 = 0.059λ = 29.5 mm l1 = 0.111λ = 55.5 mm

d 2 = 0.223λ = 111.5 mm l 2 = 0.389λ = 194.5 mm
Note that either of these two sets of solutions would match the load. In fact, there is a whole
range of possible solutions. For example, when calculating d1 , instead of going straight from
P2′ to P3′ , we could have started at P2′ , rotated clockwise around the Smith chart n times
(representing an additional length of nλ / 2 ) and continued on to P3′ , yielding
d1 = 0.059λ + nλ / 2 , n = 0, 1, 2, . . . The same argument applies for d 2 , l1 and l 2 .
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P2 ' P4 "
P3 '
P2 P3 g =1
O Psc
P1 P4
P4 '
P3 "
Figure 13: Single-stub matching on an admittance chart (Example 5).
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1

A Vector has both a magnitude and a direction. Hence a vector quantity is a

Examples of vector quantities are force, displacement, velocity, etc.

A vector quantity is represented by a letter with an arrow over it or a bold letter.

̅̅̅̅ = 𝑥𝑎̅𝑥 + 𝑦𝑎̅𝑦 + 𝑧𝑎̅𝑧 3

 Dot Product/Scalar Product (A.B)

1. DOT PRODUCT (A. B):

Dot product of two vectors A and B is defined as:

Where 𝜃𝐴𝐵 is the angle formed between A and B.

Properties of Dot Product:

1. If A = (Ax, Ay, Az) and B = (Bx, By, Bz) then

𝐴̅. 𝐵̅= AxBx + AyBy + AzBz

2. 𝐴̅. 𝐵̅= |A| |B|, if cos𝜃𝐴𝐵 =1 which means θ AB = 00

𝑎̅𝑥 . 𝑎̅𝑥 = 𝑎̅𝑦 . 𝑎̅𝑦 = 𝑎̅𝑧 . 𝑎̅𝑧 = 1

𝑎̅𝑥 . 𝑎̅𝑦 = 𝑎̅𝑦 . 𝑎̅𝑧 = 𝑎̅𝑧 . 𝑎̅𝑥 = 0

2. Cross Product (A X B):

Cross Product of two vectors A and B is given as:

𝐴̅𝑋 𝐵̅ = │𝐴̅││𝐵̅│ sin 𝜃𝐴𝐵 𝑎̅𝑁

Properties of Cross Product:

1. If A = (Ax, Ay, Az) and B = (Bx, By, Bz) then,

The resultant vector is always normal to both the vector A and B.

2. 𝐴̅𝑋𝐵̅ = 0, if sin 𝜃𝐴𝐵 = 0 which means 𝜃𝐴𝐵 = 00 or 1800;

̅ ̅ ̅ ̅ ̅ 𝑁 , if sin 𝜃𝐴𝐵 = 0 which means 𝜃𝐴𝐵 = 900.

Co-Ordinate system is a system of representing points in a space of given dimensions by

The different co-ordinate system available are:

 Cartesian or Rectangular co-ordinate system.(Example: Cube, Cuboid)

 Circular Cylindrical co-ordinate system.(Example : Cylinder)

 Spherical co-ordinate system. (Example: Sphere)

The choice depends on the geometry of the application.

1. Cartesian Co-ordinate System / Rectangular Co-ordinate System (x,y,z)

A Vector in Cartesian system is represented as (Ax, Ay, Az) Or

Range of the variables:

̅ = 𝑑𝑥𝑎̅𝑥 + 𝑑𝑦𝑎̅𝑦 + 𝑑𝑧𝑎̅𝑧

dl = 𝑑𝑥𝑎̅𝑥 ---( For a line parallel to x-axis).

Differential Normal Surface (ds):

For the 1st figure,

2. Circular Cylindrical Co-ordinate System

A Vector in Cylindrical system is represented as (Ar, AǾ, Az) or

𝐴̅ = 𝐴𝑟 𝑎̅𝑟 + 𝐴∅ 𝑎̅∅ + 𝐴𝑧 𝑎̅𝑧

Range of the variables:

It defines the minimum and the maximum values of r, Φ and z.

Figure shows Point P and Unit vectors in Cylindrical Co-ordinate System.

Differential Displacement / Differential Length (dl):

̅ = 𝑑𝑟𝑎̅𝑟 + 𝑟𝑑𝜑𝑎̅𝜑 + 𝑑𝑧𝑎̅𝑧

dl = 𝑑𝑟𝑎̅𝑟 ---( For a line parallel to r-direction).

Differential Normal Surface (ds):

Arc is given as:

3. Spherical coordinate System:

A Vector in Spherical System is represented as (Ar ,AӨ, AΦ) or

The physical significance of each parameter of spherical coordinates:

Range of the variables:

dl = 𝑑𝑟𝑎̅𝑟 --(For a line parallel to r axis)

dl = 𝑟𝑑𝜃𝑎̅𝜃 ---( For a line parallel to θ direction)

dl = 𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜑𝑎̅𝜑 --(For a line parallel to Φ direction)

Differential Normal Surface (ds):

The two important laws of electrostatics are

Mathematically, , where k is the proportionality constant.

In SI units, Q1 and Q2 are expressed in Coulombs(C) and R is in meters.

Force F is in Newtons (N) and , is called the permittivity of free space.

Therefore ....................... (1) 14