Transport Policy 63 (2018) 73–79

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Transport Policy
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/tranpol

Public transport policy measures for improving elderly mobility

R.C.P. Wong, W.Y. Szeto *, Linchuan Yang, Y.C. Li, S.C. Wong
Department of Civil Engineering, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Population aging is happening in most of the world's metropolitan cities, and the proportion of elderly adults is
Public transport predicted to increase significantly in the coming decades. This rapid growth of elderly populations may lead to
Elderly mobility serious transport issues when their mobility is compromised by the unavailability of public transport services.
Binary logistic regression model Public transport concession fare schemes are commonly implemented in many cities to encourage the elderly's
Public transport concession fare schemes participation in social activities. However, these policies emphasize the role of money (i.e., travel fares) in
Priority seats
determining willingness to travel. Other possible factors, such as walking distance to and from stops and stations,
wait times for public transport services, and seat availability, have not been considered by transport operators and
policy makers. In this study, we interviewed 613 elderly Hong Kong residents aged 60 or above regarding their
travel decisions using designated modes of public transport to attend social activities in four hypothetical games.
A total of 2452 observations were collected for model development. Binary logistic regression models were
calibrated to determine which factors significantly influenced the elderly's travel decisions. Based on the model
results, this paper suggests policy measures to strengthen public transport planning in Hong Kong with the goal of
improving elderly mobility. The findings provide policy insights that can also be applied to other metropolitan
cities with similar traffic conditions.

1. Introduction exceeded only by that in Japan (United Nations, 2015). According to

population projection data for 2015–2064, the proportion of elderly
1.1. Ageing population people aged 60 and above in the Hong Kong population is expected to
reach 38.0% in 2064 (Census and Statistics Department, 2015). Indeed,
Population aging has become a notable, pervasive, and enduring Hong Kong's ageing population has already created numerous social and
demographic phenomenon in most countries. The proportion of pop- economic challenges, such as health care, the old age allowance, and
ulations aged 60 and over is growing steadily and vigorously, faster than senior residence provisions (Financial Services and the Treasury Bureau,
any other age group. According to the forecast issued by the World 2015). Unfortunately, the effects of ageing populations on transport
Health Organization (2002), there will be two billion elderly adults by systems have been largely ignored by government officials and policy
2050, constituting an even larger share of society. This anticipated rapid makers, such that the existing transport system is inadequate to support
growth in the elderly population poses a great challenge for transport the striking increase in the elderly population in the near future. There is
operators, managers, and urban planners tasked with offering travel no doubt that improvements in elderly mobility facilitate the promotion
options that consider the unique and complex travel patterns of the of overall societal development, especially in the transport sector (Ola-
elderly (Alsnih and Hensher, 2003; Hess, 2009). The challenges aging wole and Aloba, 2014). Therefore, such improvements should be a top
poses for the economy, health care, and retirement systems have been priority for transport policy makers.
long recognized. However, the impact of aging on the transport system
has been discovered much more recently and has not been extensively
addressed (Buehler and Nobis, 2010). 1.2. Elderly mobility issues
Predominantly due to sustained low fertility and mortality rates, the
population in Hong Kong is aging at an unprecedented rate. In 2015, the Mobility refers to a person's ability to move from one place to another
proportion of people aged 60 and above was the second highest in Asia, in an independent and safe way, and it typically declines gradually as
people age (Rantakokko et al., 2013). For the elderly, mobility is not only

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected] (W.Y. Szeto).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tranpol.2017.12.015
Received 24 October 2016; Received in revised form 21 July 2017; Accepted 11 December 2017
Available online 20 December 2017
0967-070X/© 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
R.C.P. Wong et al. Transport Policy 63 (2018) 73–79

a crucial element of overall life satisfaction but also a prerequisite for “Transport for All” and have emphasized creating systems that are
active aging. It is essential for independence and ensuring good health accessible to the elderly. Public transport concession fare schemes have
and quality of life (Whelan et al., 2006; Tacken, 1998; Metz, 2000; been implemented in some public transport modes (including railways,
Banister and Bowling, 2004; Spinney et al., 2009). A lack of mobility can buses, and ferries in the first stage of the implementation and public light
deter older people from participating in social activities, resulting in low buses in the second (and current) stage) to subsidize the elderly by
morale, depression, and loneliness (Atkins, 2001). With the deficits in traveling any time for a concession fare of HK$2 per trip. (Buses oper-
their sensory function and musculoskeletal strength, the elderly are a ating in Hong Kong are usually double-decker buses with a maximum
disadvantaged group that requires special attention (Ipingbemi, 2010). capacity of 146 passengers; public light buses carry a maximum of 16
Therefore, it is vital to maintain the mobility of elderly people to ensure seated passengers and mainly serve as feeder services). However, the
that they can continue to engage in civic and social life, take part in schemes emphasize the role of money (i.e., travel fares) in determining
community activities, and pursue human interactions that enrich their willingness to travel, and does not consider some other potentially
health, well-being, and quality of life from a social integration perspec- influential factors that may adversely affect the elderly's preference of
tive (Dickerson et al., 2007). Thus, future transport policies should pri- using public transit. Hong Kong is one of the safest cities in the world
oritize the mobility of elderly populations to support their independence with a very low crime rate. The number of crimes about thief from
and thereby improve their quality of life. vehicle in 2016 is 876, consisting of less than 1.5% of the overall crime
Improving elderly mobility should be regarded as an important part (Hong Kong Police Force, 2016). Hence, personal security is not the most
of promoting overall societal development, especially in the transport pressing mobility problem for the elderly residents. According to the
sector (Olawole and Aloba, 2014). Maintaining the quality of elderly latest research about elderly's satisfaction with the public transport ser-
people's daily lives by improving their mobility should be a top priority vices (Wong et al., 2017), the service aspects demanding immediate
for transport policy makers. In most Western countries, for example the improvement, include (1) driver's attitude, (2) the condition of stops and
United States, driving is the most common mode of transport among stations, and (3) seat availability. Although, priority seats for people with
elderly, and only a small portion of them use public transport (Ritter special needs are recently provided on railways and buses to encourage
et al., 2002). The key reasons contributing to the infrequent use of public the elderly to travel by these public transport modes and participate more
transport by older Americans, include (1) unreliable public transport in social activities, the elderly often have to stand because priority seats
services; (2) difficulties in accessing bus stops/stations and transfers; (3) are limited and occupied by other passengers (Department of Applied
an unavailability of some destinations; and (4) fear of crime (Burkhardt Social Sciences, 2015), which adversely affects their willingness to travel.
et al., 2002). From the statistics of bus crime in Los Angeles, it is found
that the elderly are more likely to be victimized than other sub-
1.4. Research objectives, contributions, and paper outline
populations and their fear of personal security significantly affects their
frequency of bus use (Levine and Wachs, 1986). Some other potential
To establish policy measures effectively enhancing elderly mobility, a
factors may also adversely affect ridership for the old adults, including
comprehensive study is essential and necessary. In this study, we con-
fears for safety (falling or being hit), and concerns about becoming dis-
ducted a stated preference survey in which we interviewed 613 elderly
oriented or lost. Accordingly, numerous studies have been conducted on
residents aged 60 or above and asked them to indicate whether they
the driving behavior and safety of elderly drivers (Stamatiadis et al.,
would rather make a trip by a designated public transport mode or stay
1991; Robertson and Aultman-Hall, 2001; Yannis et al., 2010; Broberg
home in four hypothetical scenarios. A total of 2452 observations were
and Willstrand, 2014; Nakagawa et al., 2013; Gelau et al., 2011). Some
collected to develop binary logistic regression models for identifying
other studies have also been conducted on the travel patterns of the
possible factors that significantly influence the elderly's travel decisions
elderly (Wachs, 1979; Carp, 1988; Hildebrand, 2003; Newbold et al.,
of using public transport services in a high density and transit-oriented
2005; Schm€ ocker et al., 2008; Buehler and Nobis, 2010; Broome et al.,
city. It is worth emphasizing that the proportion of elderly using public
2012; Siren and Haustein, 2013) in an effort to improve their mobility.
transit is already very high (over 90%) in Hong Kong. The key objective
However, the majority of pertinent studies have been focused on
of improving the existing services to the elderly is not to get the final 10%
car-dominant cities that are vastly different from transit-oriented cities.
into public transit options. The challenges and thus the research ques-
In contrast with car-dominant cities, transit-oriented cities (e.g., Hong
tions are how to enhance the elderly mobility to make more trips and what are
Kong, Singapore, and London) have a well-developed and sophisticated
the factors influencing their travel decision of making or not making a trip to
transport network and provide more frequent and relatively reliable
participate in social activities. This study aims to address these questions.
public transport services (Land Transport Authority, 2012). In Hong
This study makes several contributions, including the following:
Kong, only 14.4% households own a private car, and about 93.0% of the
labor force uses public transit for their daily commutes (Transport

It fills the research gap and provides an empirical analysis of elderly
Department, 2014). The transit shares of the elderly aged 60–69, 70–79,
mobility in Hong Kong, a transit-oriented and high-density city;
80 and above are 93.6%, 95.5%, and 96.5%, respectively (Szeto et al.,

It identifies the factors that significantly influence the elderly's travel
2017). The figures indicate that the elderly are regarded as a less privi-
decisions of using public transport services in a transit-oriented and
leged population segment with limited transport choices, and their
high-density city; and
mobility is very dependent on public transport, particularly of those

It suggests policy measures to strengthen public transport planning in
retired and older. It is therefore believed that the results obtained from
Hong Kong, with the goal of improving elderly mobility. The pro-
car-dominated cities cannot be directly applied to transit-oriented cities.
posed measures can also be applied to other metropolitan cities with
There is a need to identify the factors that significantly influence the
similar traffic conditions.
elderly's travel decisions of using public transport services in a high
density and transit-oriented city so as to propose public transport policy
The remainder of this paper proceeds as follows. The next section
measures for improving elderly mobility in that city.
describes the data collection method; tabulates the interviewed re-
spondents’ socio-demographical distribution, travel patterns, satisfaction
1.3. Public transport policy measures with the existing public transport services and policy measures; and de-
scribes the stated preference survey. The subsequent two sections present
To improve elderly mobility, the Hong Kong government's transport model results and discuss potential policy measures. The last section
policies, planning, and regulations have introduced the vision of concludes the paper and suggests research directions for future studies.

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R.C.P. Wong et al. Transport Policy 63 (2018) 73–79

2. Materials and methods the respondents’ households did not own a private car and thus they had
to rely on public transport services. Over 95% of the respondents had a
2.1. Data collection monthly personal expenditure of less than HK$10,000, which indicated
that they could not afford a high transportation cost. More than half of
An ethical approval was obtained from the University of Hong Kong the respondents lived with their spouse and/or children, whose family
prior to collecting data. Two pilot surveys were conducted in December members could help them to do the out-of-home activities (e.g., shop-
2014 and January 2015 to select the survey questions and verify their ping), and hence they might have less initiative of going out to partici-
appropriateness. To ensure complete and thorough coverage of the study pate in social activities.
area and avoid any sampling bias, the main survey was conducted in
March 2015 at numerous selected district elderly community centers, 2.3. Travel patterns
clinical centers, public housing estates, parks, and public transport sta-
tions in both the urban and rural areas of Hong Kong. These sites were Table 2 presents the elderly respondents’ travel patterns and the ef-
typically frequented by the elderly. No special events or incidents fects of the current public transport policy measures on their travel de-
occurred during the survey periods, which may potentially ruin the cisions. After the implementation of public transport fare concession
quality and reliability of the survey data. Our surveyors approached the schemes and provision of priority seats, up to 70% of the respondents
potential respondents and obtained their verbal consent to participate in were satisfied with the public transport. However, large percentages of
the survey before the survey was started. Our surveyors read the ques- them (71.5% and 86.1%) did not increase their intention to travel. This
tions aloud, asked for their preference of making a trip or staying home in phenomenon seems to imply that the current public transport policy
four hypothetical games, and filled in the questionnaires with only closed measures helped improve their satisfaction level but not effectively
questions. It took around 5 min to complete one questionnaire. We suc- enhance their mobility. Perhaps, the measures had already successfully
cessfully interviewed 613 elderly respondents and 2452 observations maintained their public transport use and social activity participation. As
were collected for model development. referred to the experience in Queensland (Broome et al., 2013), the
implementation of age-friendly guidelines for public buses resulted in
improved satisfaction with the bus system and prevented declining in
2.2. Socio-demographic characteristics ease of bus use.
During the interviews, most of the respondents expressed concerns
The socio-demographic characteristics of the interviewed re- about the provision of priority seats. They recommended increasing the
spondents are tabulated in Table 1. The samples covered a broad spec- number of priority seats and boosting awareness of the importance of
trum of elderly adults, which were quite evenly distributed into five age offering priority seats to people in need among regular passengers. They
and two gender cohorts. Most of them (92.5%) had no full- or part-time also requested more frequent services to shorten wait times, and better
job, without any compulsory commuting trips. It is noted that 94.6% of waiting areas at railway stations and bus/public light bus stops. Some of
the respondents requested that the government should extend the
Table 1 coverage to include public transport fare concession schemes for people
Socio-demographic profiles.
aged 60–64. (Some bus service providers were providing discounts to
Personal Particulars Group Frequency their passengers in this age group.)
(Percentage)
[Sample
Size ¼ 613]

Age 60-64 years 75 (12.2%) Table 2

65-69 years 122 (19.9%) Travel patterns and feedback on public transport policy measures.
70-74 years 117 (19.1%)
Travel Patterns/Comments Group Frequency
75-79 years 121 (19.7%)
(Percentage)
80 years or above 178 (29.1%)
[Sample
Gender Male 317 (51.7%)
Size ¼ 613]
Female 296 (48.3%)
Education Primary or below 390 (63.6%) Frequency (number of days) of using public Less than 1 135 (22.0%)
Secondary 177 (28.9%) transport service in a week 1–2 182 (29.7%)
Tertiary 46 (7.5%) 3–4 115 (18.8%)
Occupation status Retired 524 (85.5%) 5–6 29 (4.7%)
Homemaker 43 (7.0%) Every day 152 (24.8%)
Full-time job 27 (4.4%) Trip purpose (Respondents could provide Medical 99 (16.2%)
Part-time job 19 (3.1%) multiple answers) appointment
Car available for household use No 580 (94.6%) Visit friends and 205 (33.4%)
Yes 33 (5.4%) relatives
Monthly personal expenditure HK$1000 or below 42 (7.0%) Shopping 171 (27.9%)
HK$1001–5000 422 (68.8%) Social activities 27 (4.4%)
HK$5001–10 000 124 (20.2%) Go for a walk 176 (28.7%)
HK$10,001–15 000 19 (3.1%) Leisure 205 (33.4%)
HK$15,001 or 5 (0.8%) activities
above Others 114 (18.6%)
Household (Respondents could provide Living alone 110 (17.9%) Overall satisfaction with public transport Dissatisfied 33 (5.4%)
multiple answers) Living with spouse 335 (54.7%) services Neutral 151 (24.6%)
Living with parents 5 (0.8%) Satisfied 429 (70.0%)
Living with 327 (53.3%) Deliberate travel using discounted public Yes 192 (31.3%)
children transport modes No 353 (57.6%)
Living with 55 (9.0%) Depends 68 (11.1%)
grandchildren More willing to travel after implementation of No 438 (71.5%)
Living with other 5 (0.8%) concession fare schemes Yes, a little more 108 (17.6%)
relatives Yes, a lot more 67 (10.9%)
Living with friends 7 (1.1%) More willing to travel after provision of No 528 (86.1%)
Others (e.g., 19 (3.1%) priority seats Yes, a little more 79 (12.9%)
elderly home) Yes, a lot more 6 (1.0%)

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R.C.P. Wong et al. Transport Policy 63 (2018) 73–79

2.4. Stated preference survey 2.4.4. Seat availability

Long-term standing inside a moving vehicle is already hard for the
In this study, the interviewed old adults were asked to select a pref- elderly particularly of those with poor physical health. If the journey is
erable choice among two alternatives (making a trip by a designated rough and unstable, the elderly passengers may even fall and suffer an
public transport mode for a non-compulsory social activity and staying injury. Although priority seats are provided on railways and buses, the
home) in four hypothetical games. According to our observations in the elderly have relayed that the provision of priority seats is inadequate
pilot surveys, the elderly respondents had difficulties of making decisions (Department of Applied Social Sciences, 2015) and they always need to
when too many factors and subjective factors (e.g., driver's attribute, and stand because other passengers refuse to offer their seats. Thus, providing
level of comfort) were included in the stated preference survey. There- them dedicated seats is extraordinarily important in improving elderly
fore, we simplified the questions and only included four modes of mobility.
transport and three quantitative variables. Binary logistic regression A fractional factorial design was adopted in this study to reduce the
models were then calibrated to determine the model coefficient associ- sizes of experiments and make effective use of resources. We generated
ated with each explanatory variable. This modeling approach has been 36 combinations of hypothetical games involving the above four
commonly used to study choice decisions of individuals from two alter- explanatory variables and randomly distributed into nine sets of ques-
natives based on utility maximization in the context of transport tionnaire. Four most popular modes of public transport were studied.
behavioral studies (e.g., Marquet and Miralles-Guasch, 2016; Ko and Both the travel fare and walking and wait times were designed as 3-level
Kim, 2017; Le Vine and Polak, 2017; Szeto et al., 2017). The binary lo- factors for capturing nonlinear effects. For seat availability, because seats
gistic regression model is chosen in this study because this model can are guaranteed in public light buses and taxis, the possibility of having no
address the research objective on identifying the explanatory variables seat was neglected. Table 3 shows the attributes and levels used in the
that influence the old adults' travel decision of making or not making a stated preference survey. The respondents were asked to decide between
trip to participate in social activities. If a variable in the proposed model going out to attend a non-compulsory social activity by a given mode of
is associated with a positive coefficient, it implies that the variable has a public transport and staying home. A combined all-four-mode model was
positive effect on the probability of making a trip. This probability in- first developed to obtain the overall perceptions of the elderly on the
creases with the value of this variable. Conversely, if a variable has a three quantitative variables and four mode-specific models were then
negative coefficient, the variable adversely influences the probability of developed to understand how the variables contribute to the trip-making
making a trip. The respondents' travel decisions of using public transport decision of each mode and to lead to more targeted policy directions.
services were considered to be influenced by the following explanatory In addition to the above-mentioned explanatory variables, it is
variables. anticipated that respondents with different socio-demographic charac-
teristics may make substantially different choices of making a trip. An
2.4.1. Mode of public transport extended model was calibrated by incorporating the socio-economic
Different modes of public transport provide dissimilar travel experi- factors to study the heterogeneity of travel decisions for the re-
ences to the elderly, which potentially affects their willingness to travel. spondents with different backgrounds.
This variable describes the respondents’ general perceptions of different
transport modes in terms of their reliability, travel stability, and level of 3. Results
comfort, etc. According to the travel pattern of elderly residents in Hong
Kong (Szeto et al., 2017), they preferred traveling by buses and railways A data analysis and statistical software package STATA was used with
because of their reliable and convenient services. On the other hand, the the maximum likelihood estimation method to calculate the coefficient
rough and uncomfortable rides provided by public light buses and the associated with each variable, based on the 2452 observations. Table 4
high travel cost of using taxis were the reasons of the elderly less pref- tabulates the results of the combined all-four-mode model and mode-
erable to using these modes, even though seats are guaranteed and specific models. All the explanatory variables in the combined all-four-
walking distances are usually shorter. mode model are significant at the 1% level. The coefficient signs are
reasonable and meet our expectations, which imply that higher travel
2.4.2. Travel fares fare and longer walking and wait times adversely influence elderly's
It is expected that most of the elderly residents aged 60 or above were willingness to travel. Conversely, the provision of seats effectively in-
unemployed or retired with a limited monthly personal expenditure and creases their probability of making a trip.
cannot afford a high transportation cost. Expensive travel fares may be a For the mode-specific models, it is noticed that both the travel fare
financial burden for them, which would decrease their willingness to and seat availability are important for the elderly individuals traveling by
travel by the particular transport modes. The public transport concession railways and buses. Comparatively, the magnitude of the coefficient
fare schemes entirely waiving their travel costs effectively enhanced associated with seat availability for buses is about three times of that for
elderly mobility according to the experience in Britain (Baker and White, railways. It suggests that providing sufficient priority seats in buses can
2010). more effectively enhance the elderly's probability of making a trip,

2.4.3. Walking and wait times

Table 3
Most of the public transport modes (except taxis) offer stop-to-stop
Attributes and levels used in the stated preference survey.
services. Walking and wait times for public transport services can al-
ways be used to describe the difficulty in getting the elderly from their Games Modes of Attributes and Levels Choices
Public
trip origins to transport hubs, such as railway stations and bus/public Transport
Travel Walking and Seat
light bus stops. Due to the deficits in the sensory function and muscu- Fare Wait Times Availability
(HK$) (min)
loskeletal strength of the elderly, it is difficult for them to walk for a long
time. Moreover, the conditions of stations and stops (e.g., provisions of 1 Railways 0, 2, 4 5, 8, 11 1 (Yes), 1 (Going
seats and shelters) are not age-friendly and favorable to the elderly 0 (No) out),
2 Buses 0, 2, 4 6, 10, 14 1 (Yes), 0 (Staying
(Wong et al., 2017). They may have to stand and wait for public transport 0 (No) home)
services under direct sunlight and rain. This results in a very uncom- 3 Public light 2, 4, 6 6, 10, 14 1 (Seat
fortable condition for the elderly waiting at stops and stations. Improving buses guaranteed)
the accessibility of public transport services may help increase their 4 Taxis 15, 20, 4, 7, 10 1 (Seat
25 guaranteed)
willingness to travel.

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R.C.P. Wong et al. Transport Policy 63 (2018) 73–79

Table 4 Table 5
The results of the combined all-four-mode model and mode-specific models. The results of the combined all-four-mode model with the variables for public transport
mode characteristics and socio-economic factors.
Explanatory Coefficient (t-statistics)
Variables Explanatory Variables Group Control Coefficient
Combined all- Railways Buses Public Taxis
(t-statistics)
four-mode light
buses Modes of public transport Railways Buses 0.09 (0.7)
Public light 0.76a
Travel fare 0.11a 0.11b 0.09c 0.29a 0.02
buses (5.2)
(14.7) (2.2) (1.8) (5.5) (0.9)
Taxis 0.72c
Walking and 0.07a (4.5) 0.01 0.06 0.01 0.01
(1.9)
wait times (0.3) (1.2) (0.3) (0.2)
Mode characteristics Travel fare – 0.08a
Seat 0.39a (3.6) 0.42b 1.11a – –
(4.1)
availability (2.4) (3.8)
Walking and 0.03c
Constant 0.57a (3.1) 0.27 0.22 0.75b 1.04c
wait times (1.9)
(0.8) (0.4) (2.2) (1.7)
Seat 0.84a (6.3)
Note: availability
a
Parameters are significant at the 1% level. Age 70-74 years 60-69 years 0.32b
b (2.5)
Parameters are significant at the 5% level.
c
Parameters are significant at the 10% level. 75-79 years 0.34b
(2.5)
80 years or 0.42a
probably due to the less stable journey of buses. Since seats are guaran- above (3.4)
teed in public light buses and taxis, the explanatory variable of seat Gender Female Male 0.25a
availability is excluded in the corresponding models. For the model (2.7)
associated with public light buses, the absolute value of the coefficient Personal monthly expenditure More than HK$5000 or 0.20c (1.9)
HK$5000 below
associated with travel fare is the highest among all the public transport Household structure Living alone Not living 0.21c (1.8)
modes and it is about three times of the average value as calibrated in the alone
combined all-four-mode model. It implies that reducing the travel cost Frequency (number of days in a Less than one At least one 0.75a
can significantly increase the ridership of this transport mode. The week) of taking public day in a week day in a week (6.3)
transport
findings support the recent extension of the public transport concession
Occupation status With full- Without job 0.08 (0.4)
fare schemes to subsidize the elderly for using public light buses. It is time/part-
noted that all the three explanatory variables for the model associated time job
with taxis were found insignificant, except the model constant which Overall satisfaction with public Satisfied Dissatisfied 0.13 (1.4)
includes some other uncaptured influential factors. Taxi fare might be too transport services or neutral
Constant – 0.44b (1.8)
high in both the reality and all three hypothetical scenarios for the
elderly respondents, which led to its insensitivity to affect their travel Note:
a
Parameters are significant at the 1% level.
decision. The negative coefficient associated with the model constant b
Parameters are significant at the 5% level.
indicates that the elderly had a negative perception on taxi services and c
Parameters are significant at the 10% level.
preferred not taking taxis for non-compulsory trips. They complained
that taxi drivers were sometimes in haste and did not pay special atten-
75–79 years, and 80 years or over are all significant at the 5% level, and
tion to the elderly passengers.
their values decrease as the age increases. This shows that mobility de-
Table 5 shows the results of the extended model with the variables for
clines gradually as people age (Rantakokko et al., 2013). The female
public transport mode characteristics and socio-economic factors.
respondents in a multiple-person household traveled significantly less
Regarding the modes of public transport, the coefficients associated with
than their male counterparts, perhaps because women were responsible
public light buses and taxis are negative. This implies that the re-
for housework in a multi-person household and thus they make fewer
spondents were less likely to travel using public light buses and taxis than
trips than men in their families (Szeto et al., 2017). This is largely
buses if other variables were the same, which is intuitive and represen-
consistent with other gender travel studies (Su and Bell, 2012). The re-
tative of reality. By comparing the coefficients of the three modes, we can
spondents with a higher personal monthly expenditure were more likely
see that the attractiveness of public light buses is the lowest, probably
to go out. They were more economically active and thus could travel
due to the rough and uncomfortable rides (Wong et al., 2017). In
without any financial burden. The coefficient associated with the
contrast, the coefficient associated with railways is not significant. There
household structure is positive and significant at the 10% level, sug-
is no sufficient evidence showing that the respondents significantly
gesting that the elderly who live with others have a higher tendency to
preferred railways to buses.
stay home, which concurs with our discussion in Section 2.2. Elderly
The coefficients associated with both travel fare and walking and wait
individuals who lived alone must go out to shop and support their daily
times are negative, implying that the respondents preferred to travel
lives all by themselves with no one to share the work load. However, we
more when a public transport mode with a lower travel fare and a shorter
may have unconsciously excluded many elderly individuals who lived
time is offered. In contrast, the coefficient associated with seat avail-
alone and always stayed home. Home-based interviews are recom-
ability is positive, implying that the respondents preferred to travel by
mended to be conducted in future research to address the limitations of
modes with guaranteed seat availability. The absolute value of its coef-
this study. Actual frequent public transport users in the reality were more
ficient is much larger than that of the other two introduced above.
likely to select “going out for a non-compulsory social activity” in hy-
Improving this aspect can more effectively improve elderly mobility. The
pothetical games (1% significance). The variables for having a full- or
value of walking and wait times is about HK$0.38 per minute, which
part-time job and being satisfied with public transport services have a
equals the absolute value of the corresponding coefficient of walking and
positive influence on willingness to travel but are only significant at the
wait times (0.03) dividing bythat of travel fare (0.08). Likewise, the
10% level. We recommend obtaining a larger sample size in future
value of seat availability is HK$10.50, which equals the absolute value of
research to verify the importance of these variables. The constant term is
the associated coefficient of seat availability (0.84) dividing by that of
modest at 0.44, which means that the proposed binary logistic regression
travel fare (0.08).
can effectively model the travel behavior of the elderly with limited
Various socio-economic factors were incorporated into the model for
uncaptured factors.
analysis. Regarding different age groups, the coefficients of 70–74 years,

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R.C.P. Wong et al. Transport Policy 63 (2018) 73–79

The McFadden pseudo R2 is 0.085 for the combined all-four-mode or very dissatisfied (Wong et al., 2017). The proportion of priority seats
model (as shown in Table 4), and it is improved to 0.122 for the model on each public transport mode should be increased to cater to the
additionally considers the variables of public transport mode and socio- forthcoming aging trend, improve the elderly's satisfaction with public
economic factors. In addition, the Nagelkerke R2 for these models are transport service, and enhance elderly mobility. Moreover, the culture
0.146 and 0.205, respectively, which suggests that the extended model and behavior of offering seats to the needy (the elderly, the disabled,
has a slightly better model fit. Both the models are significant at the 0.1% pregnant women, and other people in need) should also be strongly
level. Accordingly, the results demonstrate that the extended model with promoted and encouraged. For example, a priority seat campaign could
more explanatory variables is superior to the standard one, and is pref- be launched by the government or mass transit operators. Furthermore,
erable to be chosen for suggesting policy measures. the policy-makers may also consider the introduction of a Priority Seat
card or badge, as has been a custom in London since 2012, to provide a
4. Discussion clear indicator that encourages other passengers to give up their priority
seats for the needy.
This study confirms that public transport modes, three concerned
travel aspects, and numerous socio-demographic characteristics influ- 5. Conclusions
ence the travel decisions of the elderly in Hong Kong, a high-density and
transit-oriented city. The attractiveness of railways and buses was higher Hong Kong and other metropolitan cities are facing a serious aging
than that of public light buses. Rough and uncomfortable journeys are problem, with the population of elderly continuing to increase in the
particularly unfavorable among the elderly due to their poor physical forthcoming years. Future transport policies should prioritize improving
condition (Wong et al., 2017). In the new era of population aging, travel the mobility of elderly individuals, supporting their independence, and
stability should place a higher priority on improving public transport thereby enhancing the quality of their lives. Public transport concession
services. fare schemes have been implemented to encourage more elderly to use
The target beneficiaries of public transport fare concession schemes related transport services. However, the policies place too much
are the elderly individuals aged 65 years or older and eligible people with emphasis on the role of money (i.e., travel fares) in determining will-
disabilities. Recently, more elderly individuals are retiring at the age of ingness to travel; other factors, such as walking and wait times and seat
60 but must pay full-price for public transport until the age of 65. As the availability, have been not considered by transit operators and policy
respondents indicated in their face-to-face interviews, a scheme that makers. In this study, 2452 observations were collected from 613 elderly
subsidizes those aged 60–64 years with a discount (e.g., half-price), residents about their willingness to travel for a non-compulsory social
would improve their mobility. Such travel fare discounts would pro- activity during face-to-face interviews. Binary logistic regression models
vide additional incentives for retired elderly individuals aged 60–64 to were then calibrated for possible influential factors.
travel. In contrast, the calibrated model showed that the mobility of The developed models show that public transport modes, travel fare,
elderly individuals aged 80 or above was obviously lower. The public walking and wait times, seat availability, and numerous socio-economic
transport concession fare schemes may consider entirely waiving their factors are key factors that influence travel decisions among the elderly.
travel costs to encourage participating in social activities, which had Railways and buses are more attractive modes of travel than public light
been proved effectively enhancing elderly mobility in Britain (Baker and buses and taxis. The magnitude of the coefficient associated with seat
White, 2010). Moreover, the schemes only cover four public transport availability is the highest among all the variables of mode characteristics,
modes (railways, buses, ferries, and public light buses). An extension to which implies that seat availability poses the top priority for enhance-
other modes is worth exploring. Given that these improvement measures ment to improve elderly mobility.
may cause profit loss for the operators, subsidization from the govern- Based on the model results, we suggest increasing the provision of
ment could be considered. The government should liaise with the public priority seats to address the forthcoming aging trend. We also recom-
transport operators through the franchising process for setting general mend extending the coverage of the target beneficiaries of public trans-
and concession fare levels, which was also pointed out by Rye and Car- port fare concession schemes to include those aged 60–64 and waiving
reno (2008) and Rye and Scotney (2004). the travel costs to the elderly aged 80 or above to encourage their
According to the model results, shortening the walking and wait times participation in social activities. Moreover, ways to enhance the acces-
for public transport services can improve the probability of the elderly sibility of stations and stops and increase service frequency should be
making a trip. This is because shortening walking and wait times can investigated to attract more elderly to travel by public transport in the
enhance passengers' travel experiences. It is considered that the acces- context of high-density and transit-oriented cities such as Hong Kong.
sibility of railway stations and bus/public light bus stops (represented by This study has a few limitations that merit further research. First, we
walking time) is extraordinarily important in determining elderly in- only covered four popular public transport modes. Including more op-
dividuals' willingness to travel. Long walking time and poor walking tions (e.g., light railways and tramways) would be beneficial to reflect a
conditions on routes to and from transport facilities may hinder elderly broader spectrum of transit systems in Hong Kong. Second, developing a
mobility (Loo and Lam, 2012; Somenahalli and Shipton, 2013). More- multinomial logistic regression model to study the modal split of the
over, the service frequency of public transport (represented by wait time) elderly can provide more policy insights in further enhancing their
also affects elderly individuals’ willingness to travel. According to the mobility. Third, as mentioned before, we may have unconsciously
previous research using survey data from the Travel Characteristics excluded many elderly individuals who lived alone and always stayed
Survey (Szeto et al., 2017), elderly individuals concentrate their travel home. Home-based interviews are recommended to be conducted in
from 10 a.m. to 11 a.m. (traditional off-peak hours) to avoid crowds. future research to address this issue. Finally, the variables for having a
However, the frequencies of most of the public transport modes are full- or part-time job and being satisfied with public transport services are
reduced during that window, which can lead to a longer wait time. only significant at the 10% level. Obtaining a larger sample size in future
Therefore, enhancing the accessibility of stations and stops and research is recommended to verify the importance of these variables.
increasing service frequency should be investigated to attract more
elderly to travel by public transport in the context of high-density and Acknowledgments
transit-oriented cities such as Hong Kong.
The model results also show that improving seat availability can more This research was supported by a grant from the Central Policy Unit of
effectively enhance the elderly's probability of making a trip. Moreover, the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region Government, Public Policy
seat availability poses the highest priority for improvement with a large Research Funding Scheme (Project No.: 2014.A8.025.15B). The authors
proportion of the elderly considered this service aspect either dissatisfied wish to thank Jenny Hoi Ki CHIONG, a student of the Civil Engineering

78
R.C.P. Wong et al. Transport Policy 63 (2018) 73–79

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