Notes

MB SOLANGI
Sindh Mehran Institute Of Law
LLB PART 2 3rd Semester Solved Past Paper
INTRODUCTION TO POLITICAL SCIENCE 2022
What are the main organs of the state?
Answer
The main organs of the state are the executive, legislative, and judicial branches.
These organs are responsible for different functions within the state and work
together to ensure the smooth functioning of the government.
Executive Branch: The executive branch is responsible for implementing and

enforcing laws. It is headed by the head of state or government, such as a president
or prime minister, and includes various departments and agencies. The executive
branch is responsible for making and implementing policies, managing the
economy, and maintaining law and order.
Legislative Branch: The legislative branch is responsible for making laws. It

consists of a parliament or congress, which is made up of elected representatives.
The legislative branch debates and passes laws, approves budgets, and represents
the interests of the people. It plays a crucial role in ensuring checks and balances
within the government.
Judicial Branch: The judicial branch is responsible for interpreting and applying
laws. It includes the courts and judges who resolve disputes, uphold the rule of law,
and protect individual rights. The judicial branch ensures that laws are applied
fairly and impartially, and it has the power to review the constitutionality of laws
and government actions.
These three organs of the state work together to maintain a balance of power and
ensure the functioning of a democratic government. They provide a system of
checks and balances to prevent the concentration of power and protect the rights
and interests of the citizens.
Write a detailed note on forms of government?
Answer
Page 1
MB SOLANGI
Forms of Government
Forms of government refer to the different systems or structures through which a

country or a political entity is governed. These forms of government vary in terms
of power distribution, decision-making processes, and the relationship between the
government and its citizens. Here are some of the most common forms of
government:
Democracy: In a democracy, power is vested in the people, who exercise it directly

or through elected representatives. It emphasizes the principles of political
equality, majority rule, and protection of individual rights. Examples include the
United States, Canada, and India.
Monarchy: A monarchy is a form of government in which a single individual,

usually a king or queen, holds supreme authority. The monarch’s power may be
limited or absolute, depending on the specific system in place. Examples include
the United Kingdom, Saudi Arabia, and Japan.
Dictatorship: In a dictatorship, power is concentrated in the hands of a single leader

or a small group of individuals. The leader exercises absolute control over the
government and often suppresses political opposition. Examples include North
Korea, Cuba, and Zimbabwe.
Oligarchy: An oligarchy is a form of government in which power is held by a small

group of individuals, typically from the wealthy or influential elite. These
individuals often use their power to maintain their own interests and suppress
dissent. Examples include Russia, China, and Saudi Arabia.
Theocracy: A theocracy is a form of government in which religious leaders hold

the highest authority and govern in accordance with religious principles. The laws
and policies of the state are based on religious doctrines. Examples include Iran,
Saudi Arabia, and Vatican City.
Anarchy: Anarchy refers to a state of society without a government or central

authority. It is characterized by a lack of hierarchical control and the absence of
laws or regulations. Anarchy is often seen as a theoretical concept rather than a
practical form of government.
Page 2
MB SOLANGI
Federalism: Federalism is a system of government in which power is divided

between a central authority and regional or state governments. This allows for a
balance of power and autonomy for different regions within a country. Examples
include the United States, Germany, and Australia.
Socialism: Socialism is an economic and political system in which the means of

production and distribution are owned and controlled by the state or the community
as a whole. It aims to reduce social inequalities and promote collective welfare.
Examples include Sweden, Cuba, and Venezuela.
It is important to note that these forms of government can overlap or evolve over
time. Additionally, there are variations and hybrid forms that combine elements
from multiple systems. The choice of a particular form of government depends on
various factors, including historical, cultural, and socio-economic contexts Discuss
the Powers and Their Kinds?
In the context of government and politics, powers refer to the authority and abilities
that individuals or institutions possess to make decisions, enforce laws, and govern
a society. Powers can be categorized into three main types: legislative, executive,
and judicial.
Legislative Powers
Legislative powers are associated with the making of laws. This power is typically
vested in a legislative body, such as a parliament or congress. The main functions
of legislative powers include:
• Enacting Laws: Legislatures have the authority to propose, debate, and pass
laws that govern various aspects of society.
• Amending Laws: Legislatures can modify or repeal existing laws to adapt

to changing circumstances or address shortcomings.
• Budgetary Control: Legislatures have the power to approve budgets and

allocate funds for government programs and services.
• Oversight: Legislatures can conduct inquiries, investigations, and audits to

ensure accountability and transparency in government actions.
Page 3
MB SOLANGI
Executive Powers
Executive powers are associated with the implementation and enforcement of laws.
This power is typically vested in the executive branch of government, headed by a
president, prime minister, or monarch. The main functions of executive powers
include:
• Enforcing Laws: The executive branch is responsible for ensuring that laws
are implemented and enforced effectively.
• Policy Making: Executives have the authority to develop and implement

policies to address societal issues and achieve specific goals.
• Foreign Relations: Executives represent the country in international affairs,

negotiate treaties, and maintain diplomatic relations.
• Commander-in-Chief: In countries with a military, the executive has the

power to command and control the armed forces.
Judicial Powers
Judicial powers are associated with the interpretation and application of laws. This
power is typically vested in the judiciary, which includes courts and judges. The
main functions of judicial powers include:
• Interpreting Laws: Courts have the authority to interpret the meaning and
intent of laws, resolving disputes and providing legal clarity.
• Adjudicating Cases: Courts hear and decide legal cases, ensuring fair and
impartial resolution of conflicts.
• Judicial Review: In some countries, courts have the power to review the
constitutionality of laws and government actions.
• Protecting Rights: The judiciary plays a crucial role in safeguarding

individual rights and liberties, ensuring justice for all.
It is important to note that these powers are often separated and distributed among
different branches of government to prevent the concentration of power and ensure
Page 4
MB SOLANGI
checks and balances. This system of separation of powers helps maintain a

democratic and accountable government.
Discuss the state, nation and sovereignty.
Answer
State, Nation, and Sovereignty
The concepts of state, nation, and sovereignty are fundamental to the study of
political science and international relations. While they are related, they have
distinct meanings and characteristics.
State
A state is a political entity that exercises authority and control over a defined
territory and its population. It is characterized by having a government, a legal
system, and the ability to make and enforce laws. The state is responsible for
maintaining order, providing public services, and representing its citizens in
international affairs. Examples of states include the United States, France, and
China.
Nation
A nation refers to a group of people who share a common culture, language,

history, and identity. It is a subjective concept based on a sense of belonging and
solidarity among its members. A nation may or may not have its own state. For
example, the Kurds are a nation without a state, as they are spread across several
countries but share a common identity. On the other hand, Japan is both a nation
and a state, as it has a homogenous population with a shared culture and its own
government.
Sovereignty
Sovereignty refers to the supreme authority and independence of a state to govern

itself without interference from external actors. It is the ability of a state to make
decisions and enforce laws within its territory. Sovereignty is a key principle of
international relations and is recognized by other states through diplomatic
recognition. However, in an increasingly interconnected world, the concept of
Page 5
MB SOLANGI
sovereignty is being challenged by globalization, international organizations, and

the need for collective action on global issues.
ISLAMIC JURISPRUDENCE 2022
Write Short Notes:
1. Sunnah
Sunnah" in Islam refers to the practices, actions, sayings, and approvals of Prophet
Muhammad (peace be upon him). It complements and supplements the Quran,
which is the holy book of Islam. The Sunnah provides guidance on how Muslims
should conduct various aspects of their lives, including matters of worship, ethics,
and social interactions.
The Sunnah is a crucial source of Islamic law (Sharia) and is used alongside the
Quran to derive legal rulings. It helps Muslims understand the teachings of the
Quran in a practical context, as the Prophet's actions and sayings exemplify how to
implement and interpret the Quranic guidance.
Scholars have meticulously collected and verified the authenticity of the Prophet's
sayings and actions, compiling them into books of Hadith. These Hadith
collections, along with the Quran, form the basis for understanding and practicing
Islam according to the teachings of Prophet Muhammad.
2. Mujtahid (ALREADY GIVEN IN PAST PAPERS 2020)
3. Hades ahad (ALREADY GIVEN IN PAST PAPERS 2020)
4. Legal Sunnah
"Legal Sunnah" refers to the practices and actions of Prophet Muhammad (peace
be upon him) that hold legal significance in Islamic jurisprudence. These actions
serve as a source of guidance for deriving legal rulings in matters where the Quran
may not provide explicit details. Scholars use the Legal Sunnah, along with the
Quran, to formulate and interpret Islamic law (Sharia).
In the context of Islamic legal reasoning, the Sunnah provides precedents and
examples that help in understanding how certain actions should be carried out or
how specific situations should be addressed. The Prophet's sayings, actions, and
Page 6
MB SOLANGI
approvals, recorded in collections of Hadith, are particularly valuable for clarifying

legal issues and elaborating on the principles outlined in the Quran.
What did you understand about wajib give in detail it's elements and types
"Wajib" is an Arabic term that means obligatory or mandatory in Islamic

jurisprudence. In Islam, it refers to actions or duties that Muslims are required to
perform. There are two main types of Wajib acts:
• Wajib 'Ain (Individual Duty): These are obligations that every individual
Muslim must perform. Examples include the five daily prayers (Salah),
fasting during the month of Ramadan (Sawm), and giving to charity (Zakat)
if one meets the financial criteria.
• Wajib Kifai (Collective Duty): These are duties that are obligatory on the
Muslim community as a whole, but if a sufficient number of people fulfill
them, the obligation is considered discharged for the entire community.
Examples include funeral prayers (Salat al-Janazah) and defending the
Muslim community in times of war.
The elements of Wajib acts include:
• Intention (Niyyah): Like many acts of worship in Islam, the intention behind
performing a Wajib act is crucial. The individual must intend to fulfill the
obligation for the sake of Allah.
• Observance of Conditions: Some Wajib acts may have specific conditions

attached to them. For instance, the prayer has conditions related to
cleanliness and facing the Kaaba in Mecca.
• Adherence to Prescribed Methods: Wajib acts often come with specific

methods or procedures outlined in Islamic teachings. Adhering to these
methods is important for the validity of the act.
• Timeliness: Many Wajib acts have specific time frames within which they
must be performed. For example, the daily prayers have designated times
during the day.
Explain concept of abrogation and it's types under Islamic law?
Page 7
MB SOLANGI
The concept of abrogation in Islamic law, also known as "Naskh" in Arabic, refers
to the idea that certain verses or rulings in the Quran or specific legal provisions
can be repealed or replaced by later revelations or legal pronouncements. The
Quran itself acknowledges the possibility of abrogation, stating that Allah has the
power to abrogate or confirm verses (Quran 2:106).
There are two main types of abrogation:
• Abrogation of Recitation (Naskh al-Qira'ah): In this type, the recitation of

the verse is abrogated, but the legal ruling remains. The wording of the verse
may change, but the legal obligation it imposes is still applicable. This type
is considered more about the form of the verse rather than its substance.
• Abrogation of Ruling (Naskh al-Hukm): In this type, both the recitation and
the legal ruling of the verse are abrogated. A later revelation or legal ruling
supersedes the earlier one, and the previous obligation is no longer in force.
This type is more comprehensive, affecting both the wording and the legal
implications.
Scholars of Islamic jurisprudence (fiqh) have identified instances of abrogation

based on their interpretation of the Quran and Hadith (sayings and actions of the
Prophet Muhammad). Some examples of abrogation include:
1. The change in the qiblah (direction of prayer) from Jerusalem to Mecca.
2. The reduction of the number of daily prayers from fifty to five.
3. The prohibition of drinking alcohol, which occurred in multiple stages.
Explain Quran and Quranic legislation as a primary source of law
The Quran, considered the holy book of Islam, is the primary and most
authoritative source of legislation in Islamic law (Sharia). Its significance as a
source of law stems from the belief among Muslims that the Quran is the literal
word of God (Allah) as revealed to the Prophet Muhammad through the Angel
Gabriel.
Here are key aspects regarding the Quran and its role in Islamic legislation:
Page 8
MB SOLANGI
1. Divine Revelation: Muslims believe that the Quran is the ultimate source of
guidance, containing divine revelations given to Prophet Muhammad over a
period of approximately 23 years. It covers various aspects of life, including
theology, morality, and legal principles.
2. Legislative Authority: The Quran serves as the fundamental legislative

authority in Islam. Its verses (ayat) are considered direct commands from
God, and they form the basis for the legal and ethical framework in Islamic
law.
3. Legal Content: The Quran addresses a wide range of legal matters, including
family law, criminal law, contract law, and ethical principles. Verses in the
Quran provide guidance on issues such as marriage, divorce, inheritance,
punishment for crimes, and commercial transactions.
4. Immutable and Eternal: Muslims believe that the Quran is immutable and
eternal, and its laws are considered timeless. They are not subject to change
or abrogation, except in cases where abrogation has been explicitly
mentioned within the Quran itself.
5. Interpretation (Tafsir): Understanding the Quran requires interpretation, and

scholars (mufassirun) use various methods to interpret its verses. Tafsir
involves linguistic analysis, historical context, and consideration of Hadith
(sayings and actions of the Prophet) to derive legal principles and rulings.
6. Supplemental Sources: While the Quran is paramount, Islamic jurisprudence

recognizes other sources such as the Sunnah (traditions of the Prophet),
consensus (ijma), and analogy (qiyas) as complementary sources to derive
legal rulings when the Quran does not explicitly address a particular issue.
Explain Ijma and Qiyas(ALREADY GIVEN IN PAST PAPERS 2020)
Elaborate human rights under islamic law (ALREADY GIVEN IN PAST

PAPERS 2021)
Fundamentals of Economics 2022
Page 9
Differentiate between demand and supply. Explain law of demand and law of
supply with schedule and graph (ALREADY GIVEN IN PAST PAPERS
2020)
Explain Malthusian population theory. is it applicable to the conditions of

Pakistan?
Malthusian Population Theory
The Malthusian population theory, proposed by Thomas Malthus in the late 18th
century, suggests that population growth will eventually outpace the availability of
resources, leading to a crisis. Malthus argued that while population grows
exponentially, the production of food and resources grows linearly. This imbalance
would result in poverty, famine, and other social problems.
Malthus identified two types of checks that would limit population growth:
preventive checks and positive checks. Preventive checks include practices like late
marriage, abstinence, and contraception, which aim to reduce the birth rate.
Positive checks, on the other hand, refer to natural disasters, diseases, wars, and
other factors that increase the death rate.
Applicability to Pakistan
The applicability of the Malthusian population theory to Pakistan's conditions is a

complex issue. Pakistan is the fifth most populous country in the world, with a
rapidly growing population. However, the theory's applicability to Pakistan's
specific circumstances is debatable.
On one hand, Pakistan faces challenges related to population growth, such as

limited resources, unemployment, poverty, and inadequate infrastructure. These
issues align with the concerns raised by the Malthusian theory. The country's
population growth rate has put pressure on its agricultural sector, water resources,
and social services.
On the other hand, the Malthusian theory does not fully account for technological
advancements and economic development. Pakistan has made progress in
improving agricultural productivity, healthcare, and education, which have helped
mitigate some of the challenges associated with population growth. Additionally,
Compiled by Ambreen Page 10

the theory does not consider the potential for innovation and adaptation to address
resource scarcity.
In conclusion, while the Malthusian population theory provides insights into the
challenges posed by population growth, its direct applicability to Pakistan's
conditions is limited. It is important to consider a range of factors, including
technological advancements, economic development, and social policies, to
understand the dynamics of population growth and resource availability in Pakistan
What are unemployment and underemployment? What are the causes of

unemployment in Pakistan? How this evil can be eliminated?
Unemployment and Underemployment
Unemployment refers to the situation where individuals who are actively seeking
employment are unable to find work. It is typically measured as a percentage of the
labor force. Underemployment, on the other hand, refers to a situation where
individuals are employed but are working fewer hours than they desire or are
overqualified for their current job.
Causes of Unemployment in Pakistan
There are several causes of unemployment in Pakistan:
Population Growth: Pakistan has a rapidly growing population, which puts pressure
on the job market and makes it difficult to create enough employment
opportunities.
Lack of Skills: Many individuals in Pakistan lack the necessary skills and
qualifications required by employers, leading to a mismatch between the skills
available in the labor market and the skills demanded by employers.
Economic Factors: Economic instability, low investment, and slow economic

growth can lead to a lack of job creation and higher unemployment rates.
Education System: The education system in Pakistan often fails to provide

individuals with the skills and knowledge needed for the job market, resulting in a
high number of educated individuals who are unemployed or underemployed.

Gender Disparity: Women in Pakistan face significant barriers to employment,
including cultural norms, limited access to education, and discrimination, which
contributes to higher unemployment rates among women.
Eliminating Unemployment
Eliminating unemployment is a complex task that requires a multi-faceted

approach. Some strategies that can help reduce unemployment in Pakistan include:
Investing in Education and Skills Development: Improving the quality of education

and providing vocational training programs can help individuals acquire the skills
needed for available jobs.
Promoting Entrepreneurship: Encouraging entrepreneurship and providing support

for small and medium-sized enterprises can create new job opportunities.
Attracting Foreign Investment: Creating a favorable business environment and

offering incentives to attract foreign investment can stimulate economic growth
and job creation.
Improving Labor Market Information: Enhancing the availability and accessibility

of labor market information can help job seekers make informed decisions and
match their skills with available job opportunities.
Addressing Gender Inequality: Implementing policies that promote gender

equality, such as providing equal access to education and employment
opportunities for women, can help reduce gender disparities in the labor market.
What do you mean by market? Explain briefly markets of time and location?
Answer
Market
A market refers to a place or mechanism where buyers and sellers come together to
exchange goods, services, or resources. It can be physical, such as a traditional
marketplace, or virtual, such as an online platform.
Markets of Time

Markets of time refer to the buying and selling of time or labor. In these markets,
individuals or businesses offer their time or skills in exchange for compensation.
Examples include the labor market, where individuals sell their skills and expertise
to employers, and the gig economy, where freelancers offer their services on a
flexible basis.
Markets of Location
Markets of location involve the buying and selling of goods or services based on
their physical location. These markets are influenced by factors such as proximity
to suppliers, customers, and infrastructure. Examples include local farmers’
markets, where farmers sell their produce directly to consumers, and retail stores
that cater to specific geographic areas.
In both markets of time and location, the forces of supply and demand determine
prices and quantities exchanged. These markets play a crucial role in the allocation
of resources and the functioning of the economy.
Distinguish between perfect and imperfect market (ALREADY GIVEN IN

PAST PAPERS 2020)
How a price of a commodity is determined? Explain with examples?
Answer
Determination of Commodity Prices
The price of a commodity is determined by the interaction of supply and demand in

the market. When the supply of a commodity increases, while the demand remains
constant, the price tends to decrease. Conversely, when the demand for a
commodity increases, while the supply remains constant, the price tends to
increase. Let's explore this further with some examples:
Example 1: Supply and Demand
Let's consider the market for apples. Suppose there is an increase in apple
production due to favorable weather conditions. As a result, the supply of apples in
the market increases. However, the demand for apples remains constant. In this
scenario, the increased supply of apples exceeds the demand, leading to a surplus.

To clear the surplus, sellers may lower the price of apples to encourage more
buyers. As a result, the price of apples decreases.
Example 2: Changes in Demand
Now, let's consider the market for smartphones. Suppose there is a new
technological advancement that makes smartphones more desirable. As a result, the
demand for smartphones increases. However, the supply of smartphones remains
constant. In this scenario, the increased demand for smartphones exceeds the
supply, leading to a shortage. To balance the market, sellers may increase the price
of smartphones to limit the number of buyers. As a result, the price of smartphones
increases.
Example 3: Equilibrium
In some cases, the supply and demand for a commodity may be in balance,
resulting in an equilibrium price. Let's consider the market for gasoline. Suppose
the supply of gasoline and the demand for gasoline are relatively equal. In this
scenario, the market is in equilibrium, and the price of gasoline remains stable. If
there is a change in either supply or demand, it will affect the equilibrium price.
Public international law 2022
Describe Tokyo trial in detail and criticize it in your own words.
Answer
Tokyo Trial
The Tokyo Trial, officially known as the International Military Tribunal for the Far
East (IMTFE), was a military tribunal held in Tokyo, Japan, from 1946 to 1948. It
was established to prosecute and bring to justice individuals responsible for war
crimes, crimes against humanity, and other atrocities committed during World War
II in the Asia-Pacific region.
Description
The Tokyo Trial was conducted by 11 judges from 11 different countries, including
the United States, the United Kingdom, China, Australia, Canada, France, the
Netherlands, India, the Philippines, New Zealand, and the Soviet Union. The trial
focused on prosecuting high-ranking Japanese military and political leaders
accused of planning, initiating, and executing war crimes and crimes against
humanity.
The charges brought against the defendants included crimes such as the
mistreatment and abuse of prisoners of war, the use of chemical and biological
weapons, the forced labor and enslavement of civilians, the execution of captured
military personnel, and the systematic rape and sexual slavery of women.
The trial followed a similar structure to the Nuremberg Trials held in Germany,
with the prosecution presenting evidence and witnesses to support their case, and
the defense having the opportunity to present their own evidence and crossexamine
witnesses. The judges then deliberated and delivered their verdicts.
Criticism
The Tokyo Trial has been subject to criticism from various perspectives. Some of
the criticisms include:
Selective Justice: Critics argue that the trial focused primarily on Japanese war
crimes while downplaying or ignoring the crimes committed by other nations
involved in the conflict. This has led to accusations of victor’s justice and a lack of
impartiality.
Political Motivations: The trial was seen by some as a means for the victorious
Allied powers, particularly the United States, to exert control over Japan and shape
its post-war political landscape. This raised concerns about the fairness and
objectivity of the proceedings.
Legal Ambiguities: The legal framework used in the trial, particularly the concept
of “crimes against humanity,” was relatively new and lacked clear definitions. This
ambiguity led to challenges in applying consistent standards of justice and
determining individual culpability.
Cultural Bias: Critics argue that the trial failed to fully consider the cultural and
historical context in which the accused individuals operated. This limited
understanding of Japanese culture and military traditions may have influenced the
judgments and sentencing.

Limited Scope: The Tokyo Trial focused primarily on prosecuting high-ranking
military and political leaders, while lower-ranking individuals who may have been
involved in war crimes were often not held accountable. This limited scope raised
questions about the comprehensiveness and effectiveness of the trial.
What are the silent features of the UN convention on the law of seas 1982?
The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) has several key
features:
Territorial Sea: Nations have a 12-nautical-mile territorial sea, where they have
sovereignty, and beyond that, there’s a contiguous zone where they can enforce
customs, fiscal, immigration, and sanitary laws.
Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ): Coastal nations have the right to exploit,
conserve, and manage resources within a 200-nautical-mile zone from their
baseline.
Continental Shelf: Coastal states have sovereign rights over the continental shelf
for exploring and exploiting its natural resources.
Freedom of Navigation: UNCLOS ensures the right of all states to enjoy the
freedom of navigation and overflight in the high seas.
Archipelagic States: Recognizes the sovereignty of archipelagic states over

archipelagos and the waters within the archipelagic baseline.
International Seabed Authority (ISA): Established to manage and regulate the

exploitation of the international seabed beyond national jurisdiction.
Protection of Marine Environment: Emphasizes the duty to protect and preserve the
marine environment.
Write short notes:
Recognition
Recognition in public international law refers to the formal acknowledgment by

one state of the legal existence and legitimacy of another state, government, or a

specific situation. It is a crucial aspect of international relations and carries legal,
political, and diplomatic implications. Here are key points about recognition:
State Recognition: This is the most common form of recognition and involves
acknowledging that a particular entity possesses the attributes of statehood,
including a defined territory, a permanent population, a government, and the
capacity to enter into relations with other states. Recognition is a political act, and
there is no universally prescribed process for it.
Government Recognition: Apart from recognizing states, recognition can also

extend to governments. In cases where there is a change in government through
constitutional means or otherwise, states may choose to recognize or withhold
recognition of the new authority.
De Facto vs. De Jure Recognition: De facto recognition acknowledges the factual

existence of a state or government without necessarily endorsing its legal status. De
jure recognition, on the other hand, implies acceptance of both the factual and legal
attributes of statehood.
Conditional Recognition: Recognition can be conditional, with a state imposing

certain requirements or conditions before formally acknowledging another entity.
These conditions may relate to the government’s behavior, adherence to
international law, or specific actions.
Withdrawal of Recognition: States can also withdraw recognition, indicating that

they no longer consider a particular entity as a state or legitimate government. This
often occurs in response to significant changes in the political landscape or
violations of international norms.
Recognition and Territorial Changes: Recognition is often a key element in the

context of territorial changes, such as secession or annexation. The international
community’s recognition or non-recognition of such changes can have profound
consequences for the entities involved.
International Organizations: Recognition is also relevant in the context of

international organizations. Membership in many international bodies is often
contingent upon recognition as a state.

Effect on Diplomatic Relations: Recognition influences diplomatic relations
between states. Once recognition is extended, diplomatic missions, ambassadors,
and consulates may be established, facilitating formal diplomatic relations.
Neutrality
Neutrality in public international law refers to the legal status of a state that
chooses not to participate in armed conflicts between other states. Neutrality
involves a commitment to remain impartial and refrain from taking sides in the
conflict. Here are key aspects of neutrality:
Non-Participation in Hostilities: Neutral states are expected to avoid military

involvement in conflicts between other states. This includes refraining from
providing military assistance, troops, or resources to belligerent parties.
Impartiality: Neutrality requires a state to treat all parties to the conflict equally,
avoiding any actions that could be perceived as favoritism toward one side over the
other.
Recognition of Belligerent Status: Neutral states typically recognize the belligerent

status of parties involved in a conflict. This recognition allows them to uphold
certain rights and obligations, such as the right to visit and search neutral vessels to
prevent the transportation of contraband.
Territorial Integrity: Neutrality involves protecting the territorial integrity of the

neutral state. Belligerent parties are generally expected to respect the neutral state’s
borders and not conduct military operations within its territory.
Limitations on Trade and Economic Activities: Neutrality may entail restrictions

on trade and economic activities with belligerent parties to prevent the neutral state
from indirectly supporting one side in the conflict.
Diplomatic and Consular Functions: Neutral states often maintain diplomatic and
consular relations with belligerent parties to facilitate communication and protect
the interests of their citizens.
International Agreements: Neutrality may be governed by international agreements

or customary international law. States may declare their intention to be neutral in a
conflict, outlining the specific measures they will take to maintain this status.

Sovereignty of state
Under public international law, sovereignty is a fundamental principle that denotes

the exclusive authority of a state over its own territory, government, and people.
Here are key aspects of state sovereignty:
Territorial Sovereignty: This refers to a state’s exclusive right to govern its territory
without external interference. Other states are generally prohibited from
intervening in the internal affairs of a sovereign state.
Political Sovereignty: This aspect involves the state’s authority to make decisions
for its own governance, establish laws, and determine its political structure without
external coercion.
Juridical Sovereignty: This pertains to a state’s legal independence and equality

with other states in the international legal system. States are considered equal
subjects of international law, regardless of their size or power.
Exclusive Economic Sovereignty: States have the right to control and manage their
natural resources, economic policies, and trade relations within their borders. The
concept of Exclusive Economic Zones (EEZ) in maritime law is an extension of
this economic sovereignty.
Internal and External Sovereignty: Internal sovereignty relates to a state’s authority

within its borders, while external sovereignty refers to its independence and
equality in relations with other states.
Recognition: Sovereignty is often intertwined with international recognition. Other

states recognizing a sovereign entity contributes to its legitimacy in the
international community.
Immunity: Sovereign states enjoy immunity from the jurisdiction of foreign courts
and legal processes. This principle is known as state immunity and is based on the
idea that one sovereign state should not adjudicate the acts of another.
Elaborate the origin of league of nation and formation of ICJ League
of Nations:

The League of Nations was the first international organization aimed at
maintaining world peace and cooperation. It was established after World War I as
part of the Treaty of Versailles in 1919. The League’s origins can be traced to the
Fourteen Points, a set of proposals outlined by U.S. President Woodrow Wilson.
One of these points called for the creation of a League of Nations to prevent future
conflicts.
The Covenant of the League of Nations, which served as its constitution, was
included in the Treaty of Versailles. The League officially came into existence on
January 10, 1920, with the goal of promoting collective security, disarmament, and
the resolution of international disputes through diplomatic means. However, the
League faced challenges, including the absence of major powers like the United
States and the inability to prevent the outbreak of World War II. It was dissolved in
1946 and succeeded by the United Nations.
International Court of Justice (ICJ):
The International Court of Justice, also known as the World Court, is the principal
judicial organ of the United Nations. Its origins can be traced back to the League of
Nations’ Permanent Court of International Justice (PCIJ), which was established in
1920 under the League’s Covenant.
When the League of Nations dissolved, the PCIJ’s continuity was ensured through
the United Nations Charter, which came into effect in 1945. The ICJ was
established to settle legal disputes between states and provide advisory opinions on
legal questions referred by the UN General Assembly, Security Council, and other
specialized agencies and organs. The ICJ’s Statute is an integral part of the UN
Charter.
The ICJ officially began its operations in 1946, with its seat at the Peace Palace in
The Hague, Netherlands. It has played a significant role in resolving disputes
related to international law, state sovereignty, human rights, and other legal
matters. The ICJ operates on the basis of the consent of the parties involved, and its
decisions are binding. It continues to be a key institution for the peaceful
settlement of international disputes within the framework of the United Nations.
When a state had declared blockade any part of enemy territory now trade or
any other purpose for himself explain.

When a state declares a blockade of any part of enemy territory, it means that it is
establishing a barrier to prevent the entry and exit of goods, ships, or aircraft to and
from that specific area. This is a measure often taken during times of war or armed
conflict and is considered a legitimate act under international law, provided certain
conditions are met.
Here are key points related to a state declaring a blockade:
Notification: According to international law, the state imposing the blockade is

required to give prior notification to all relevant parties, including neutral states
and the state whose territory is being blockaded. This notification should specify
the exact limits of the blockade.
Effective Control: For a blockade to be lawful, the state must have the ability to
effectively control access to the blockaded area. This means having sufficient naval
or military presence to enforce the blockade.
Proportionality: The measures taken in implementing the blockade should be

proportionate to the threat posed. Excessive measures that harm civilian
populations disproportionately are generally considered illegal.
Humanitarian Considerations: Humanitarian access must be allowed. Blockades

should not impede the delivery of essential humanitarian assistance, including food
and medical supplies, to the civilian population.
Duration: Blockades are intended to be a temporary measure, and their duration

should be limited to the time necessary to achieve the military objectives.
Prolonged or indefinite blockades may be subject to scrutiny and criticism.
Interception and Inspection: Ships attempting to breach the blockade can be

intercepted and inspected. However, excessive use of force or arbitrary interception
is not permissible.
Neutrality: Neutral states have certain rights during a blockade, including the right
to trade with non-blockaded parts of the enemy territory. Blockades should not
unduly interfere with the rights of neutral states.
Recognition by the International Community: The legitimacy of a blockade may

depend on whether the international community recognizes it as lawful. If a

blockade is widely condemned or not accepted as legal, it may face diplomatic and
legal challenges.
Explain the development of international law?
The development of international law has evolved over centuries and has been
shaped by historical events, treaties, customary practices, and the growth of
international institutions. Here is a broad overview of the key phases in the
development of international law:
Early Foundations (16th to 18th centuries): The roots of international law can be
traced back to early scholars like Hugo Grotius and Francisco de Vitoria, who laid
the foundations for modern international legal thought. Their works, such as
Grotius’s “The Law of War and Peace” (1625), explored the idea of natural law
governing relations between states.
Treaty of Westphalia (1648): The Peace of Westphalia, ending the Thirty Years’
War, is often considered a turning point. It marked the beginning of the concept of
state sovereignty and the principle of non-intervention in the internal affairs of
other states.
Development of the Law of Nations (18 th century): Emergence of the law of

nations, which later became synonymous with international law, continued with
scholars like Emer de Vattel. His work “The Law of Nations” (1758) contributed to
the codification of principles governing relations between states.
19th Century Codification Efforts: The 19th century saw increased efforts to codify
and systematize international law. The Brussels Conference of 1874 attempted to
codify the laws and customs of war. The Hague Conferences of 1899 and 1907
addressed issues of disarmament and the laws of war.
League of Nations (1919-1946): The aftermath of World War I led to the

establishment of the League of Nations, which aimed to prevent future conflicts.
The League’s Covenant and various treaties addressed issues such as territorial
integrity, disarmament, and arbitration.

Post-World War II and the United Nations (1945-present): The United Nations,
founded in 1945, became a central player in the development of international law.
The UN Charter established principles of collective security, peaceful resolution of
disputes, and respect for human rights.
Human Rights Era: The mid-20th century witnessed a focus on human rights. The
Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948) and subsequent treaties formed the
core of international human rights law.
Environmental Law and Sustainable Development: In the latter part of the 20 th

century, issues like environmental protection and sustainable development gained
prominence. Treaties such as the Vienna Convention for the Protection of the
Ozone Layer (1985) and the Rio Declaration on Environment and Development
(1992) reflected this trend.
International Criminal Court (2002): The establishment of the International

Criminal Court (ICC) marked a significant development in the enforcement of
international criminal law.
Contemporary Challenges: Recent developments address emerging challenges such

as cyber warfare, climate change, and global health crises. The evolving nature of
international relations continues to shape the development of international law.
International law is dynamic and responsive to the changing needs and

complexities of the international community. Its development is an ongoing
process influenced by the behavior of states, evolving norms, and the responses to
global challenges.
Constitutional Law 2022
Explain in detail parliamentary sovereignty explain at length.
Parliamentary sovereignty is a fundamental principle in the constitutional law of

countries that follow the Westminster model, notably the United Kingdom. It
establishes that the national parliament is the supreme legal authority, and its laws
cannot be overruled by any other body, including the judiciary. Here’s an in-depth
exploration of parliamentary sovereignty:

Legal Supremacy: Parliamentary sovereignty asserts that the laws enacted by the
national parliament are the supreme source of law. No other entity, including the
judiciary, can declare laws unconstitutional or override them.
Historical Evolution: The concept has its roots in British constitutional history. It
was notably articulated by legal theorist A.V. Dicey in the 19 th century, who
emphasized the absolute legislative authority of the British Parliament.
Enactment and Repeal of Laws: Parliament has the authority to enact and repeal
laws without any legal constraints. This means that it can create or abolish any law,
and no previous parliament can bind a future one. Each parliament is sovereign in
its own right.
No Constitutional Amendment Procedure: Unlike in some other countries with

written constitutions, there is no formal constitutional amendment procedure in the
UK. Parliament can, by a simple majority, enact laws that modify or even
fundamentally change the constitutional framework.
Judicial Subservience: In a system of parliamentary sovereignty, the judiciary is

subordinate to the legislature. Courts cannot invalidate legislation based on
unconstitutionality; they can only interpret and apply the law as it stands.
Parliamentary Immunity: Members of parliament are immune from legal action

based on their legislative activities. This immunity encourages open and
uninhibited debate within the legislative body.
Limitations in Practice: While parliamentary sovereignty is a core principle, it is

not absolute in practice. The UK’s membership in the European Union (prior to
Brexit) involved some delegation of legislative authority, and international law
obligations can also impact parliamentary sovereignty.
Political Realities: While legally supreme, the exercise of parliamentary

sovereignty is also influenced by political realities. Public opinion, political
conventions, and international relations may constrain the full exercise of
legislative power.
Implications for Devolution: In the context of devolved administrations (e.g.,

Scottish Parliament, Welsh Parliament), parliamentary sovereignty is sometimes

qualified. Devolution statutes allocate specific powers to these bodies while
affirming the continued sovereignty of the UK Parliament.
Debates and Criticisms: The concept of parliamentary sovereignty has been a

subject of ongoing debate and criticism. Some argue that it may lead to potential
abuses of power, while others see it as a cornerstone of the democratic system.
Write a detailed note on British Parliament.
The British Parliament is one of the oldest and most influential legislative bodies in
the world, with a rich history dating back centuries. Comprising two houses—the
House of Commons and the House of Lords—the UK Parliament plays a central
role in the country’s constitutional and political framework.
Structure of the British Parliament:
House of Commons:
Members: Elected Members of Parliament (MPs) represent constituencies from

across the UK.
Elections: Members are elected through a first-past-the-post system, with general

elections held at least every five years.
Functions: The House of Commons is the primary legislative chamber, and the
government is formed by the political party or coalition with the majority of seats.
House of Lords:
Members: Composed of life peers, bishops, and hereditary peers.
Appointments: Life peers are appointed based on merit, expertise, or contributions

to society. Bishops represent the Church of England, and hereditary peers inherit
their positions.
Functions: Acts as a revising chamber, reviewing and suggesting amendments to

legislation proposed by the House of Commons. It also conducts debates and
provides expertise.
Functions and Powers:

Legislation: The primary function of Parliament is to make laws. Bills can be
introduced in either house, go through multiple readings and debates, and must
receive Royal Assent to become law.
Representation: Members of the House of Commons represent the interests of their

constituents, contributing to debates, committees, and the legislative process.
Budget and Finance: The government proposes the budget, including taxation and
spending plans, in the House of Commons. It requires approval to be implemented.
Scrutiny of the Executive: Parliament holds the government accountable through

questions, debates, and committees, ensuring transparency and oversight.
Debates and Discussions: Both houses serve as forums for discussing national and
international issues, providing a platform for diverse perspectives.
Constitutional Functions: Parliament has a constitutional role, such as approving

changes to the constitution and ratifying treaties.
Historical Development:
Medieval Origins: The roots of Parliament can be traced to medieval councils and
assemblies that advised monarchs.
Magna Carta (1215): The Magna Carta laid the groundwork for the principle that
the monarch’s powers should be limited by law, marking an early step toward
constitutional governance.
Evolution of the Commons: Over time, the power of the House of Commons
increased, particularly following conflicts like the English Civil War and the
Glorious Revolution.
Acts of Union (1707, 1800): The union of England and Scotland in 1707 and later
with Ireland in 1800 created the United Kingdom, shaping the structure of
Parliament.
Reforms: Various reform acts expanded suffrage, increased representation, and

modified the composition of the House of Lords.
Challenges and Reforms:

Devolution: The creation of devolved administrations in Scotland, Wales, and
Northern Ireland has led to discussions about the distribution of powers within the
UK.
Electoral Reforms: Debates persist about the first-past-the-post electoral system

and whether proportional representation might better reflect voter preferences.
House of Lords Reform: Proposals for reforming or even abolishing the hereditary
peerage system in the House of Lords have been a recurring topic.
Constitutional Debates: Ongoing discussions about the need for a written

constitution and clearer delineation of constitutional principles.
Discuss the sources of British constitution
The British constitution is an unwritten constitution, meaning it is not codified in a

single written document. Instead, it is derived from a combination of various
sources, conventions, statutes, and legal principles. Here are the primary sources of
the British constitution:
Statute Law:
Acts of Parliament: The UK Parliament, consisting of the House of Commons and

the House of Lords, passes laws that form a significant part of the constitution.
While these laws can cover a wide range of issues, constitutional statutes, such as
the Human Rights Act 1998, have a special status and are considered fundamental
to the constitution.
Common Law:
Judicial Decisions: Decisions made by the courts contribute to constitutional law.

Common law principles established through judicial decisions shape the legal
framework, especially in areas not covered by statute law.
Constitutional Conventions:
Unwritten Practices: Conventions are unwritten practices and understandings that

have developed over time. They guide constitutional behavior and include
traditions like the Prime Minister being a member of the House of Commons and
the monarch’s role being largely ceremonial.

Royal Prerogatives:
Historical Powers: Traditionally exercised by the monarch, many of these powers

have now been transferred to ministers. Examples include the power to issue or
withdraw passports and the deployment of armed forces.
European Union Law (formerly):
Treaties and EU Legislation: While the UK was a member of the European Union,
EU law, including treaties and legislation, formed an integral part of the British
constitution. However, with Brexit, the direct influence of EU law has diminished,
although some elements may still be relevant in certain contexts.
Works of Authority:
Legal Commentaries: Certain legal writings and commentaries by constitutional

experts, known as “works of authority,” are considered influential in understanding
the constitution. These writings often analyze constitutional principles and
practices.
Devolution Acts:
Scotland Act 1998, Government of Wales Act 1998, and Northern Ireland Act
1998: These acts establish devolved administrations with legislative powers in
specific policy areas, contributing to the constitutional landscape.
Magna Carta and Historical Documents:
Historical Documents: Documents such as the Magna Carta (1215) and the Bill of
Rights (1689) have historical significance and are considered foundational to
constitutional principles. While they may not be directly applicable in modern legal
terms, they have symbolic importance.
Customs and Traditions:
Ceremonial Practices: Certain customs and traditions, often rooted in historical

practices, contribute to the constitutional framework. These include the State
Opening of Parliament and the Queen’s Speech.

Public Opinion:
Political Dynamics: Public opinion and political traditions can shape constitutional
developments. Constitutional changes are often influenced by the democratic will
of the people and evolving societal values.
The combination of these sources, often referred to as the “uncodified constitution”

or “constitution of conventions,” reflects the flexibility and adaptability of the
British constitutional system. While it lacks a single, written document, the British
constitution draws strength from its historical foundations, legal principles, and the
ongoing evolution of political and societal norms.
Indicate the functions of the congress
The term “Congress” typically refers to the legislative branch of the United States
government, which is a bicameral body consisting of the Senate and the House of
Representatives. The functions of the U.S. Congress are outlined in the
Constitution and encompass a range of legislative, oversight, and representative
responsibilities. Here are the primary functions of Congress:
Legislation:
Lawmaking: The primary function of Congress is to pass laws. Members of both

the House and the Senate propose, debate, and vote on bills that can become
federal laws upon approval by both chambers and the President’s signature.
Representation:
Constituent Representation: Members of Congress represent the interests and

concerns of their constituents (the people in their districts or states) in the national
legislative process.
Oversight:
Executive Oversight: Congress has the authority to oversee the actions of the
executive branch. This includes conducting investigations, holding hearings, and
reviewing executive policies to ensure they align with the law.
Appropriations and Budgeting:

Fiscal Responsibility: Congress has the power of the purse, meaning it controls
government spending. It authorizes and appropriates funds for federal agencies,
programs, and activities through the annual budgeting process.
Impeachment:
Checks on Executive and Judicial Branch: The House of Representatives has the
sole authority to initiate impeachment proceedings against federal officials,
including the President. The Senate conducts the trial and can convict and remove
impeached officials.
Confirmation of Appointments:
Senate Confirmation: The Senate plays a crucial role in the confirmation of key
appointments made by the President, including federal judges, cabinet members,
and other high-ranking officials.
Treaty Ratification:
Senate Approval: The Constitution grants the Senate the authority to ratify treaties
negotiated by the President. A two-thirds majority vote is required for approval.
Constitutional Amendments:
Amendment Process: Congress initiates the process of amending the U.S.

Constitution. Proposed amendments must be passed by a two-thirds majority in
both the House and the Senate and ratified by three-fourths of the states.
Declaration of War:
War Powers: While the President is the Commander-in-Chief, Congress has the
authority to declare war. The War Powers Act also outlines the President’s
reporting obligations to Congress in matters of military deployment.
Advocacy and Public Policy:
Public Policy Formation: Members of Congress advocate for public policies and
initiatives aligned with their party’s platform or the needs of their constituents.
They participate in shaping the national agenda.
Casework:

Assistance to Constituents: Congressional offices often assist constituents with
issues related to federal agencies, providing assistance in navigating government
services and addressing concerns.
Education and Communication:
Communication with the Public: Members of Congress communicate legislative

activities, policy positions, and updates to the public through speeches, press
releases, social media, and town hall meetings.
These functions collectively reflect the multifaceted role of Congress in the U.S.
system of government, emphasizing its responsibilities in lawmaking,
representation, oversight, and the checks and balances inherent in the Constitution.
How has concept of judicial review has been developed by the court of US.
Discuss in detial
The concept of judicial review, the power of a court to review the constitutionality
of legislative or executive actions, has been a significant development in the United
States, primarily shaped by key Supreme Court decisions. Here is a detailed
exploration of the evolution of judicial review in the U.S.:
1. Marbury v. Madison (1803):
Background: This landmark case established the principle of judicial review.

William Marbury, appointed as a justice of the peace by outgoing President John
Adams, did not receive his commission before the new President, Thomas
Jefferson, took office. Marbury petitioned the Supreme Court to compel Secretary
of State James Madison to deliver his commission.
Ruling: Chief Justice John Marshall, in his opinion, declared that the Judiciary Act
of 1789, which Marbury relied on for relief, was unconstitutional. This decision
asserted the Court’s authority to review the constitutionality of statutes and, by
extension, executive actions.
2. Fletcher v. Peck (1810) and Dartmouth College v. Woodward (1819):
Contract Clause Interpretation: These cases expanded judicial review to include the
protection of contracts from impairment by state legislation. The Court asserted the
power to review state laws and invalidate those conflicting with the Constitution.
3. McCulloch v. Maryland (1819):
Implied Powers: Chief Justice Marshall, in this case, affirmed the constitutionality
of the Second Bank of the United States and established the doctrine of implied
powers. The Court held that the Necessary and Proper Clause allowed Congress to
establish the bank, emphasizing the broader powers implied by the Constitution.
4. Dred Scott v. Sandford (1857):
Controversial Ruling: This decision, widely criticized for its stance on slavery,
highlighted the limitations of judicial review. The Court ruled that enslaved
individuals were property, not citizens, and declared the Missouri Compromise
unconstitutional. The backlash against the decision underscored the potential for
judicial review to be contentious and subject to public and political pressures.
5. The Reconstruction Era:
Amendments and Expansion: The post-Civil War era saw the ratification of the
14thAmendment, which extended equal protection under the law. The Court, in
cases like Slaughter-House Cases (1873) and Civil Rights Cases (1883), initially
limited the scope of the amendments. However, subsequent decisions gradually
expanded constitutional protections.
6. Lochner Era (1897-1937):
Economic Due Process: During this period, the Court often struck down economic
regulations, asserting a substantive due process approach to protect property rights.
This era reflected a form of judicial review that extended to economic and
regulatory matters.
7. The New Deal and Expansion of Federal Power:
Shift in Jurisprudence: Faced with the economic challenges of the Great

Depression, the Court shifted its approach in cases like West Coast Hotel v. Parrish
(1937). The Court became more deferential to legislative and executive actions,
marking a departure from the Lochner era.
8. Brown v. Board of Education (1954):

Desegregation and Equal Protection: The Court, in Brown, overturned the doctrine
of “separate but equal” in public education, declaring it unconstitutional. This
decision signaled the Court’s commitment to interpreting the Constitution to
promote equal protection and civil rights.
9. Warren Court and Expanding Rights:
Incorporation Doctrine: The Warren Court extended the Bill of Rights to the states
through the incorporation doctrine, ensuring that state actions were subject to
federal constitutional scrutiny. This marked a significant expansion of judicial
review over state and local governments.
10.Contemporary Developments:
Substantive Due Process: The Court continues to exercise judicial review,

addressing issues such as reproductive rights, affirmative action, and LGBTQ+
rights. Substantive due process has been invoked in cases like Roe v. Wade (1973)
and Obergefell v. Hodges (2015).
Elucide The Procedure Of Election Of President Of USA(ALREADY GIVEN

IN PAST PAPERS 2020)
WRITE SHORT NOTE ON:
Any two silent features of UK (ALREADY GIVEN IN PAST PAPERS 2020)
Any two silent features of USA(ALREADY GIVEN IN PAST PAPERS 2021)

Constitutional Law 2021Indicate
the silent features of US constitution.
Answer
The United States Constitution has several significant features that make it unique and
enduring. Here are some of its key features:
Separation of Powers: The Constitution establishes three separate branches of
government - the legislative, executive, and judicial branches. This separation ensures a
system of checks and balances, preventing any one branch from becoming too powerful.
Federalism: The Constitution establishes a federal system of government, where power
is divided between the national government and the state governments. This division of
power helps maintain a balance between central authority and local autonomy.
Bill of Rights: The Constitution includes the first ten amendments, known as the Bill of
Rights. These amendments protect individual rights and liberties, such as freedom of
speech, religion, and the right to a fair trial.
Popular Sovereignty: The Constitution is based on the principle of popular sovereignty,
which means that the ultimate source of political power resides with the people. This is
reflected in the system of representative democracy, where citizens elect their
representatives to make decisions on their behalf.
Flexibility: The Constitution is designed to be flexible and adaptable to changing times.
It includes a process for amendment, allowing for the addition or modification of its
provisions as needed.
Limited Government: The Constitution establishes a system of limited government,
where the powers of the government are defined and restricted. This helps protect
individual rights and prevent the abuse of power.
Judicial Review: The Constitution grants the judiciary the power of judicial review,
allowing the courts to interpret the Constitution and determine the constitutionality of
laws and government actions.
Write a detailed note on the election and powers of the US president.
Election and Powers of the US President
The election and powers of the US President are outlined in the United States
Constitution. Here is a detailed note on both aspects:
Election of the US President
Eligibility: To be eligible for the presidency, a candidate must be a natural-born citizen of
the United States, at least 35 years old, and have been a resident of the country for at least
14 years.

Nomination: The nomination process begins with primary elections and caucuses held by
political parties. Candidates compete within their party to secure the nomination. The two
major parties in the US are the Democratic Party and the Republican Party.
National Conventions: After the primaries, each party holds a national convention to
officially nominate their candidate for president. Delegates from each state vote to select
the party's nominee.
General Election: The general election takes place on the first Tuesday after the first
Monday in November. The candidate who receives the majority of the electoral votes
becomes the President-elect.
Electoral College: The President is not directly elected by the popular vote but by the
Electoral College. Each state is allocated a certain number of electors based on its
representation in Congress. The candidate who wins the popular vote in a state usually
receives all of that state's electoral votes.
Powers of the US President
Executive Powers: The President is the head of the executive branch of the US
government. They have the power to enforce laws, appoint federal officials, and issue
executive orders.
Legislative Powers: The President has the authority to propose legislation to Congress
and sign bills into law or veto them. They can also call special sessions of Congress and
deliver the State of the Union address.
Foreign Policy Powers: The President is the chief diplomat and has the power to
negotiate treaties with other countries, subject to Senate approval. They also have the
authority to appoint ambassadors and make executive agreements.
Commander-in-Chief: The President is the commander-in-chief of the US military.
They have the power to deploy troops, make military decisions, and declare war,
although the power to declare war rests with Congress.
Judicial Powers: The President has the power to appoint federal judges, including
Supreme Court justices, with Senate confirmation. They can also grant pardons and
reprieves for federal offenses.
Administrative Powers: The President oversees the executive branch and has the power
to manage and direct its various departments and agencies.
Discuss the concept of judicial review with reference of the US case Marbury verses
Madison.
Answer
Judicial Review and the Case of Marbury v. Madison

Judicial review is the power of the courts to review and invalidate laws or actions that are
deemed unconstitutional. It allows the judiciary to interpret and apply the Constitution,
ensuring that the government's actions are in line with its provisions.
One landmark case that established the principle of judicial review in the United States is
Marbury v. Madison (1803). In this case, William Marbury was appointed as a justice of
the peace by outgoing President John Adams, but his commission was not delivered
before the new President, Thomas Jefferson, took office. Marbury petitioned the Supreme
Court to issue a writ of mandamus, a court order compelling the new Secretary of State,
James Madison, to deliver the commission.
Chief Justice John Marshall, writing the majority opinion, faced a dilemma. If the Court
issued the writ, it would be challenging the authority of the executive branch. On the
other hand, if the Court refused to issue the writ, it would be seen as weak and
ineffective. Marshall used this case as an opportunity to establish the power of judicial
review.
In his opinion, Marshall argued that the Judiciary Act of 1789, which granted the
Supreme Court the power to issue writs of mandamus, was unconstitutional because it
expanded the Court's original jurisdiction beyond what was allowed by the Constitution.
Marshall asserted that it was the duty of the judiciary to interpret the Constitution and
determine its meaning. He stated that if a law conflicted with the Constitution, it was the
duty of the courts to declare it void.
Marshall's decision in Marbury v. Madison established the principle of judicial review,
giving the Supreme Court the power to declare acts of Congress or the executive branch
unconstitutional. This landmark case solidified the Court's role as the ultimate arbiter of
the Constitution and set a precedent for future cases.
How has A.v dicey defined parliamentary sovereignty? Explain in detail.
Answer
Dicey's Definition of Parliamentary Sovereignty
Dicey, a renowned constitutional scholar, defined parliamentary sovereignty as the
fundamental principle of the British constitution. According to Dicey, parliamentary
sovereignty has three main components:
Supremacy of Parliament: Parliament is the supreme law-making authority in the UK. It
has the power to make, amend, or repeal any law, and no other body or institution can
override or challenge its decisions. This means that Parliament has the ultimate authority
to legislate on any matter, including constitutional matters.
Absence of Legal Limitations: Dicey argued that there are no legal limitations on the
power of Parliament. Unlike some other countries with written constitutions, the UK does
not have a higher law that can restrict or invalidate parliamentary legislation. Therefore,

Parliament can pass any law, even if it contradicts previous laws or goes against common
law principles.
Parliamentary Sovereignty Cannot Be Abolished: Dicey emphasized that
parliamentary sovereignty is a fundamental and immutable principle of the British
constitution. He argued that even if Parliament wanted to, it could not pass a law that
permanently binds future Parliaments or limits its own legislative power. This means that
no Parliament can bind its successors, and each new Parliament has the authority to
change or repeal any laws passed by previous Parliaments.
Dicey's definition of parliamentary sovereignty has been influential in shaping the UK's
constitutional framework. However, it is important to note that the concept has evolved
over time, and there have been debates and challenges to the absolute nature of
parliamentary sovereignty, particularly in relation to the UK's membership in the
European Union and the incorporation of international human rights law Discuss at
length conventions as a source of the UK constitution.
Conventions as a Source of the UK Constitution
Conventions are an important source of the UK constitution. They are unwritten rules and
practices that have developed over time and are considered binding. While not legally
enforceable, conventions are followed by the government, politicians, and other
constitutional actors.
Characteristics of Conventions
Conventions have several key characteristics:
Informal Nature: Conventions are not written down in a single document or law. They
are based on customs, traditions, and precedents.
Flexibility: Conventions can adapt and evolve over time to reflect changing
circumstances and societal norms.
Political Obligation: Conventions are based on the principle of political obligation,
where constitutional actors feel morally bound to follow them.
Examples of Conventions
There are numerous conventions that play a significant role in the UK constitution. Some
notable examples include:
Royal Assent: The convention of royal assent requires the monarch to give formal
approval to legislation passed by Parliament. While the monarch's assent is largely
ceremonial, it is an essential part of the legislative process.
Prime Ministerial Appointment: The convention dictates that the monarch appoints the
leader of the political party with the majority of seats in the House of Commons as the
Prime Minister. This convention ensures the democratic legitimacy of the government.

Collective Responsibility: The convention of collective responsibility requires
government ministers to publicly support government policies, even if they personally
disagree. This convention ensures unity within the government and promotes effective
decision-making.
Importance of Conventions
Conventions play a crucial role in the UK constitution for several reasons:
Flexibility: Conventions allow for flexibility and adaptability in the constitution. They
can respond to changing political, social, and economic circumstances without the need
for lengthy legal processes.
Balance of Power: Conventions help maintain a balance of power between different
branches of government. They provide guidelines for the exercise of powers and prevent
the abuse of authority.
Democratic Accountability: Conventions contribute to democratic accountability by
establishing norms and expectations for constitutional actors. They ensure that politicians
and government officials are held accountable for their actions.
Limitations of Conventions
Despite their significance, conventions have some limitations:
Lack of Legal Enforcement: Conventions are not legally enforceable, which means that
there are no legal consequences for violating them. Their effectiveness relies on political
and moral obligations.
Subjectivity: Conventions can be subjective and open to interpretation. Different actors
may have different understandings of conventions, leading to potential conflicts and
disputes.
Evolutionary Nature: Conventions can change over time, which may lead to uncertainty
and inconsistency. This can create challenges in maintaining stability and predictability in
the constitutional framework..
Examine the concept of the separation of powers with reference to the USA
constitution.
Answer
Separation of Powers in the USA Constitution
The concept of separation of powers is a fundamental principle in the United States
Constitution. It refers to the division of governmental powers among three separate
branches: the legislative, executive, and judicial branches. This division ensures a system
of checks and balances, preventing any one branch from becoming too powerful.
Legislative Branch
The legislative branch, also known as Congress, is responsible for making laws. It
consists of two houses: the Senate and the House of Representatives. The Senate

represents the states equally, with two senators per state, while the House of
Representatives is based on population. Congress has the power to propose and pass laws,
declare war, and regulate commerce.
Executive Branch
The executive branch is headed by the President of the United States. The President is
responsible for enforcing laws and managing the day-to-day operations of the
government. The President is also the Commander-in-Chief of the military and has the
power to veto legislation passed by Congress. This branch also includes various
departments and agencies that assist the President in carrying out their duties.
Judicial Branch
The judicial branch is responsible for interpreting laws and ensuring their
constitutionality. It is headed by the Supreme Court, which is the highest court in the
land. The Supreme Court has the power of judicial review, meaning it can declare laws or
executive actions unconstitutional. The judicial branch also includes lower federal courts
and state courts.
Checks and Balances
The separation of powers ensures a system of checks and balances among the three
branches. Each branch has certain powers that serve as a check on the other branches,
preventing any one branch from becoming too dominant. For example, the President can
veto legislation passed by Congress, but Congress can override the veto with a two-thirds
majority vote. The Supreme Court can declare laws unconstitutional, but Congress can
propose constitutional amendments to override the Court's decisions.
Significance
The separation of powers in the USA Constitution is significant because it prevents the
concentration of power in one branch and protects individual rights and liberties. It
ensures that no single branch becomes too powerful or abuses its authority. This system
of checks and balances promotes accountability, transparency, and the rule of law.
Write short notes on following topics
House of Lords House of Commons.
Answer
House of Lords
The House of Lords is the upper chamber of the UK Parliament. It is composed of
appointed members, including life peers, bishops, and hereditary peers. The House of
Lords plays a crucial role in the legislative process, scrutinizing and amending bills
proposed by the House of Commons. It acts as a revising chamber, ensuring that
legislation is thoroughly examined and debated.
The House of Lords has several functions, including providing expertise and independent
judgment, revising legislation, and acting as a check on the power of the government. It

also serves as a forum for public debate on important issues. The House of Lords has the
power to delay legislation, but it cannot veto or block bills indefinitely.
The House of Lords has undergone significant reforms in recent years to reduce the
number of hereditary peers and make the composition more diverse and representative.
However, debates continue about the need for further reforms, such as introducing a fully
elected second chamber.
House of Commons
The House of Commons is the lower chamber of the UK Parliament and is made up of
Members of Parliament (MPs) who are elected by the public. It is the primary legislative
body responsible for proposing and debating new laws, as well as scrutinizing the work
of the government.
The House of Commons has several key functions, including representing the interests of
constituents, debating and voting on legislation, and holding the government to account.
MPs are responsible for raising issues on behalf of their constituents, participating in
debates, and voting on bills. The government is formed by the political party or coalition
that has the majority of seats in the House of Commons.
The House of Commons is known for its adversarial style of debate, with MPs from
different parties challenging and questioning each other. It is also where the Prime
Minister and other government ministers are held accountable through question times and
debates.
The House of Commons is considered the more powerful chamber compared to the
House of Lords, as it has the final say on most legislation. However, the House of Lords
still plays a crucial role in the legislative process by providing scrutiny and expertise.
Constitutional law 2020What are the silent features of British constitution.
Answer
The British constitution is known for its unique characteristics. Here are some of its key
features:
Unwritten Constitution: Unlike many other countries, the British constitution is not
codified in a single document. It is based on a combination of statutes, common law,
conventions, and authoritative documents.
Parliamentary Sovereignty: The principle of parliamentary sovereignty means that
Parliament is the supreme legal authority in the UK. It has the power to make, amend, or
repeal laws, and no other body can override its decisions.
Constitutional Monarchy: The British constitution is characterized by a constitutional
monarchy, where the monarch serves as the ceremonial head of state, while the elected
government holds the real political power.

Flexibility: The British constitution is flexible and adaptable. It can be amended or
changed through ordinary legislative procedures, allowing it to evolve with the changing
needs of society.
Rule of Law: The principle of the rule of law ensures that everyone, including the
government, is subject to the law. It guarantees individual rights and freedoms and
ensures that the government acts within the limits of the law.
Separation of Powers: Although not as rigid as in some other countries, the British
constitution maintains a separation of powers between the executive, legislative, and
judicial branches of government. This helps to prevent the concentration of power in a
single institution.
Constitutional Conventions: The British constitution relies on constitutional
conventions, which are unwritten rules and practices that guide the behavior of political
actors. These conventions help to maintain the balance of power and ensure the smooth
functioning of the political system.
Common Law Tradition: The British constitution is influenced by the common law
tradition, which emphasizes the importance of legal precedents and judicial interpretation
in shaping the constitution.
What is difference between written and unwritten constitution? On which
constitutional documents British constitution system is based?
Answer
Difference between Written and Unwritten Constitution
A written constitution is a formal document that clearly outlines the fundamental
principles, structures, and functions of a government. It is usually codified in a single
document or a series of documents, such as a constitution or a constitutional law.
Examples of countries with written constitutions include the United States, India, and
Germany.
On the other hand, an unwritten constitution refers to a system where the fundamental
principles and rules of the government are not contained in a single document. Instead,
they are derived from a combination of statutes, court decisions, conventions, and
historical documents. The United Kingdom is an example of a country with an unwritten
constitution.
The main differences between written and unwritten constitutions are as follows:
Codification: A written constitution is codified in a single document or a series of
documents, while an unwritten constitution is not codified in a single document.
Flexibility: A written constitution is relatively inflexible and requires formal amendment
procedures to make changes. In contrast, an unwritten constitution is more flexible and
can evolve over time through statutes, court decisions, and conventions.

Entrenchment: A written constitution is usually entrenched, meaning it is difficult to
amend or repeal. An unwritten constitution is not formally entrenched and can be
changed more easily. British Constitution System
The British constitution is based on an unwritten constitution. It is a unique system that
relies on a combination of statutes, court decisions, conventions, and historical
documents. The key sources of the British constitution include:
Statutes: Acts of Parliament, such as the Magna Carta, the Bill of Rights, and the Human
Rights Act, form an important part of the British constitution.
Court Decisions: Judicial decisions, particularly those of the Supreme Court, help
interpret and develop constitutional principles in the absence of a written constitution.
Conventions: Conventions are unwritten rules and practices that have developed over
time and are considered binding. They include practices like the Prime Minister's
accountability to Parliament and the monarch's role as a ceremonial head of state.
Historical Documents: Historical documents, such as the Magna Carta and the English
Bill of Rights, have influenced the development of constitutional principles in the United
Kingdom.
What is the theory of separation of powes? To what extent embodied in the
constitution of USA?
Answer
The theory of separation of powers is a fundamental principle in democratic systems that
aims to prevent the concentration of power in a single entity. It divides the functions of
government into three separate branches: the legislative, executive, and judicial branches.
The legislative branch is responsible for making laws, the executive branch for
implementing and enforcing laws, and the judicial branch for interpreting laws and
resolving disputes. Each branch has its own powers and responsibilities, and they are
designed to act as checks and balances on each other.
In the United States, the theory of separation of powers is embodied in the Constitution.
The Constitution establishes the three branches of government and outlines their powers
and limitations. The legislative branch is represented by Congress, which consists of the
Senate and the House of Representatives. The executive branch is headed by the
President, and the judicial branch is represented by the Supreme Court and other federal
courts.

The Constitution grants specific powers to each branch and establishes mechanisms for
checks and balances. For example, the President can veto legislation passed by Congress,
but Congress can override the veto with a two-thirds majority vote. The Supreme Court
has the power of judicial review, which allows it to declare laws or executive actions
unconstitutional.
Define the procedure for election of the president of USA.
Answer
The procedure for the election of the President of the United States is outlined in the U.S.
Constitution. Here is a summary of the process:
Primary Elections and Caucuses: Before the general election, political parties hold
primary elections or caucuses in each state to determine their presidential nominee. These
events allow party members to vote for their preferred candidate.
National Conventions: After the primary elections, each party holds a national
convention to officially nominate their candidate for president. Delegates from each state
vote to select the nominee.
General Election: The general election takes place on the first Tuesday after the first
Monday in November. Registered voters cast their ballots to choose the President and
Vice President. However, the President is not elected directly by the popular vote.
Electoral College: The President is elected by the Electoral College, which consists of
electors from each state. The number of electors is based on the state's representation in
Congress. The candidate who wins the majority of electoral votes (at least 270 out of
538) becomes the President.
Inauguration: The President-elect is inaugurated on January 20th following the election.
During the inauguration ceremony, the President takes the oath of office and officially
assumes the role of the President of the United States. Differentiate between
constitution and Constitutional law .
Answer
Constitution and Constitutional law are related concepts but have distinct meanings. A
constitution is a fundamental document that establishes the basic principles, structures,
and functions of a government. It outlines the rights and responsibilities of citizens, the
powers and limitations of the government, and the framework for governing a country or
organization. Constitutions are typically written and serve as the supreme law of the land,
providing a framework for all other laws and governing institutions.
Constitutional law, on the other hand, refers to the body of law that interprets and applies
the provisions of a constitution. It encompasses the legal principles, rules, and doctrines
that govern the interpretation, implementation, and enforcement of constitutional
provisions. Constitutional law includes court decisions, statutes, regulations, and legal
doctrines that shape and define the meaning and scope of constitutional provisions.

Define meaning and nature of fundamental rights
Answer
Fundamental rights are basic human rights that are recognized and protected by the law.
They are considered essential for the development and well-being of individuals in a
society. These rights are typically enshrined in a country's constitution or other legal
documents and are meant to ensure that individuals are treated fairly and have certain
freedoms and protections.
The nature of fundamental rights can vary depending on the legal system and the specific
rights being discussed. However, there are some common characteristics:
Inherent and inalienable: Fundamental rights are considered inherent to all individuals by
virtue of their humanity. They cannot be taken away or transferred to others.
Universal: Fundamental rights are applicable to all individuals, regardless of their race,
gender, religion, nationality, or any other characteristic. They are meant to protect the
rights and dignity of every person.
Constitutional protection: Fundamental rights are often included in a country's
constitution or other legal documents. This provides them with a higher level of
protection and ensures that they cannot be easily changed or violated.
Limitations: While fundamental rights are important, they are not absolute. They may be
subject to certain limitations in order to protect the rights and interests of others or to
maintain public order and security. These limitations are typically determined by law and
must be reasonable and proportionate.
Enforceability: Fundamental rights are not just theoretical concepts; they are meant to be
enforceable. This means that individuals have the right to seek legal remedies if their
fundamental rights are violated. Write short notes on following topics
British Parliament
Freedom of expression
Concept of federalism
British Parliament
The British Parliament is the supreme legislative body in the United Kingdom. It consists
of two houses: the House of Commons and the House of Lords. The House of Commons
is made up of Members of Parliament (MPs) who are elected by the public in general
elections. The House of Lords is composed of appointed members, including life peers,
bishops, and hereditary peers.
The British Parliament is responsible for making laws, scrutinizing the government, and
representing the interests of the people. It plays a crucial role in the democratic
governance of the country. The government is formed by the political party or coalition
that has the majority of seats in the House of Commons.

The Parliament has the power to debate and pass legislation, approve the government's
budget, and hold the government accountable through questioning and debates. It also has
the authority to amend or reject legislation proposed by the government.
Freedom of Expression
Freedom of expression is a fundamental human right that allows individuals to express
their thoughts, opinions, and ideas without interference or censorship. It is protected by
international human rights instruments, such as the Universal Declaration of Human
Rights and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights.
Freedom of expression encompasses various forms of communication, including speech,
writing, art, and media. It enables individuals to participate in public discourse, criticize
the government, advocate for social change, and engage in creative expression.
However, freedom of expression is not absolute and can be subject to certain limitations.
These limitations are typically imposed to protect public safety, national security, public
order, and the rights and reputations of others. Hate speech, incitement to violence, and
defamation are examples of expressions that may be restricted in some circumstances.
Societies differ in their interpretation and application of freedom of expression, and there
can be debates and controversies surrounding its boundaries. Balancing the right to
freedom of expression with other rights and interests is an ongoing challenge for
governments and societies.
Concept of Federalism
Federalism is a system of government in which power is divided between a central
authority and regional or state governments. It is based on the principle of shared
sovereignty, where both levels of government have their own areas of jurisdiction and
authority.
In a federal system, the central government is responsible for national or overarching
issues, such as defense, foreign policy, and currency. The regional or state governments
have powers and responsibilities in areas such as education, healthcare, and
transportation, which are more localized in nature.
Federalism allows for the distribution of power and decision-making across different
levels of government, promoting decentralization and local autonomy. It can help
accommodate diverse regional interests, protect minority rights, and foster cooperation
and collaboration between different regions.
Examples of federal countries include the United States, Canada, Germany, and Australia.
Each country has its own unique federal structure, with variations in the division of
powers and relationships between the central and regional governments. Federalism can
provide stability, flexibility, and a balance of power in a diverse and geographically large
country. However, it can also lead to tensions and conflicts between the central and

regional governments, as well as challenges in coordinating policies and resolving
dispute.
Constitutional law 2019
Compare the powers of the speaker of house of common and the speaker of the
American house of representatives.
The Speaker of the House of Commons in the United Kingdom and the Speaker of the
American House of Representatives in the United States hold important positions within
their respective legislative bodies. While there are similarities in their roles, there are also
notable differences in their powers and responsibilities.
Speaker of the House of Commons:
1. Presiding over debates: The Speaker of the House of Commons is responsible for
maintaining order during debates, ensuring that members follow the rules of
procedure, and granting speaking rights.
2. Casting vote: In the event of a tie vote, the Speaker of the House of Commons has
the power to cast a deciding vote.
3. Selecting amendments: The Speaker has the authority to select which
amendments are debated and voted upon during the legislative process.
4. Representing the House: The Speaker represents the House of Commons in its
relations with the monarch, the House of Lords, and other authorities.
5. Disciplinary powers: The Speaker can discipline members who breach
parliamentary rules or behave inappropriately.
Speaker of the American House of Representatives:
1. Presiding over debates: The Speaker of the House of Representatives presides
over debates, maintains order, and ensures that members adhere to the rules of
procedure.
2. Committee assignments: The Speaker has the power to appoint members to
committees and determine their chairpersons.
3. Setting legislative agenda: The Speaker plays a crucial role in setting the
legislative agenda by deciding which bills are brought to the floor for debate and
voting.
4. Party leadership: The Speaker is the leader of the majority party in the House of
Representatives and exercises significant influence over party members.
5. Representing the House: The Speaker represents the House of Representatives in
its relations with the Senate, the President, and foreign dignitaries.
What does mean by kind do no wrong and the kind never dies.
Answer

The phrase "kind do no wrong and the kind never dies" is not a commonly used
expression or idiom. It seems to be a combination of two separate ideas.
1. "Kind do no wrong": This phrase suggests that people who are kind or
compassionate in their actions never do anything wrong or harmful. It emphasizes
the belief that kindness is always virtuous and leads to positive outcomes.
2. "The kind never dies": This phrase implies that kindness is everlasting and
immortal. It suggests that acts of kindness have a lasting impact and continue to
exist even after the person who performed them has passed away.
Overall, the phrase seems to convey the idea that kindness is a powerful and eternal force
that brings goodness and has a lasting influence. However, it is important to note that this
phrase is not a widely recognized saying and may have been coined by an individual or
specific group.
What do you understand by rule of law also discuss the exceptions of rule of law.
Rule of Law
The rule of law is a fundamental principle in democratic societies that ensures that all
individuals, including the government, are subject to the law and are treated equally
under the law. It establishes a framework for governance based on principles of fairness,
justice, and accountability.
The rule of law has several key elements:
1. Equality before the law: All individuals, regardless of their status or position, are
equal before the law. No one is above the law, and everyone is entitled to the same
legal protections and rights.
2. Legal certainty: Laws must be clear, predictable, and accessible to all. Individuals
should be able to understand and anticipate the consequences of their actions, and
the law should be applied consistently and impartially.
3. Fair and impartial judiciary: An independent judiciary is essential for upholding
the rule of law. Judges should be impartial, free from political influence, and apply
the law objectively and fairly.
4. Respect for human rights: The rule of law requires the protection and promotion
of fundamental human rights. Laws and legal processes should uphold and respect
the dignity, freedom, and equality of all individuals.
Exceptions to the rule of law can arise in certain circumstances. These exceptions
include:
1. Emergency situations: In times of crisis or emergency, governments may
temporarily suspend certain rights or impose restrictions to protect public safety.
However, these measures should be proportionate, necessary, and subject to
review.

2. National security: Governments may restrict certain rights or engage in
surveillance activities in the name of national security. However, these actions
should be based on clear legal frameworks, subject to oversight, and not used as a
pretext to suppress dissent or violate human rights.
3. Corruption and impunity: When there is a lack of accountability and
transparency, the rule of law can be undermined. Corruption, nepotism, and
favoritism erode public trust and weaken the rule of law.
4. Inequality and discrimination: When laws are applied unequally or discriminate
against certain groups, the rule of law is compromised. Equal protection and
treatment under the law are essential for upholding the rule of law.
Conclusion:
In summary, while both the American Senate and the House of Lords are legislative
bodies, they differ in terms of composition, powers, and functions. The American Senate
represents equal state representation, has significant powers, and plays a central role in
the legislative process. The House of Lords, on the other hand, is composed of appointed
members, has limited powers, and primarily serves as a revising chamber.
Compare the American and British committee system.
Answer
The American and British committee systems have some similarities but also key
differences. Here is a comparison of the two systems:
American Committee System
• In the United States, committees play a crucial role in the legislative process at
both the federal and state levels.
• Committees are formed in both the House of Representatives and the Senate, and
they are responsible for reviewing and amending proposed legislation before it is
voted on by the full chamber.
• The committee system in the United States is highly structured, with specific
committees assigned to different policy areas such as finance, judiciary, and
foreign affairs.
• Committee membership is usually based on seniority, with more experienced
members having greater influence.
• The committee system in the United States allows for extensive debate and
amendment of bills, which can lead to more comprehensive legislation but also
potential delays.
British Committee System

• In the United Kingdom, committees are also an integral part of the legislative
process, but they have a slightly different role compared to their American
counterparts.
Committees in the UK Parliament are responsible for scrutinizing proposed legislation,
Comparison between American senate and house of lords.
Answer
The American Senate and the House of Lords are both legislative bodies, but they have
significant differences in terms of composition, powers, and functions.
Composition:
The American Senate is composed of two senators from each state, regardless of the
state's population. This ensures equal representation for all states. In contrast, the House
of Lords is composed of appointed members, including life peers, bishops, and hereditary
peers.
Powers:
The American Senate has several unique powers. It has the power to approve or reject
treaties, confirm presidential appointments, and act as a jury in impeachment trials. The
House of Lords, on the other hand, has limited powers. It can delay legislation proposed
by the House of Commons, but it cannot veto or block legislation indefinitely.
Functions:
The American Senate plays a crucial role in the legislative process. It shares the
responsibility of making laws with the House of Representatives. The Senate also acts as
a check on the House of Representatives, ensuring that legislation is thoroughly debated
and considered. In contrast, the House of Lords primarily serves as a revising chamber. It
reviews and suggests amendments to legislation proposed by the House of Commons.
• conducting inquiries, and holding the government accountable.
• Unlike in the United States, committee membership in the UK is not solely based
on seniority. Members are selected based on their expertise and interests.
• The committee system in the UK is more flexible, with committees being formed
on an ad hoc basis to address specific issues or conduct inquiries.
• British committees have the power to summon witnesses, gather evidence, and
make recommendations to the government.
• The committee system in the UK allows for a more focused and targeted approach
to legislative scrutiny.

Islamic jurisprudence 2021
Write Short Notes on following
Ijtehad
Taqlid
Hadith Ahd
Sunnah Qualiah
Answer
Ijtehad
Ijtehad is a term used in Islamic jurisprudence to refer to the process of independent
reasoning and interpretation of Islamic law. It involves the application of reasoning and
intellect to derive legal rulings from the primary sources of Islamic law, namely the
Quran and the Hadith (sayings and actions of the Prophet Muhammad). Ijtehad is
considered essential for addressing new and complex issues that are not explicitly
addressed in the traditional legal texts. Scholars who engage in ijtehad are known as
mujtahids.
Taqlid
Taqlid refers to the practice of following the legal opinions of a qualified Islamic scholar
without questioning or independently verifying the basis of those opinions. It is the
opposite of ijtehad, as it involves relying on the authority and expertise of a scholar rather
than engaging in independent reasoning. Taqlid is considered permissible and even
necessary for the majority of Muslims who do not possess the necessary knowledge and
skills to engage in ijtehad. However, it is important to note that taqlid should be based on
following a qualified scholar who is known for their knowledge and adherence to the
principles of Islamic law.
Hadith Ahd
Hadith Ahd refers to a category of hadiths that are related to the Prophet Muhammad’s
covenant or promise with his followers. These hadiths often contain instructions, advice,
or warnings given by the Prophet to his companions or the Muslim community as a
whole. They are considered an important source of guidance for Muslims in matters of
faith, ethics, and social conduct. Hadith Ahd helps to provide insights into the Prophet’s
teachings and his expectations from his followers.
Sunnah Qualiah

Sunnah Qualiah refers to the physical actions or practices of the Prophet Muhammad. It
includes his manner of performing prayers, ablution, fasting, and other rituals. Sunnah
Qualiah serves as a practical example for Muslims to follow in order to emulate the
Prophet’s way of life and gain spiritual rewards. It is considered highly recommended to
follow the Sunnah Qualiah as it is believed to bring one closer to Allah and increase the
blessings in one’s life. Muslims strive to incorporate the Sunnah Qualiah into their daily
lives as a means of expressing their love and devotion to the Prophet Muhammad
What do you understand by hukm-e-sharia? Give in detail it’s elements and types.
Answer
Hukm-e-Sharia: Elements and Types
Hukm-e-Sharia refers to the legal rulings derived from Islamic law, also known as Sharia.
It encompasses a wide range of legal principles and guidelines that govern various
aspects of life, including personal conduct, family matters, business transactions, and
criminal justice.
Elements of Hukm-e-Sharia:
Quran: The Quran is the primary source of Islamic law. It is believed to be the word of
God as revealed to the Prophet Muhammad. Legal rulings are derived from the verses of
the Quran, which provide guidance on various matters.
Hadith: Hadith refers to the sayings, actions, and approvals of the Prophet Muhammad.
Hadith collections serve as a secondary source of Islamic law and provide additional
guidance on legal matters.
Ijma: Ijma refers to the consensus of Islamic scholars on a particular legal issue. It is
considered a source of authority in Islamic law and is derived from the collective
agreement of scholars throughout history.
Qiyas: Qiyas is the process of analogical reasoning, where legal rulings are derived by
applying the principles of existing laws to new situations. It involves finding similarities
between a known legal ruling and a new case to determine the appropriate ruling.
Types of Hukm-e-Sharia:
Hukm Wajib: A wajib ruling is an obligation that Muslims are required to fulfill. It is a
mandatory duty that must be performed, and failure to do so may result in sin or
punishment.

Hukm Mustahabb: A mustahabb ruling refers to actions that are recommended or
encouraged but not obligatory. Performing these actions is considered virtuous and brings
rewards, but there is no sin or punishment for not doing them.
Hukm Mubah: A mubah ruling refers to actions that are permissible and neither
encouraged nor discouraged. These actions are considered neutral and do not carry any
moral or legal consequences.
Hukm Makruh: A makruh ruling refers to actions that are discouraged or disliked but
not sinful. While performing these actions is not prohibited, it is better to avoid them to
maintain a higher level of piety.
Hukm Haram: A haram ruling refers to actions that are strictly prohibited in Islam.
Engaging in haram actions is considered sinful and may result in punishment or negative
consequences.
Define concept of istihsab and abrogation under Islamic law
Answer
Istihsab and Abrogation in Islamic Law
Istihsab
Istihsab is a legal principle in Islamic law that means “presumption of continuity.” It is
based on the idea that the legal ruling of a particular matter remains in effect until there is
evidence to suggest otherwise. In other words, if a legal ruling has been established and
there is no evidence or indication of any change or abrogation, it is presumed to continue
to be valid.
The principle of istihsab is used to maintain legal stability and avoid confusion in Islamic
jurisprudence. It ensures that established rulings are not easily overturned without clear
evidence of change or abrogation.
Abrogation
Already written in 2022
Explain Quran and Quranic legislation as a primary source of Islamic law.
What is difference between ijma and qiya?

Elaborate human rights under Islamic law.
Already written in 20022 .
Islamic jurisprudence 2020
What is difference between ijma and qiyas (already written in 2021)
Write short notes on following
Al Sunnah Taqririyah
Al Sunnah Taqririyah refers to the actions or practices of the Prophet Muhammad (peace
be upon him) that were witnessed and approved by him without any verbal statement. It
is a form of Sunnah that is established through the Prophet's silent approval or
confirmation of certain actions or practices.
In other words, Al Sunnah Taqririyah is based on the principle that the Prophet's silence
or non-verbal approval of a particular action or practice indicates his endorsement of it.
This form of Sunnah is derived from the actions and behavior of the Prophet as observed
by his companions.
Examples of Al Sunnah Taqririyah include the Prophet's participation in certain rituals or
practices without explicitly commanding or prohibiting them. These actions are
considered to be part of the Sunnah and are followed by Muslims as a recommended
practice.
Hadith Mushhur
Hadith Mushhur refers to a category of Hadiths that are widely known and reported by a
large number of narrators. These Hadiths have been transmitted through multiple chains
of narrators, making them well-known and recognized among scholars of Hadith.
Hadith Mushhur is considered to be a reliable and authentic category of Hadiths due to
the large number of narrators involved in transmitting them. The widespread transmission
of these Hadiths increases their credibility and reduces the chances of errors or
fabrications.
Scholars of Hadith extensively study and analyze Hadith Mushhur to extract legal rulings,
guidance, and moral teachings from them. These Hadiths play a crucial role in
understanding the Prophet's teachings and applying them in various aspects of life.
Mujtahid ( already written in 2022)
Ijtehad ( already written in 2021)
Define concept of istehsan and istehsab.

Istehsan and Istehsab
Istehsan and Istehsab are two important concepts in Islamic jurisprudence (Fiqh).
Istehsan
Istehsan refers to the process of juristic preference or legal preference. It is a method used
by jurists to derive legal rulings when there is no clear textual evidence (Quran or Hadith)
available. In such cases, jurists use their reasoning and discretion to determine the ruling
based on what they consider to be the most beneficial or just outcome. Istehsan allows
flexibility in Islamic law and enables jurists to adapt to changing circumstances.
Istehsab
Istehsab, on the other hand, refers to the presumption of continuity or the presumption of
the continuation of a previous legal ruling. It is used when there is no clear evidence to
suggest a change in the ruling of a particular matter. In such cases, the existing ruling is
presumed to continue until there is evidence to suggest otherwise. Istehsab helps maintain
stability and consistency in Islamic law.
Give in detail legal capacity of lunatic and child sabi
The legal capacity of individuals considered lunatic or mentally ill, as well as children,
varies across jurisdictions. Generally, legal capacity refers to the ability of a person to
understand and make decisions, particularly in legal matters. Here's a brief overview:
Lunatics or Mentally Ill Individuals:

• Laws typically provide mechanisms for determining mental capacity, often
involving medical assessments.
• Guardianship or conservatorship may be established to protect the interests
of mentally ill individuals, with a court appointing a legal guardian to make
decisions on their behalf.
Children:
• Minors, or children, are generally considered to lack full legal capacity.
• Parents or legal guardians are usually responsible for making decisions on
behalf of children.
• Some jurisdictions may allow minors of a certain age to make specific
decisions, such as consenting to medical treatment or seeking reproductive
health services.
Explain the concept of ownership and it's kinds under Islamic jurisprudence.
, the concept of ownership is rooted in the principles outlined in Islamic law, or Sharia.
Ownership (Milk or Malikiyyah) is a fundamental concept that defines the rights and

responsibilities individuals have regarding property. There are different kinds of
ownership recognized in Islamic jurisprudence:
Public Ownership (Mal al-Aam):
• Refers to resources or property that is collectively owned by the Muslim
community.
• Examples include natural resources like water, pasture, and unclaimed land.
Private Ownership (Mal al-Khass):
• Pertains to individually owned property.
• Individuals have exclusive rights to use, benefit from, and dispose of their
private property within the boundaries set by Islamic law.
Joint Ownership (Shirkah or Milk Mushā'ah):
• Occurs when two or more individuals share ownership of a property.
• There are various forms of joint ownership, including partnership and
coownership, each with its own rules and regulations.
Ownership by Effort (Milk al-Tamalluk):
• Based on the principle that one can acquire ownership through personal
effort or labor.
• For example, if a person cultivates barren land and transforms it into
productive farmland through their efforts, they gain ownership of the
cultivated land. Islamic jurisprudence 2019
Istehsab ( given in 2021)
Istehsan (already written in 2020)
Hadith mutwatir ( written in next question)
Istadlal
Istadlal is an Arabic term that refers to the process of inferring or deducing a legal ruling
or judgment from the primary sources of Islamic law, namely the Quran and the Sunnah
(teachings and practices of the Prophet Muhammad). It is a method used by Islamic
jurists to derive legal rulings in cases where there is no explicit text or precedent
available. Istadlal involves employing reasoning, analogy, and logical deduction to arrive
at a legal conclusion. This process is based on the principle that Islamic law is
comprehensive and flexible enough to address new situations and issues that may arise
over time. Istadlal plays a crucial role in the development and application of Islamic law,
allowing it to adapt to changing circumstances while remaining rooted in the foundational
sources of the religion

What did you understand about Hadith mutwatir and Hadith Ahd (written in 2020)
Define legal capacity of a dead person.
The legal capacity of a dead person refers to the ability of a deceased individual to have
legal rights and obligations. However, once a person passes away, their legal capacity
ceases to exist. This means that a deceased person cannot enter into contracts, file
lawsuits, or engage in any legal transactions. Instead, the legal affairs of a deceased
person are typically handled by their estate through a legal representative, such as an
executor or administrator. These representatives are responsible for managing the
deceased person’s assets, paying off debts, and distributing the remaining assets to the
beneficiaries according to the deceased person’s will or the laws of intestacy. It is
important to consult with a legal professional or seek advice from the appropriate
authorities to understand the specific laws and procedures related to the legal capacity of
a deceased person in your jurisdiction
What are the different kinds of Sunnah with respect to the channels through which
the ahkam are established.
Sunnah Qawliyyah:This refers to the Sunnah established through the sayings of the
Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him). It includes his statements, teachings, and
explanations of various matters.
Sunnah Fi’liyyah: This refers to the Sunnah established through the actions of the
Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him). It includes his deeds, practices, and behavior
in different situations.
Sunnah Taqririyyah: This refers to the Sunnah established through the Prophet
Muhammad’s (peace be upon him) approval or tacit agreement with the actions of others.
It means that if the Prophet witnessed someone doing something and did not object to it,
it is considered a form of Sunnah.
Sunnah Ta’qidiyyah: This refers to the Sunnah established through the consistent
practice of the Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) in a particular matter. It
indicates the emphasis placed by the Prophet on a certain action or practice.
What is difference between Ijtehad and taqlid (already given in 2021) Discuss
in detial Quran as a source of Islamic law.
Answer
Quran as a Source of Islamic Law

The Quran is considered the primary and most authoritative source of Islamic law, also
known as Sharia. It is believed to be the word of God as revealed to the Prophet
Muhammad through the angel Gabriel. The Quran serves as a guide for Muslims in all
aspects of life, including legal matters.
Authority and Importance
The Quran holds the highest authority in Islamic law. It is considered the literal word of
God and is believed to be infallible and timeless. Muslims believe that the Quran
provides comprehensive guidance for all aspects of life, including moral, social, and legal
matters. As a result, it is the ultimate source of authority for Islamic law.
Legal Principles and Guidance
The Quran contains various legal principles and guidance that form the basis of Islamic
law. It addresses a wide range of legal issues, including family law, criminal law,
commercial law, and more. Some of the key legal principles derived from the Quran
include justice, equality, fairness, and the preservation of human rights.
Interpretation and Application
Interpreting and applying the Quranic verses to legal matters require expertise and
knowledge of Islamic jurisprudence. Scholars and jurists use various methodologies, such
as linguistic analysis, historical context, and the principles of Islamic legal reasoning
(ijtihad), to derive legal rulings from the Quran. These interpretations are documented in
legal texts and serve as a guide for judges and legal practitioners.
Complementing Sources
While the Quran is the primary source of Islamic law, it is not the only one. Islamic law
also relies on other sources, including the Sunnah (the practices and teachings of the
Prophet Muhammad), the consensus of scholars (ijma), and analogical reasoning (qiyas).
These sources complement the Quran and provide additional guidance in legal matters.
Flexibility and Adaptability
One of the remarkable aspects of the Quran as a source of Islamic law is its flexibility and
adaptability. The Quranic principles and guidance can be applied to different contexts and
situations, allowing Islamic law to evolve and address contemporary issues. Scholars and
jurists continually engage in interpretation and reinterpretation to ensure the relevance
and applicability of Islamic law in changing times.

Analyze the efficiency of international law in providing remedy in disputes where
it’s subjects are involved.
Efficiency of International Law in Providing Remedy in Disputes
International law plays a crucial role in providing remedies in disputes involving its
subjects. However, its efficiency can vary depending on several factors.
1. Enforcement Mechanisms
The effectiveness of international law in providing remedies depends on the availability
and effectiveness of enforcement mechanisms. International law lacks a centralized
enforcement authority, relying instead on the cooperation of states. This can lead to
challenges in ensuring compliance and enforcing remedies.
2. Consent of States
International law is based on the consent of states, which means that states must
voluntarily agree to be bound by its provisions. If a state does not consent or chooses to
ignore its obligations, it can undermine the effectiveness of international law in providing
remedies.
3. Compliance and Implementation
The efficiency of international law in providing remedies also depends on the willingness
of states to comply with their obligations and implement the required remedies. States
may face political, economic, or practical challenges in fully implementing international
law, which can affect the effectiveness of remedies.
4. Dispute Resolution Mechanisms
International law provides various mechanisms for resolving disputes, such as
negotiation, mediation, arbitration, and adjudication. The efficiency of these mechanisms
in providing remedies depends on factors such as the willingness of parties to engage in
the process, the availability of resources, and the expertise of the decision-makers.
5. Scope and Coverage
The efficiency of international law in providing remedies can also be influenced by its
scope and coverage. International law covers a wide range of issues, from human rights
to trade and environmental protection. The effectiveness of remedies may vary depending
on the specific area of law and the level of development of legal norms and institutions in
that area

Critically discuss the UN charter and it’s organs.
The UN Charter and Its Organs
The United Nations (UN) Charter is a foundational document that establishes the
principles and structure of the UN. It was adopted in 1945 and has since guided the
organization’s work in promoting peace, security, and cooperation among nations. The
Charter outlines the purposes, principles, and functions of the UN, as well as the structure
and responsibilities of its various organs.
Purposes and Principles
The UN Charter sets out the purposes of the UN, which include maintaining international
peace and security, promoting friendly relations among nations, and achieving
international cooperation in solving economic, social, cultural, and humanitarian
problems. The Charter also establishes key principles such as sovereign equality of states,
non-interference in domestic affairs, and peaceful settlement of disputes.
Main Organs
The UN Charter establishes six main organs of the UN, each with specific roles and
responsibilities:
General Assembly: It is the main deliberative body of the UN, where all member states
have equal representation. The General Assembly discusses and makes recommendations
on various issues, including peace and security, development, and international law.
Security Council: The Security Council is responsible for maintaining international
peace and security. It has 15 members, including five permanent members (China,
France, Russia, the United Kingdom, and the United States) with veto power. The
Security Council can impose sanctions, authorize the use of force, and establish
peacekeeping operations.
Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC): ECOSOC is responsible for promoting
international economic and social cooperation. It coordinates the work of specialized
agencies, such as the World Health Organization and the International Labour
Organization, and addresses issues related to development, human rights, and sustainable
development.
International Court of Justice (ICJ): The ICJ is the principal judicial organ of the UN.
It settles legal disputes between states and provides advisory opinions on legal questions
referred to it by UN organs and specialized agencies.

Secretariat: The Secretariat is the administrative arm of the UN, headed by the
Secretary-General. It supports the work of the other organs, implements decisions, and
provides research, analysis, and coordination services.
Trusteeship Council: The Trusteeship Council was established to oversee the
administration of trust territories, which were former colonies or territories under the
League of Nations. With the successful completion of its mandate, the Trusteeship
Council is currently inactive.
Criticisms and Challenges
While the UN Charter and its organs play a crucial role in international relations, they
also face criticisms and challenges. Some common criticisms include:
Power imbalances: The veto power of the permanent members of the Security Council
can hinder effective decision-making and limit the UN’s ability to address global
challenges.
Lack of enforcement: The UN’s ability to enforce its decisions and maintain peace is
often constrained by the voluntary compliance of member states.
Inefficiency and bureaucracy: The UN’s complex structure and decision-making
processes can lead to delays and inefficiencies in addressing urgent issues.
Limited representation: The General Assembly’s one-country-one-vote system can
result in the dominance of a few powerful states, potentially marginalizing smaller
nations.
Despite these challenges, the UN Charter and its organs remain essential in promoting
international cooperation, resolving conflicts, and addressing global issues. Efforts to
reform and strengthen the UN continue to be pursued to enhance its effectiveness and
relevance in the changing world.
What are the elements of state and discuss responsibilities of state
Elements of State
The state is a political entity that exercises authority and governs a specific territory. It is
characterized by certain elements that define its existence and functioning. The elements
of the state are as follows:
Population: A state consists of a group of people who live within its boundaries and are
subject to its authority. The population can be diverse in terms of ethnicity, culture, and
religion.

Territory: The state has a defined geographical area over which it exercises its authority.
The territory may include land, water bodies, and airspace. It provides the physical space
for the state to govern and enforce its laws.
Government: The government is the institution that holds the power to make and enforce
laws, maintain order, and provide public services. It represents the state and exercises
authority on its behalf. The government can be structured in various forms, such as a
democracy, monarchy, or dictatorship.
Sovereignty: Sovereignty refers to the supreme authority and independence of the state.
It means that the state has the power to govern itself without interference from external
forces. Sovereignty allows the state to make decisions, establish laws, and engage in
international relations.
Responsibilities of the State
The state has several responsibilities towards its population and territory. These
responsibilities vary depending on the political system and the needs of society. Some
common responsibilities of the state include:
Protection of Rights: The state is responsible for protecting the fundamental rights and
freedoms of its citizens. This includes ensuring equality, justice, and the rule of law. The
state should safeguard civil liberties, such as freedom of speech, religion, and assembly.
Maintenance of Order: The state is responsible for maintaining law and order within its
territory. It should establish a system of justice, enforce laws, and provide security to its
citizens. This includes maintaining a police force, judiciary, and other law enforcement
agencies.
Provision of Public Services: The state is responsible for providing essential public
services to its citizens. This includes education, healthcare, infrastructure development,
transportation, and social welfare programs. The state should ensure access to basic
services and promote the well-being of its population.
Promotion of Economic Development: The state plays a crucial role in promoting
economic development and prosperity. It should create a conducive environment for
business and investment, regulate economic activities, and provide support to industries.
The state should also address issues of poverty, unemployment, and income inequality.
Foreign Relations: The state is responsible for representing its interests in international
relations. It should engage in diplomacy, negotiate treaties, and participate in
international organizations. The state should protect its sovereignty and promote peace,
security, and cooperation with other nations.

Give a detailed account of development of international law.
What are the main sources of international law discuss
Main Sources of International Law
International law refers to the rules and principles that govern the relations between states
and other international actors. These rules and principles are derived from various
sources. The main sources of international law are:
Treaties: Treaties are written agreements between states and international organizations.
They can be bilateral (between two states) or multilateral (involving multiple states).
Treaties are a primary source of international law and are binding on the parties that have
ratified or acceded to them.
Customary International Law: Customary international law is derived from the general
and consistent practice of states, followed out of a sense of legal obligation (opinio juris).
Customary law is binding on all states, regardless of whether they have explicitly
consented to it. Examples of customary law include the prohibition of torture and the
principle of diplomatic immunity.
General Principles of Law: General principles of law are fundamental legal principles
that are recognized by most legal systems. These principles, such as the principle of good
faith and the principle of equity, are considered to be part of international law and are
applied by international courts and tribunals.
Judicial Decisions and Legal Scholarship: Judicial decisions of international courts and
tribunals, as well as legal scholarship, contribute to the development and interpretation of
international law. Decisions of international courts, such as the International Court of
Justice, create binding precedents that guide future cases.
International Custom: International custom refers to the general and consistent practice
of states that is accepted as law. Customary law requires both state practice and opinio
juris, which means that states must engage in the practice out of a belief that it is legally
required. Customary law can develop over time and may eventually be codified in
treaties.
Soft Law: Soft law refers to non-binding instruments and declarations that express the
aspirations and principles of states. While not legally binding, soft law can influence state
behavior and contribute to the development of customary law or the negotiation of
treaties.

How many types of recognition in which cases ( state can withdraw recognition any
time) discuss
States may withdraw recognition of another state in certain circumstances, typically based
on changes in the political landscape or the conduct of the recognized state. Some cases
where a state might withdraw recognition include:
Change in Government:
If there is a change in the government of the recognized state through illegitimate means,
the recognizing
Violation of state might reconsider its recognition.
International Law:
If the recognized state engages in activities that violate international law, such as
aggression against another state, the recognizing state may withdraw recognition.
Human Rights Abuses:
Instances of severe and persistent human r ights abuses by the recognized state might
prompt another state to withdraw recognition in protest.
Treaty Violations:
Violation of international treaties or agreements by the recognized state may lead to a
withdrawal of recognition by other
states.
Unlawful
Any Conduct:
significant breach of international law or norms by the recognized state that
undermines the basis for recognition may be a reason for withdrawal.
Obligations: nternational obligations, especially those it
Failure to Meet
committed to at the time of recognition, other states may reconsider their recognition
International
If a recognized state fails to fulfill its i
It is already written in 2019 about dejure and defacto recognition.

Distinguish between private international law and public international law
Answer
Private international law and public international law are two distinct branches of
international law that govern different aspects of legal relations between states and
individuals. Here's a brief explanation of each:
Private International Law

Private international law, also known as conflict of laws, deals with legal disputes that
involve foreign elements, such as individuals or businesses from different countries. It
focuses on determining which country's laws should apply to a particular case and how to
enforce foreign judgments. Private international law covers various areas, including
contracts, torts, family law, and commercial transactions. Its main objective is to provide
rules and principles that ensure fairness and predictability in cross-border legal matters.
Public International Law
Public international law, also known as the law of nations, governs the relationships
between sovereign states and international organizations. It establishes the rights and
obligations of states in their interactions with each other and regulates issues of global
concern, such as human rights, diplomatic relations, armed conflicts, and environmental
protection. Public international law is primarily concerned with maintaining peace,
promoting cooperation, and resolving disputes between states through diplomatic means.
It is based on treaties, customary practices, and general principles recognized by the
international community
Write kinds of intervention and pricribe the circumstances in which intervention is
permitted under international law
Answer
Kinds of Intervention and Circumstances Permitted under International Law
Intervention refers to the interference by one state in the affairs of another state.
International law recognizes certain circumstances where intervention may be permitted.
Here are some kinds of intervention and the circumstances in which they are allowed:
Humanitarian Intervention: This type of intervention occurs when a state intervenes in
another state to protect the human rights of individuals. It is permitted under international
law when there is a grave and widespread violation of human rights, such as genocide or
ethnic cleansing.
Self-Defense: States have the right to use force in self-defense when they are under
armed attack. This is known as the right to self-defense, which is enshrined in Article 51
of the United Nations Charter. The use of force must be necessary and proportionate to
repel the attack.
Collective Security: Intervention can be authorized by the United Nations Security
Council under Chapter VII of the UN Charter. The Security Council can take measures,
including the use of force, to maintain or restore international peace and security. This
allows for intervention in situations where there is a threat to international peace, such as
aggression or terrorism.

Consent: Intervention may be permitted if the state being intervened upon gives its
consent. This can occur through bilateral agreements or multilateral treaties where states
agree to allow intervention in certain circumstances, such as military assistance or
peacekeeping operations.
Responsibility to Protect (R2P): The concept of R2P recognizes that states have a
responsibility to protect their populations from mass atrocities. When a state is unable or
unwilling to protect its own population, the international community may intervene to
prevent or halt such atrocities. However, intervention under R2P requires authorization
from the Security Council or regional organizations.
Discuss doctrine basic rights and duties of states.
Basic Rights and Duties of States
States, as sovereign entities, have certain rights and duties that are recognized under
international law. These rights and duties form the basis of statehood and govern the
behavior and responsibilities of states in the international community. Here are some of
the key rights and duties of states:
Rights of States
1. Sovereignty: States have the right to exercise supreme authority within their
territorial boundaries and to govern their internal affairs without interference from
other states.
2. Territorial Integrity: States have the right to maintain the inviolability of their
territory and to defend it against any aggression or unlawful intervention.
3. Self-Determination: States have the right to determine their own political,
economic, social, and cultural systems without external interference.
4. Equality: States are considered equal under international law, regardless of their
size, population, or level of development. Each state has the right to participate
equally in international relations.
5. Diplomatic Relations: States have the right to establish and maintain diplomatic
relations with other states, including the right to send and receive diplomatic
missions and to conclude treaties. Duties of States
1. Non-Intervention: States have a duty to refrain from interfering in the internal
affairs of other states. This principle is known as the principle of non-intervention
and is aimed at preserving the sovereignty and independence of states.
2. Respect for Human Rights: States have a duty to respect and protect the human
rights of individuals within their territory, as enshrined in international human
rights treaties and customary international law.

3. Peaceful Settlement of Disputes: States have a duty to settle their disputes
peacefully through negotiation, mediation, or other peaceful means. The use of
force is generally prohibited, except in cases of self-defense or when authorized by
the United Nations Security Council.
4. Compliance with International Law: States have a duty to comply with their
obligations under international law, including treaties and customary international
law. This includes respecting the rights of other states and fulfilling their treaty
obligations.
5. Cooperation: States have a duty to cooperate with each other in addressing
common challenges, such as climate change, terrorism, and the promotion of
sustainable development.
Is international law or not

What are the sources of international law
What is status of individuals under international law
Differentiate between de facto and de jure
International law 2019
International law is law or not discuss
International law is indeed considered law. It is a set of rules and principles that govern
the relationships between states and other international actors. These rules are binding
and enforceable, although the enforcement mechanisms may differ from those in
domestic law.
International law is created through treaties, customary practices, and general principles
recognized by nations. Treaties are agreements between states, while customary practices
are established patterns of behavior that are considered legally binding. General
principles are derived from common legal concepts shared by different legal systems.
International law covers various areas, including human rights, humanitarian law,
environmental law, trade law, and diplomatic relations. It provides a framework for

resolving disputes between states, promoting cooperation, and maintaining peace and
stability in the international community.
While international law is not always as enforceable as domestic law, it plays a crucial
role in shaping the behavior of states and promoting global order. Violations of
international law can lead to diplomatic consequences, economic sanctions, or even
military intervention by the international community.
What is the status of an individual in the international law discuss.
In international law, the status of an individual is a complex and evolving concept.
Traditionally, international law has primarily focused on the rights and obligations of
states. However, in recent years, there has been a growing recognition of the importance
of individuals in the international legal system
The status of individuals in international law can be understood in several ways:
State Nationals: Individuals are primarily seen as citizens or nationals of a particular
state. They enjoy the rights and protections provided by their state under international
law. For example, the right to diplomatic protection and consular assistance.
HumanRights: International human rights law recognizes that individuals have inherent
rights and freedoms that must be protected. Treaties such as the Universal Declaration of
Human Rights and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights establish the
rights and obligations of states towards individuals.
International Criminal Law: Individuals can be held accountable for serious
international crimes such as genocide, war crimes, and crimes against humanity.
International criminal tribunals and courts, such as the International Criminal Court, have
been established to prosecute individuals responsible for these crimes.
Refugees and Migrants: International law provides protection for individuals who are
forced to flee their countries due to persecution or conflict. The 1951 Refugee
Convention and its Protocol establish the rights and obligations of states towards
refugees, while other instruments address the rights of migrants.
International Humanitarian Law: Individuals are protected during armed conflicts by
international humanitarian law. This body of law, also known as the laws of war,
establishes rules to minimize the suffering of individuals and protect their fundamental
rights.
Write a note on the doctrine of equality of states
Doctrine of Equality of States

The doctrine of equality of states is a fundamental principle in international law that
asserts that all states are equal in terms of their sovereignty and legal status. This
principle is enshrined in the United Nations Charter and is a cornerstone of the modern
international system.
Key Points:
Sovereign Equality: The doctrine of equality of states recognizes that all states,
regardless of their size, population, or economic power, possess equal sovereignty. This
means that each state has the right to govern its own affairs without interference from
other states.
Legal Equality: States are also considered legally equal, meaning that they have the
same rights and obligations under international law. This includes the right to participate
in international organizations, engage in diplomatic relations, and be treated with respect
and dignity.
Non-Intervention: The principle of equality of states prohibits one state from interfering
in the internal affairs of another state. This principle is aimed at promoting peaceful
coexistence and preventing the use of force or coercion to impose one state’s will on
another.
Equality in International Organizations: The doctrine of equality of states is reflected
in the structure and decision-making processes of international organizations such as the
United Nations. Each member state, regardless of its size or power, has an equal vote and
an equal say in the decision-making process.
Exceptions: While the principle of equality of states is generally upheld, there are some
exceptions. For example, states may voluntarily enter into treaties or agreements that
limit their sovereignty or grant certain privileges to other states. Additionally, the
principle of equality does not prevent the international community from taking action to
address serious violations of human rights or international law..
Difference between defacto and de jure recognition.
De facto and de jure recognition are two different forms of recognition in
international relations.
De facto recognition refers to the recognition of a government or state based on its
effective control over a territory or population, regardless of whether it has legal or
formal recognition from other states. In other words, de facto recognition is based on the
practical reality of a government’s control rather than its legal status. For example, if a
rebel group successfully establishes control over a territory and governs it effectively,

other states may choose to recognize it de facto as a legitimate authority, even if it does
not have legal recognition.
De jure recognition, on the other hand, refers to the formal or legal recognition of a
government or state by other states. It is based on the adherence to certain legal criteria,
such as sovereignty, independence, and the fulfillment of international legal obligations.
De jure recognition is typically granted through diplomatic means, such as the exchange
of ambassadors or the signing of treaties. It signifies the acceptance of a government or
state as a legitimate member of the international community.
Give a full account of nature and kinds of state responsibility.
Nature and Kinds of State Responsibility
State responsibility refers to the legal obligations that states have under international law
for their actions or omissions. It holds states accountable for any violations of
international law and provides a framework for addressing the consequences of such
violations. There are two main aspects to state responsibility: the nature of state
responsibility and the kinds of state responsibility.
Nature of State Responsibility
The nature of state responsibility is based on the principle that states are subjects of
international law and are bound by its rules. This means that states have legal obligations
towards other states and the international community as a whole. State responsibility is a
fundamental principle of international law that ensures accountability and promotes the
rule of law in the international system.
Kinds of State Responsibility
There are two main kinds of state responsibility: primary and secondary
responsibility.
Primary Responsibility: Primary responsibility refers to the direct responsibility of a
state for its own actions or omissions. It arises when a state violates an international
obligation, such as a treaty or customary international law. For example, if a state
engages in an armed attack against another state in violation of the United Nations
Charter, it bears primary responsibility for the breach.
Secondary Responsibility: Secondary responsibility arises when a state fails to prevent
or stop a wrongful act committed by another state. It is based on the principle that states
have a duty to ensure respect for international law and to prevent harm to other states. If a
state fails to fulfill this duty, it may be held secondarily responsible for the wrongful act.
For example, if a state fails to take action to prevent genocide occurring within its
territory, it may be held secondarily responsible for the crime
Fundamentals of economics 2021Discuss economics and
elaborate in detail. Adam smith’s concept of science of wealth.
Adam Smith, often regarded as the father of modern economics, introduced the
concept of the ―science of wealth‖ in his seminal work, ―An Inquiry into the
Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations‖ (1776). Smith’s perspective on
economics was grounded in the idea that the wealth of a nation is not determined
by the accumulation of gold and silver but by the productivity and efficiency of its
economic activities.
Division of Labor:
Smith emphasized the importance of the division of labor, stating that it leads to
increased productivity. By breaking down production processes into specialized
tasks, workers become more skilled, efficient, and focused, ultimately contributing
to the overall wealth of a nation. Invisible Hand:
One of Smith’s key concepts is the ―invisible hand,‖ suggesting that individuals
pursuing their self-interest unintentionally contribute to the collective well-being of
society. This idea underscores the efficiency of free markets, where individuals,
driven by self-interest, unintentionally benefit society as a whole.
Market Mechanism:
Smith believed in the power of the market mechanism to allocate resources
efficiently. In a competitive market, prices act as signals, guiding producers and
consumers to make decisions that maximize overall wealth. He argued that
government intervention should be minimal, allowing markets to function freely.
Laissez-Faire Capitalism:
Smith advocated for a laissez-faire economic system, where government
interference is limited to protecting property rights and ensuring a functioning legal
system. He believed that individuals acting in their self-interest within a
competitive market would lead to the most efficient allocation of resources and the
greatest overall wealth. Wealth as a Measure:
For Smith, wealth was not solely about material possessions but included the
overall well-being and standard of living of a nation’s citizens. He recognized the
importance of factors like education, infrastructure, and public institutions in
contributing to the wealth and prosperity of a society.
Critiques and Evolutions:
While Smith’s ideas laid the foundation for classical economics, later economists
critiqued and expanded upon his theories. Some argued for the need for

government intervention in certain cases, particularly to address market failures
and ensure social welfare
Discuss economics and elaborate in detail. Adam smith’s concept of science of
wealth.
Adam Smith, often regarded as the father of modern economics, introduced the
concept of the ―science of wealth‖ in his seminal work, ―An Inquiry into the
Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations‖ (1776). Smith’s perspective on
economics was grounded in the idea that the wealth of a nation is not determined
by the accumulation of gold and silver but by the productivity and efficiency of its
economic activities.
Division of Labor:
Smith emphasized the importance of the division of labor, stating that it leads to
increased productivity. By breaking down production processes into specialized
tasks, workers become more skilled, efficient, and focused, ultimately contributing
to the overall wealth of a nation. Invisible Hand:
One of Smith’s key concepts is the ―invisible hand,‖ suggesting that individuals
pursuing their self-interest unintentionally contribute to the collective well-being of
society. This idea underscores the efficiency of free markets, where individuals,
driven by self-interest, unintentionally benefit society as a whole.
Market Mechanism:
Smith believed in the power of the market mechanism to allocate resources
efficiently. In a competitive market, prices act as signals, guiding producers and
consumers to make decisions that maximize overall wealth. He argued that
government intervention should be minimal, allowing markets to function freely.
Laissez-Faire Capitalism:
Smith advocated for a laissez-faire economic system, where government
interference is limited to protecting property rights and ensuring a functioning legal
system. He believed that individuals acting in their self-interest within a
competitive market would lead to the most efficient allocation of resources and the
greatest overall wealth. Wealth as a Measure:
For Smith, wealth was not solely about material possessions but included the
overall well-being and standard of living of a nation’s citizens. He recognized the
importance of factors like education, infrastructure, and public institutions in
contributing to the wealth and prosperity of a society. Critiques and Evolutions:

While Smith’s ideas laid the foundation for classical economics, later economists
critiqued and expanded upon his theories. Some argued for the need for
government intervention in certain cases, particularly to address market failures
and ensure social welfare.
Describe in detail various schools of thoughts in economics.
Economics is a diverse field with various schools of thought, each offering
different perspectives on how economies work and how they should be managed.
Here are brief descriptions of some prominent schools of economic thought:
Classical Economics:
Key Figures: Adam Smith, David Ricardo, John Stuart Mill.
Key Ideas: Emphasizes the role of free markets, individual self-interest, and limited
government intervention. The invisible hand and the idea of comparative advantage
are foundational concepts.
Neoclassical Economics:
Key Figures: Alfred Marshall, Leon Walras.
Key Ideas: Builds upon classical economics but introduces mathematical modeling
and the concept of utility maximization. Neoclassical economists focus on how
individuals and firms make choices to maximize their satisfaction or profit.
Keynesian Economics:
Key Figures: John Maynard Keynes.
Key Ideas: Developed in response to the Great Depression, Keynesian economics
advocates for active government intervention to stabilize the economy. It
emphasizes the role of aggregate demand and supports fiscal and monetary policies
to manage economic fluctuations.
Monetarism:
Key Figures: Milton Friedman.
Key Ideas: Argues that changes in the money supply are the primary drivers of
economic fluctuations. Monetarists advocate for a stable and predictable growth
rate of the money supply to achieve long-term economic stability.
Austrian School:
Key Figures: Ludwig von Mises, Friedrich Hayek.
Key Ideas: Stresses the importance of individual action and entrepreneurship.
Austrian economists emphasize the role of markets in coordinating economic

activity and criticize central planning. They also focus on the impact of monetary
policy on business cycles.
Institutional Economics:
Key Figures: Thorstein Veblen, John R. Commons.
Key Ideas: Focuses on the role of institutions in shaping economic behavior.
Institutional economists analyze how formal and informal rules, norms, and
organizations influence economic outcomes. They emphasize the importance of
understanding historical and social context.
Behavioral Economics:
Key Figures: Daniel Kahneman, Richard Thaler.
Key Ideas: Integrates insights from psychology into economic analysis. Behavioral
economists study how cognitive biases and heuristics influence decision-making,
challenging the traditional assumption of perfectly rational individuals in classical
and neoclassical economics.
Marxian Economics:
Key Figures: Karl Marx.
Key Ideas: Focuses on the role of class struggle and historical materialism.
Marxian economists argue that capitalism inherently leads to exploitation and
inequality. They emphasize the significance of the labor theory of value and the
inevitability of economic crises.
Supply-Side Economics:
Key Figures: Arthur Laffer.
Key Ideas: Advocates for policies that stimulate the supply side of the economy,
such as tax cuts to incentivize production and investment. Supply-side economists
believe that reducing barriers for businesses can lead to economic growth.
These schools of thought represent a spectrum of ideas, and economists often
integrate elements from multiple schools in their analyses. The diversity of
economic thought reflects the complexity of economic systems and the ongoing
evolution of the discipline.
Define demand and supply. Explain law of demand and supply with curves
diagram
Demand:
Demand refers to the quantity of a good or service that consumers are willing and
able to purchase at various prices during a specific period. The relationship
between the price of a good and the quantity demanded is typically inverse,

meaning that as the price of a good rises, the quantity demanded tends to fall, and
vice versa.
Supply:
Supply is the quantity of a good or service that producers are willing and able to
offer for sale at different prices during a specific period. The relationship between
the price of a good and the quantity kosupplied is generally positive, indicating that
as the price of a good rises, the quantity supplied tends to increase.
Law of Demand:
The law of demand states that, all else being equal, as the price of a good or service
decreases, the quantity demanded for that good or service increases, and
conversely, as the price increases, the quantity demanded decreases. This
relationship is typically represented by a downward-sloping demand curve.
In the demand curve diagram:
The horizontal axis represents the quantity demanded.
The vertical axis represents the price.
The demand curve slopes downward from left to right, indicating the inverse
relationship between price and quantity demanded.
Law of Supply: The law of supply asserts that, ceteris paribus (all else being
equal), as the price of a good or service increases, the quantity supplied for that
good or service also increases. Conversely, as the price decreases, the quantity
supplied tends to decrease. This relationship is typically illustrated by an
upwardsloping supply curve.
In the supply curve diagram:
The horizontal axis represents the quantity supplied.
The vertical axis represents the price.
The supply curve slopes upward from left to right, indicating the positive
relationship between price and quantity supplied.
WeThe intersection of the demand and supply curves is known as the equilibrium
point, representing the price and quantity at which the quantity demanded equals
the quantity supplied. Changes in factors affecting demand or supply can shift
these curves, leading to changes in equilibrium price and quantity.
Define deductive and inductive method of study with diagram.
Deductive Method:
The deductive method is a logical approach to research and study that starts with a
general theory or hypothesis and examines specific cases or observations to test the

theory. It involves moving from the general to the specific. The process typically
follows these steps:
Start with a Theory (General Statement): Begin with a broad and general theory or
hypothesis.
Formulate a Hypothesis: Develop specific hypotheses or predictions based on the
general theory.
Collect Data or Observations: Gather specific data or observations to test the
hypotheses.
Draw Conclusions: Analyze the collected data to either confirm or disprove the
initial theory.
Diagram for Deductive Method.
General Theory
So ↓
Hypotheses
↓
Data/Observations
↓
Conclusions
Inductive Method:
The inductive method involves making generalizations based on specific
observations. It starts with specific cases and moves to broader generalizations.
The process typically follows these steps:
Collect Specific Observations or Data: Begin with specific observations or data.
Identify Patterns or Trends: Look for patterns, regularities, or trends in the
observed data.
Formulate a Generalization: Develop a general theory or hypothesis based on the
observed patterns.
Test the Generalization: Test the generalization with further observations or
experiments.
Diagram for Inductive Method:
Specific Observation.
↓
Identify Patterns
↓
Formulate Generalization
↓
Test Generalization
In summary, deductive reasoning starts with a general theory and tests it with
specific cases, while inductive reasoning begins with specific observations and
forms generalizations. Both methods play crucial roles in the scientific method, and
the choice between them often depends on the nature of the research question or
problem at hand.
Define origination and describe it’s various types.
It seems there might be a slight confusion in your question. If you intended to ask
about ―origination,‖ it’s not clear in the context of the question. However, if you
meant ―organization,‖ I can provide information on that. Please clarify, and I’ll be
happy to assist you!
Define An organization and describe types of organization.
Organization:
An organization is a structured group of people working together to achieve
common goals or objectives. It can exist in various forms, ranging from formal
entities like businesses and government agencies to informal groups such as clubs
or community associations. Organizations typically have defined roles,
responsibilities, and a structure to facilitate the efficient pursuit of their objectives.
Types of Organizations:
Functional Organization:
Description: Organized based on functions or specific tasks. Each department is
responsible for a particular function (e.g., marketing, finance, operations).
Advantages: Specialization in tasks, clear reporting lines.
Disadvantages: Communication issues between departments.
Divisional Organization:
Description: Structure based on divisions or product lines. Each division operates

as a separate entity with its own functions.
Advantages: Focus on specific products or markets, easier adaptation to changes.
Disadvantages: Duplication of functions across divisions.
Matrix Organization:

Description: Combines aspects of both functional and divisional structures.
Individuals have dual reporting relationships – to functional managers and project
managers.
Advantages: Enhanced communication, flexibility in resource allocation.
Disadvantages: Complex reporting relationships, potential for power struggles.
Flat Organization:
Description: Few hierarchical levels with a wide span of control. Decisions are
made quickly, and communication flows easily.
Advantages: Quick decision-making, open communication.
Disadvantages: Limited opportunities for advancement, potential for overworked
managers.
Hierarchical or Tall Organization:
Description: Multiple hierarchical levels with a narrow span of control. Clear chain
of command.
Advantages: Clearly defined roles, specialized supervision.
Disadvantages: Slow decision-making, communication challenges. Network
Organization:
Description: Relies on strategic alliances and outsourcing. The organization’s
structure is more fluid and adaptable.
Advantages: Flexibility, access to specialized skills.
Disadvantages: Coordination challenges, dependency on external partners.
Virtual Organization:
Description: Operates primarily through electronic means, with a geographically
dispersed workforce.
Advantages: Cost savings, access to global talent.
Disadvantages: Communication challenges, potential for disconnection among

team members.
Nonprofit Organization:
Description: A type of organization that focuses on a mission or purpose other than
profit. Examples include charities, educational institutions, and advocacy groups.
Advantages: Mission-driven, tax-exempt status.
Disadvantages: Dependency on funding, financial constraints.

These are just a few examples, and real-world organizations often exhibit a
combination of these structures based on their specific needs, industry, and
strategic goals.
Define market and briefly explain it’s various kinds . Market:
A market is a platform or arrangement that facilitates the exchange of goods,
services, or resources between buyers and sellers. It can be physical, such as a
traditional marketplace, or virtual, like an online marketplace. Markets provide the
infrastructure for transactions and are essential for economic activities.
Various Kinds of Markets:
Perfect Competition:
Description: Many buyers and sellers, homogeneous products, no single entity
influencing prices.
Characteristics: Price takers, no barriers to entry or exit.
Example: Agricultural markets.
Monopoly:
Description: Single seller dominating the market, controlling the supply of a unique
product or service.
Characteristics: Price maker, significant barriers to entry.
Example: Local utility companies.
Oligopoly:
Description: Small number of large sellers dominating the market.
Characteristics: Interdependence among firms, strategic pricing.
Example: Automobile industry.
Monopolistic Competition:
Description: Many sellers offering differentiated products.
Characteristics: Limited pricing power, product differentiation.
Example: Retail clothing stores.
Bilateral Monopoly:
Description: Single buyer and single seller in the market.
Characteristics: Negotiations determine prices and quantities.
Example: Labor union bargaining with a single employer.
Factor Market:
Description: Market for factors of production (land, labor, capital).

Participants: Buyers (firms) and sellers (individuals or other firms).
Example: Labor market.
Commodity Market:
Description: Exchange for buying and selling commodities like gold, oil, or
agricultural products.
Participants: Investors, producers, consumers.
Example: Chicago Mercantile Exchange (CME).
Financial Market:
Description: Facilitates the exchange of financial assets, such as stocks, bonds, and
currencies.
Participants: Investors, financial institutions.
Example: New York Stock Exchange (NYSE).
Consumer Goods Market:
Description: Involves the buying and selling of goods for personal use.
Participants: Consumers and producers of consumer goods.
Example: Retail markets.
Foreign Exchange Market (Forex):
Description: Global marketplace for trading national currencies against each other.
Participants: Central banks, financial institutions, speculators.
Example: The global currency exchange market.
Real Estate Market:
Description: Involves the buying, selling, and renting of real property.
Participants: Buyers, sellers, real estate agents.
Example: Housing market.
These market types represent a broad classification, and real-world markets often
exhibit elements of multiple types. The dynamics of a market depend on factors
such as the number of participants, the nature of products or services, and the
degree of competition.
Fundamentals of economics 2020
What is economics? Differentiate between micro economics and macro
economics. Economics:
Economics is the social science that studies how individuals, businesses,
governments, and societies allocate their scarce resources to satisfy their unlimited
wants and needs. It examines the production, distribution, and consumption of

goods and services and analyzes how economic agents make choices to maximize
their well-being given the constraints they face.
Microeconomics:
Microeconomics focuses on the behavior of individual economic agents, such as
consumers, firms, and markets. It deals with specific economic units and examines
how they make decisions regarding resource allocation, production, pricing, and
consumption. Key topics in microeconomics include supply and demand, market
structures, consumer behavior, and the theory of the firm.
Macroeconomics:
Macroeconomics, on the other hand, studies the overall economy and its
aggregates. It examines economy-wide phenomena, such as inflation,
unemployment, economic growth, and national income. Macroeconomists analyze
the factors influencing the entire economy and seek to understand the relationships
between different macroeconomic variables.
What are the basic problems of society? Describe each briefly.
The basic problems of society, often referred to as economic problems, revolve
around the fundamental issues of scarcity and the allocation of limited resources to
satisfy unlimited wants and needs. These problems are commonly categorized into
three main types:
Scarcity:
Description: Scarcity is the fundamental economic problem arising from the
imbalance between limited resources and unlimited human wants. Resources such
as time, money, natural resources, and labor are finite, while human desires are
seemingly limitless.
Significance: Scarcity necessitates choices, and individuals, businesses, and
governments must decide how to allocate resources efficiently to maximize
wellbeing.
Choice:
Description: Due to scarcity, individuals and societies face the necessity of making
choices. Choices involve trade-offs, where the decision to allocate resources to one
option comes at the expense of another.
Significance: Decision-making involves considering opportunity costs—the value
of the next best alternative forgone. Choices are made at every level of society,
from personal decisions to government policies.
Opportunity Cost:

Description: Opportunity cost is the value of the best alternative forgone when a
choice is made. It reflects the true cost of a decision and emphasizes the trade-offs
inherent in resource allocation.
Significance: Understanding opportunity cost is crucial for making informed
decisions. It highlights the concept that resources used for one purpose could have
been used differently, and the true cost is the value of the foregone alternative.
These three problems are interconnected and are at the core of economic analysis.
They apply to individuals making personal choices, businesses deciding how to
allocate their resources, and governments formulating economic policies.
Effectively addressing these problems requires efficient resource management,
rational decision-making, and an understanding of the consequences of choices at
both individual and societal levels.
What is utility? Describe it’s characteristics. Utility:
Utility in economics refers to the satisfaction or pleasure derived from consuming a
good or service. It is a subjective measure of the benefit or value that individuals
assign to the consumption of a particular product or service. Utility plays a crucial
role in the economic analysis of consumer behavior.
Characteristics of Utility:
Subjectivity:
Description: Utility is a subjective concept, meaning it varies from person to
person. What brings satisfaction or pleasure to one individual may not necessarily
do the same for another.
Significance: Recognizing the subjective nature of utility is essential in
understanding individual preferences and decision-making.
Ordinal Measurement:
Description: Utility is often considered ordinal, not cardinal. This means that while
individuals can rank their preferences and express preferences for one option over
another, it is challenging to quantify or measure the absolute amount of utility.
Significance: Ordinal measurement allows economists to analyze consumer choices
without assigning specific numerical values to utility.
Diminishing Marginal Utility:
Description: The law of diminishing marginal utility states that as a person
consumes more units of a good or service, the additional satisfaction or pleasure
(marginal utility) from each additional unit decreases.

Significance: This law explains why individuals make choices and allocate
resources based on maximizing overall satisfaction, considering the diminishing
additional benefit from consuming more of a particular good.
Total Utility and Marginal Utility:
Description: Total utility refers to the overall satisfaction derived from the
consumption of all units of a good, while marginal utility is the additional
satisfaction gained from consuming one more unit.
Significance: Analyzing both total and marginal utility helps in understanding how
consumers make decisions about consuming additional units of a good and how
these decisions contribute to overall well-being.
Indivisibility:
Description: Utility is often treated as an indivisible and unobservable entity. While
economists can observe choices and behavior, the exact level of satisfaction or
pleasure a person experiences cannot be directly measured.
Significance: Indivisibility of utility reinforces the reliance on observable behavior
and preferences in economic analysis.
Understanding utility and its characteristics is vital for economists to model and
predict consumer choices, analyze demand, and evaluate how individuals allocate
their resources to maximize satisfaction given budget constraints and scarcity.
Define demand. Describe law of demand and rise and fall of demand with
suitable graphs.
Demand:
Demand in economics refers to the quantity of a good or service that consumers are
willing and able to buy at various prices during a specific period. It represents the
relationship between the price of a product and the quantity that consumers are
willing to purchase, assuming other factors remain constant.
Law of Demand:
The law of demand states that, all else being equal, the quantity demanded of a
good or service decreases as its price increases, and vice versa. In other words,
there is an inverse relationship between price and quantity demanded.
Graphical Representation:
A demand curve illustrates the law of demand. It slopes downward from left to
right, indicating that as the price of a good decreases, the quantity demanded
increases, and as the price increases, the quantity demanded decreases.
Rise and Fall of Demand:

Rise in Demand:
Causes: Factors such as a decrease in price, an increase in consumer income,
changes in preferences, or the introduction of complementary goods can lead to an
increase in demand.
Graphical Representation: A rise in demand is depicted by a rightward shift of
the entire demand curve.
Fall in Demand:
Causes: Factors like an increase in price, a decrease in consumer income, changes
in preferences, or the availability of substitute goods can lead to a decrease in
demand.
Graphical Representation: A fall in demand is illustrated by a leftward shift of
the entire demand curve.
Understanding the law of demand and the factors influencing the rise and fall of
demand is crucial for businesses and policymakers. It helps in predicting how
changes in various economic factors will impact the quantity of a good or service
that consumers are willing to buy at different price levels.
Define the economic system. Explain at least any two systems along with the
examples. Economic Systems
An economic system refers to the way a society organizes the production,
distribution, and consumption of goods and services. It involves the allocation of
resources, the coordination of economic activities, and the determination of prices
and wages. There are various types of economic systems, but two commonly
discussed systems are:
1. Market Economy
In a market economy, also known as capitalism, the production and distribution of
goods and services are primarily determined by the interactions of buyers and
sellers in the marketplace. Prices are set by supply and demand, and individuals
and businesses make decisions based on their self-interest. The government's role
is limited, and private ownership of resources and businesses is prevalent.
Examples of market economies include the United States, the United Kingdom,
and Singapore. In these countries, individuals and businesses have the freedom to
start their own enterprises, compete in the market, and make decisions about what
to produce and consume.
2. Command Economy

In a command economy, also known as socialism or communism, the government
has significant control over the production and distribution of goods and services.
The state owns and controls most resources and industries, and central planning
determines what is produced, how it is produced, and who receives the goods and
services.
Examples of command economies include Cuba, North Korea, and the former
Soviet Union. In these countries, the government plays a central role in economic
decision-making, and resources are allocated based on the state's priorities rather
than market forces
What is supply? Describe law of supply and rise and fall of supply with
suitable graphs.
Supply:
Supply in economics refers to the quantity of a good or service that producers are
willing and able to offer for sale at various prices during a specific period. It
represents the relationship between the price of a product and the quantity that
producers are willing to supply, assuming other factors remain constant.
Law of Supply:
The law of supply states that, all else being equal, the quantity supplied of a good
or service increases as its price increases, and vice versa. In other words, there is a
direct relationship between the price of a product and the quantity that producers
are willing to supply.
Graphical Representation:
A supply curve illustrates the law of supply. It slopes upward from left to right,
indicating that as the price of a good increases, the quantity supplied also increases,
and as the price decreases, the quantity supplied decreases.
Rise and Fall of Supply:
Rise in Supply:
Causes: Factors such as a decrease in production costs, technological
advancements, favorable weather conditions for agricultural products, or an
increase in the number of producers can lead to a rise in supply.
Graphical Representation: A rise in supply is depicted by a rightward shift of the
entire supply curve.
Fall in Supply:

Causes: Factors like an increase in production costs, unfavorable weather
conditions, technological setbacks, or a decrease in the number of producers can
lead to a fall in supply.
Graphical Representation: A fall in supply is illustrated by a leftward shift of the
entire supply curve.
Understanding the law of supply and the factors influencing the rise and fall of
supply is crucial for businesses, policymakers, and economists. It helps in
predicting how changes in various economic factors will impact the quantity of a
good or service that producers are willing to offer for sale at different price levels.
Economics 2019
Which of the following economic system are suitable for pakistan economic
system
Mixed economic system
Islamic economic system
Pakistan’s economic system is a combination of both a mixed economic system
and elements of an Islamic economic system.
A mixed economic system is characterized by a combination of private and public
ownership of resources and the means of production. In Pakistan, the government
plays a significant role in regulating and controlling key sectors such as energy,
telecommunications, and transportation. At the same time, there is also a
significant presence of private enterprises and market forces in the economy.
Islamic economic system, on the other hand, is based on the principles of Islamic
law (Shariah). It emphasizes ethical and moral values, such as fairness, justice, and
prohibition of interest (riba). While Pakistan is an Islamic country, its economic
system is not purely based on Islamic principles. However, efforts have been made
to incorporate Islamic banking and finance practices into the existing economic
system.
What is relation between business and economics.
Regarding the relationship between business and economics, economics is the
study of how societies allocate scarce resources to satisfy unlimited wants and
needs. It analyzes the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and
services. Business, on the other hand, refers to the activities involved in producing
and selling goods or services to make a profit.
Business and economics are closely related as businesses operate within the
economic system. Economics provides the theoretical framework and tools to

understand how businesses function and how they interact with other economic
agents. Businesses, in turn, contribute to the overall economic activity by creating
jobs, generating income, and driving economic growth.
Classical View (Adam Smith)
Adam Smith, a classical economist, believed that a well-functioning legal system is
essential for economic prosperity. He argued that the rule of law, property rights,
and contract enforcement are necessary for individuals to engage in economic
activities with confidence. When law and order conditions are strong, businesses
can operate efficiently, contracts are honored, and property rights are protected.
This fosters investment, innovation, and economic growth.
Neo-Classical View (Alfred Marshall)
Alfred Marshall, a neo-classical economist, built upon Adam Smith's ideas and
emphasized the importance of a stable legal framework. He argued that a
predictable legal system provides a conducive environment for economic activities.
Marshall believed that the enforcement of contracts and protection of property
rights are crucial for encouraging investment, entrepreneurship, and economic
development. When law and order conditions are favorable, it reduces uncertainty
and encourages individuals to engage in productive economic activities.
Modern View (Robin Wilson)
Robin Wilson, a modern economist, recognizes the significance of law and order
conditions in shaping economic outcomes. He emphasizes the role of institutions in
creating an enabling environment for economic activities. Wilson argues that a
well-functioning legal system, effective law enforcement, and a fair judiciary are
essential for economic growth. When law and order conditions are strong, it
enhances investor confidence, reduces corruption, and promotes a level playing
field for businesses. This, in turn, attracts investment, fosters innovation, and
contributes to sustainable economic development
Differentiate between demand and supply. Explain in detail.
Demand and Supply
Demand and supply are fundamental concepts in economics that help explain the
behavior of markets. Let's differentiate between demand and supply and explore
each concept in detail.
Demand

Demand refers to the quantity of a good or service that consumers are willing and
able to buy at a given price and within a specific time period. It represents the
consumer side of the market. Key points about demand include:
1. Law of Demand: According to the law of demand, there is an inverse
relationship between the price of a good and the quantity demanded, ceteris
paribus (all other factors remaining constant). In other words, as the price of
a good increases, the quantity demanded decreases, and vice versa.
2. Demand Curve: The demand curve is a graphical representation of the
relationship between the price of a good and the quantity demanded. It
slopes downward from left to right, reflecting the inverse relationship
between price and quantity demanded.
3. Determinants of Demand: Factors that influence demand include consumer
preferences, income, prices of related goods, population, and expectations.
Changes in these determinants can shift the entire demand curve.
Supply
Supply refers to the quantity of a good or service that producers are willing and
able to offer for sale at a given price and within a specific time period. It represents
the producer side of the market. Key points about supply include:
1. Law of Supply: According to the law of supply, there is a direct relationship
between the price of a good and the quantity supplied, ceteris paribus. In
other words, as the price of a good increases, the quantity supplied also
increases, and vice versa.
2. Supply Curve: The supply curve is a graphical representation of the
relationship between the price of a good and the quantity supplied. It slopes
upward from left to right, reflecting the direct relationship between price and
quantity supplied.
3. Determinants of Supply: Factors that influence supply include production
costs, technology, prices of inputs, government regulations, and
expectations. Changes in these determinants can shift the entire supply
curve.
Market Equilibrium
The interaction of demand and supply determines the market equilibrium, where
the quantity demanded equals the quantity supplied. At equilibrium, there is no
shortage or surplus of the good, and the market clears.

Changes in either demand or supply can disrupt the equilibrium, leading to shifts in
the demand or supply curve and changes in the equilibrium price and quantity.
Impact of law and order conditions in the economics of the country
The law and order conditions of a country play a crucial role in shaping its
economic environment. The impact can be significant, influencing investment,
economic growth, and overall prosperity. Here are some key ways in which law
and order conditions affect the economics of a country:
1. Investment Climate:
• Positive Impact: Strong law and order conditions create a favorable
investment climate. Investors are more likely to commit capital when
they perceive a stable and secure environment. This includes
protection of property rights, contract enforcement, and safeguards
against corruption.
• Negative Impact: Weak law and order, characterized by high crime
rates, corruption, or political instability, can deter both domestic and
foreign investment. Investors may be reluctant to commit resources to
a country with an uncertain and unsafe business environment.
2. Business Confidence:
• Positive Impact: Adequate law and order contribute to business
confidence. When businesses feel secure, they are more likely to
expand operations, hire employees, and engage in long-term planning.
This, in turn, can stimulate economic growth.
• Negative Impact: High levels of crime, civil unrest, or inadequate
legal protection can erode business confidence. Uncertainty about the
safety of assets, employees, and investments may lead to a cautious
business approach, hindering economic development.
3. Rule of Law and Governance:
• Positive Impact: A robust legal framework and effective governance
contribute to a fair and transparent business environment. This fosters
trust in institutions, facilitates contract enforcement, and ensures a
level playing field for businesses.
• Negative Impact:Weak rule of law and governance can result in
corruption, unequal application of laws, and regulatory uncertainty.

This hampers economic development, as businesses face challenges in
navigating an unpredictable legal landscape.
4. Social and Economic Stability:
• Positive Impact: Law and order contribute to social stability, which is
essential for sustained economic development. A stable society
provides a foundation for businesses to operate, citizens to engage in
economic activities, and the implementation of long-term economic
policies.
• Negative Impact: Social and economic instability, often linked to
poor law and order conditions, can lead to disruptions in economic
activities. Protests, strikes, and conflicts can adversely affect
productivity and deter investment.
5. Human Capital Development:
• Positive Impact: Law and order conditions influence human capital
development. A safe and secure environment encourages education,
skill development, and workforce participation, leading to a more
productive and competitive labor force.
• Negative Impact: Inadequate law and order may result in limited
access to education, high crime rates, and challenges in retaining
skilled professionals. This can impede economic progress and hinder a
country's ability to compete globally.
6. Financial and Economic Policies:
• Positive Impact:Sound law and order conditions support effective
implementation of financial and economic policies. Governments can
enforce regulations, collect taxes, and implement economic reforms
more efficiently.
Negative Impact: Weak law and order may lead to difficulties in
implementing policies and reforms. Corruption and lack of regulatory
enforcement can undermine the effectiveness of economic measures.

Political science 2021 Discuss
the basic concept of political science.
Answer
Political science is the study of politics, government, and political behavior. It aims to
understand and analyze political systems, institutions, processes, and policies. Here are some
key points to discuss the basic concept of political science:
1. Definition: Political science is a social science discipline that focuses on the theory
and practice of politics. It examines how power is distributed, how decisions are
made, and how policies are implemented in different political systems.
2. Scope: Political science covers a wide range of topics, including political theory,
comparative politics, international relations, public administration, and public policy.
It explores various aspects of politics, such as political ideologies, political parties,
elections, governance, diplomacy, and conflict resolution.
3. Methodology: Political scientists use a variety of research methods, including
qualitative and quantitative approaches. They conduct surveys, interviews, case
studies, experiments, and statistical analysis to gather data and test hypotheses. This
empirical approach helps in understanding political phenomena and making
evidencebased conclusions.
4. Subfields: Political science is divided into subfields that focus on specific areas of
study. Some common subfields include political theory (examining political ideas and
concepts), comparative politics (comparing different political systems), international
relations (analyzing interactions between states), and public administration (studying
the functioning of government agencies).
5. Importance: Political science is crucial for understanding how societies are governed
and how political decisions impact individuals and communities. It helps in analyzing
political processes, predicting political outcomes, and formulating effective policies.
Political scientists also contribute to public debates, policy-making, and the
development of democratic institutions.
Write down the detailed note on forms of state.
Answer
A state is a political organization that exercises authority over a defined territory and its
population. There are different forms of state that exist in the world today. Here are some of
the main forms of state:
1. Unitary State: In a unitary state, power is concentrated at the national level, and the
central government has authority over subnational units. The central government can
create or abolish subnational units and can also delegate powers to them. Examples of
unitary states include France and Japan.

2. Federal State: In a federal state, power is divided between the central government
and subnational units, such as states or provinces. Both levels of government have
their own areas of jurisdiction and can make laws within their respective domains.
Examples of federal states include the United States, Canada, and Germany.
3. Confederal State: In a confederal state, power is decentralized to subnational units,
and the central government has limited authority. The subnational units retain a high
degree of autonomy and can make decisions independently. Examples of confederal
states include the European Union and the former Confederate States of America.
4. Monarchy: In a monarchy, power is vested in a single individual, usually a king or
queen, who inherits the position. The monarch may have limited or absolute powers,
depending on the specific system. Examples of monarchies include the United
Kingdom, Saudi Arabia, and Japan.
5. Republic: In a republic, power is held by the people or their elected representatives.
The head of state is usually a president, who is elected for a fixed term. Republics can
have different forms, such as parliamentary republics or presidential republics.
Examples of republics include the United States, France, and India.
6. Dictatorship: In a dictatorship, power is concentrated in the hands of a single
individual or a small group. The dictator exercises absolute control over the state and
its institutions, often through force or coercion. Examples of dictatorships include
North Korea and Zimbabwe.
7. Theocracy: In a theocracy, religious leaders hold the ultimate authority, and the state
is governed based on religious principles. The religious leaders may have direct
control over the government or influence its decision-making processes. Examples of
theocracies include Iran and Vatican City.
Write the political concepts and institutions in islam

Answer
Islam has several political concepts and institutions that shape its governance and
society. Some of the key concepts and institutions in Islam include:
Caliphate
The caliphate is a political institution in Islam that represents the successorship to
Prophet Muhammad. It is based on the belief that the caliph is the political and
religious leader of the Muslim community. The caliphate historically played a central
role in governing Muslim lands and upholding Islamic principles.
Shura
Shura refers to the concept of consultation and consensus-building in decisionmaking.
It emphasizes the importance of seeking advice and opinions from knowledgeable
individuals within the community. Shura is seen as a democratic principle in Islam,
promoting collective decision-making and participation.
Ummah

Ummah refers to the global Muslim community. It represents the unity and solidarity
among Muslims, transcending national, ethnic, and cultural boundaries. The concept
of Ummah fosters a sense of collective responsibility and cooperation among
Muslims.
Sharia
Sharia is the Islamic legal framework derived from the Quran and the teachings of
Prophet Muhammad. It encompasses a wide range of laws and principles governing
various aspects of life, including politics, economics, and social issues. Sharia
provides guidelines for governance and justice in an Islamic society.
Majlis
Majlis refers to a council or assembly where discussions and deliberations take place.
It can be at various levels, from local to national, and serves as a platform for
decision-making and policy formulation. Majlis plays a significant role in shaping
political decisions and representing the interests of the community.
Hisba
Hisba is an institution responsible for enforcing public morality and ensuring
compliance with Islamic principles. It focuses on maintaining social order, preventing
corruption, and upholding ethical standards within society. Hisba institutions
historically played a role in regulating markets, ensuring fair trade practices, and
protecting the rights of individuals.
Explain the main organs of state
Answer
The main organs of the state refer to the key institutions that perform different functions in
the governance of a country. These organs are typically found in democratic systems and are
designed to ensure the separation of powers and the checks and balances necessary for
effective governance. The main organs of the state include:
1. Legislature: The legislature is responsible for making laws. It is usually a
representative body elected by the people, such as a parliament or congress. The
legislature debates and passes laws, approves the budget, and exercises oversight
over the executive branch.
2. Executive: The executive branch is responsible for implementing and enforcing
laws. It is headed by the head of state or government, such as a president or prime
minister. The executive branch includes various ministries, departments, and
agencies that carry out the day-to-day administration of the country.
3. Judiciary: The judiciary is responsible for interpreting and applying the law. It
ensures that laws are upheld and disputes are resolved fairly. The judiciary is
independent of the other branches of government and includes courts at different
levels, such as the Supreme Court or Constitutional Court.

4. Public Administration: Public administration refers to the administrative
machinery that supports the functioning of the state. It includes civil servants and
public officials who implement government policies and deliver public services.
Public administration ensures the smooth operation of the state and the effective
implementation of laws and policies.
Discuss the state nation and sovereignty

Answer
State, Nation, and Sovereignty
The concepts of state, nation, and sovereignty are fundamental in political science and
international relations. Here's a brief discussion of each term:
State
A state is a political entity that exercises authority and control over a defined territory and its
population. It has a government that makes and enforces laws, collects taxes, and provides
public services. The state is characterized by its sovereignty, which means it has the ultimate
power and authority within its territory.
Nation
A nation refers to a group of people who share a common culture, language, history, and
often a sense of identity. It is a subjective concept based on a collective sense of belonging
and shared values. A nation may or may not have its own state. For example, the Kurds are a
nation without a state, as they do not have their own independent political entity.
Sovereignty
Sovereignty is the supreme authority and independence of a state to govern itself without
interference from external forces. It means that a state has the right to make decisions within
its territory and is not subject to the authority of any other state or international organization.
Sovereignty is a key principle of the international system and is recognized by other states
through diplomatic relations.
Political science 2020
Define State what are the functions of state?
The State refers to a political entity that exercises authority and control over a defined
territory and its population. It performs various functions to ensure the well-being and
stability of society. Here are some key functions of the State:
Legislative Function: The State creates laws and regulations to govern society. The
legislative branch, consisting of elected representatives, formulates and enacts laws that
reflect the needs and values of the population.

Executive Function: The State implements and enforces laws and policies. The executive
branch, led by the government, carries out day-to-day administration, manages public
services, and ensures the smooth functioning of society.
Judicial Function: The State provides a system of courts and judges to interpret and apply
laws. The judiciary ensures justice by resolving disputes, protecting individual rights, and
upholding the rule of law.
Security Function: The State maintains law and order, protects citizens, and defends the
territory against external threats. It establishes police forces, armed forces, and intelligence
agencies to ensure the safety and security of the population.
Economic Function: The State plays a role in managing the economy. It formulates
economic policies, regulates industries, provides public goods and services, promotes
economic development, and addresses issues such as poverty, unemployment, and inequality.
Social Welfare Function: The State is responsible for the welfare of its citizens. It provides
social services such as healthcare, education, housing, and social security to ensure the
wellbeing and quality of life for all members of society.
Diplomatic Function: The State represents its interests and interacts with other countries
through diplomacy. It engages in international relations, negotiates treaties, participates in
international organizations, and promotes its national interests on the global stage.
Define democracy. Describe what are the conditions for democracy.?
Democracy
Democracy is a form of government where power is vested in the people, who exercise it
directly or through elected representatives. It is characterized by the principles of political
equality, majority rule, and protection of individual rights and freedoms.
Conditions for Democracy
For a democracy to function effectively, certain conditions need to be met:
Free and Fair Elections: Regular elections should be held, allowing citizens to choose their
representatives freely and without coercion. These elections should be conducted in a fair
and transparent manner.
Political Participation: Citizens should have the right to participate in the political process,
express their opinions, and engage in peaceful political activities. This includes the freedom
of speech, assembly, and association.
Rule of Law: Democracy requires a legal framework that is impartially enforced and applies
equally to all citizens. This ensures that no one is above the law and that individual rights are
protected.

Respect for Human Rights: Democracy requires the protection of fundamental human
rights, such as freedom of expression, religion, and association. These rights should be
guaranteed and upheld by the government.
Pluralism and Tolerance: Democracy thrives on diversity and the acceptance of different
viewpoints. It requires a society that respects and tolerates the rights and opinions of
minority groups.
Independent Media: A free and independent media is essential for democracy. It provides
citizens with accurate information, holds the government accountable, and facilitates public
debate.
Civil Society: A vibrant civil society, including non-governmental organizations, trade
unions, and community groups, plays a crucial role in democracy. It provides a platform for
citizen engagement and acts as a check on government power.
Responsive Government: A democratic government should be responsive to the needs and
concerns of its citizens. It should be accountable, transparent, and open to public scrutiny
.
Define political parties describe the functions of political parties.
Answer
Political Parties
Political parties are organized groups of individuals who share similar political beliefs and
goals. They play a crucial role in democratic systems by representing the interests of their
members and seeking to influence government policies and decisions. Here are some key
functions of political parties:
1. Representation: Political parties serve as a platform for individuals to express their
political views and interests. They bring together like-minded individuals and provide
a collective voice for their members in the political arena.
2. Recruitment and Nomination: Parties identify and recruit potential candidates for
public office. They play a vital role in the selection and nomination of candidates for
elections, ensuring that qualified individuals who align with the party's ideology and
goals are put forward.
3. Policy Formulation: Political parties develop and promote policy proposals on
various issues. They engage in debates, discussions, and research to formulate
policies that reflect their values and priorities. These policies serve as a basis for their
election campaigns and influence public opinion.
4. Election Campaigns: Parties organize election campaigns to mobilize support for
their candidates. They use various strategies such as rallies, advertisements, and social
media to communicate their message, attract voters, and persuade them to vote for
their candidates.

5. Political Education: Parties play a role in educating the public about political issues
and ideologies. They provide information, conduct seminars, and engage in public
debates to raise awareness and promote political participation among citizens.
6. Interest Articulation: Political parties act as intermediaries between the government
and the public. They represent the interests and concerns of their members and
supporters, advocating for specific policies and reforms.
Write short notes on following topics

Pressure groups
Characteristics of sovereignty Rule
of law.
Answer
Pressure Groups
Pressure groups are organizations or associations formed by individuals who share common
interests and goals. They aim to influence public policy and decision-making processes by
exerting pressure on governments, political parties, and other institutions. Here are some key
points about pressure groups:
• Nature and Purpose: Pressure groups are formed to promote the interests of a
specific section of society, such as trade unions, environmental organizations, or
professional associations. They seek to influence policies, legislation, and government
actions in favor of their members or causes.
• Methods of Influence: Pressure groups use various methods to exert pressure and
influence decision-makers. These include lobbying, public campaigns, protests,
demonstrations, media campaigns, and legal actions. They may also engage in direct
negotiations with policymakers or participate in consultations and public hearings.
• Types of Pressure Groups: Pressure groups can be categorized based on their
objectives and methods. Some common types include interest groups (representing
specific economic or social interests), cause groups (advocating for a particular cause
or issue), and insider groups (having close relationships with policymakers) or
outsider groups (mobilizing public opinion to pressure policymakers).
• Strengths and Limitations: Pressure groups play a crucial role in democratic
societies by providing a voice to marginalized groups, promoting pluralism, and
ensuring a check on government power. However, they also face challenges such as
limited resources, unequal access to policymakers, and the potential for undue
influence by powerful interest groups.
Characteristics of Sovereignty
Sovereignty refers to the supreme and independent authority of a state or government over its
territory and people. It is a fundamental concept in political science and international
relations. Here are some key characteristics of sovereignty:

• Supreme Authority: Sovereignty implies that the state has the highest and final
authority within its territory. It has the power to make and enforce laws, maintain
order, and regulate the behavior of individuals and institutions.
• Territoriality: Sovereignty is inherently linked to a specific territory. The state
exercises its authority within defined borders and has the right to control and defend
its territory against external threats.
• Independence: Sovereignty implies that the state is free from external control or
interference in its internal affairs. It has the right to determine its own political,
economic, and social systems without external coercion.
• Recognition: Sovereignty is often recognized and respected by other states in the
international community. Recognition by other states is crucial for a state to be
considered sovereign and to participate in international relations.
• Limitations: While sovereignty grants a state significant authority, it is not absolute.
States are bound by international law, treaties, and agreements, and their actions may
be subject to scrutiny and intervention by other states or international organizations in
cases of human rights abuses or threats to international peace and security.
Rule of Law
The rule of law is a fundamental principle that ensures a just and fair society by subjecting
everyone, including the government, to the law. It establishes a framework where laws are
applied equally and consistently, and no one is above the law. Here are some key points
about the rule of law:
• Equality and Fairness: The rule of law requires that all individuals and institutions
are subject to and accountable under the law. It ensures that laws are applied equally
to all, regardless of their status, wealth, or power.
• Legal Certainty: The rule of law promotes legal certainty by providing clear,
predictable, and accessible laws. It ensures that laws are publicly known,
nonretroactive, and applied consistently, allowing individuals to plan their actions and
make informed decisions.
• Impartial Judiciary: The rule of law requires an independent and impartial judiciary
to interpret and apply the law. The judiciary acts as a check on the executive and
legislative branches, ensuring that their actions are in accordance with the law and
protecting individual rights.
• Protection of Rights: The rule of law safeguards individual rights and liberties by
providing legal mechanisms for their protection. It ensures due process, fair trials, and
access to justice, allowing individuals to seek remedies and challenge government
actions that violate their rights.
• Accountability: The rule of law holds both individuals and institutions accountable
for their actions. It establishes mechanisms for oversight, transparency, and
accountability, preventing abuse of power and corruption.
What are the characteristics of parliamentary and presidential form of government
discuss their merits and demerits
Answer
Characteristics of Parliamentary and Presidential Form of Government
Parliamentary Form of Government

• In a parliamentary form of government, the executive branch is led by a Prime
Minister who is elected by the legislature.
• The Prime Minister is accountable to the legislature and can be removed through a
vote of no confidence.
• The head of state is usually a ceremonial figure, such as a President or a monarch.
• The legislature, also known as the parliament, is responsible for making laws and
representing the interests of the people.
• The executive and legislative branches are interconnected, with members of the
executive branch often being members of the legislature as well. Presidential Form
of Government
• In a presidential form of government, the executive branch is led by a President who
is elected directly by the people.
• The President is independent of the legislature and serves as both the head of state
and the head of government.
• The President is not accountable to the legislature and cannot be removed through a
vote of no confidence.
• The legislature, often called the Congress, is responsible for making laws and
representing the interests of the people.
• The executive and legislative branches are separate and independent of each other.
Merits and Demerits
Parliamentary Form of Government Merits

• Quick decision-making: The parliamentary system allows for quick decision-making
as the executive and legislative branches are closely connected. This enables prompt
responses to national issues.
• Accountability: The Prime Minister and the executive branch are accountable to the
legislature, ensuring that they are answerable to the people's representatives.
• Flexibility: The parliamentary system allows for flexibility in adapting to changing
circumstances, as the government can be easily reshuffled or replaced through a vote
of no confidence.

Demerits
• Lack of separation of powers: The fusion of executive and legislative powers in the
parliamentary system can lead to a concentration of power in the hands of the ruling
party, potentially undermining checks and balances.
• Instability: The frequent changes in government due to votes of no confidence or
elections can lead to political instability and hinder long-term planning.
• Limited representation: The parliamentary system may not provide equal
representation to all regions or minority groups, as the ruling party tends to have more
power.
Presidential Form of Government Merits
• Separation of powers: The presidential system ensures a clear separation of powers
between the executive and legislative branches, preventing the concentration of power
in one institution.
• Stability: The fixed term of the President provides stability and allows for long-term
planning, as the government is not subject to frequent changes.
• Direct accountability: The President is directly elected by the people, making them
directly accountable to the citizens. Demerits
• Slow decision-making: The separation of powers in the presidential system can lead
to slower decision-making, as the executive and legislative branches may have
different priorities and agendas.
• Lack of flexibility: The fixed term of the President limits the ability to respond
quickly to changing circumstances or crises.
• Lack of accountability: The President is not directly accountable to the legislature,
which can lead to a lack of oversight and checks on their actions.
Examine the merits and demerits of bicameral and unicameral legislature.

Answer
Merits and Demerits of Bicameral and Unicameral Legislature
A bicameral legislature consists of two separate chambers, while a unicameral legislature has
only one chamber. Both systems have their own merits and demerits, which are discussed
below:
Bicameral Legislature:
Merits:
• Checks and Balances:Bicameralism provides a system of checks and balances by
dividing legislative power between two chambers. This helps prevent the
concentration of power and ensures that legislation is thoroughly debated and
scrutinized.

• Representation: Bicameralism allows for better representation of diverse interests
and regions. The lower chamber can represent the population proportionally, while
the upper chamber can represent states or regions equally.
• Expertise: Bicameralism allows for specialization and expertise in legislation. The
upper chamber, often composed of experienced and knowledgeable members, can
provide a more thorough review of bills and offer valuable insights.
• Stability: Bicameral legislatures tend to be more stable as they require the approval
of both chambers to pass legislation. This can prevent hasty decision-making and
promote deliberation.
Demerits:
• Gridlock: Bicameralism can lead to gridlock and delays in decision-making.
Disagreements between the two chambers can result in legislative stalemates, making
it difficult to pass important bills.
• Costly and Time-consuming: Maintaining two chambers can be expensive and
timeconsuming. It requires additional resources, such as staff, facilities, and
administrative support, which can strain the budget and slow down the legislative
process.
• Inefficiency: Bicameral legislatures may face challenges in coordinating and
reconciling the different views and interests of the two chambers. This can lead to
inefficiencies and compromises that may not always reflect the best interests of the
population.
Unicameral Legislature:
Merits:
• Efficiency: Unicameral legislatures are often more efficient in decision-making as

there is no need for coordination and compromise between two chambers. This can
result in faster legislative processes and quicker responses to emerging issues.
• Cost-effective: Unicameralism is generally more cost-effective as it requires fewer
resources compared to a bicameral system. This can free up resources for other
important areas, such as education, healthcare, or infrastructure.
• Simplicity:Unicameral legislatures are simpler to understand and operate. There is a
single chamber, making it easier for citizens to engage with the legislative process
and hold their representatives accountable.
Demerits:
• Lack of Checks and Balances: Unicameralism may lack the checks and balances
provided by a second chamber. This can result in the concentration of power and
potential abuse of authority by the ruling party or government.

• Limited Representation: Unicameral legislatures may struggle to adequately
represent diverse interests and regions. Smaller or marginalized groups may have less
influence and their concerns may be overlooked.
• Less Expertise: Unicameral legislatures may lack the specialized expertise that can
be found in an upper chamber of a bicameral system. This can lead to less thorough
scrutiny of legislation and potential oversights.
Narrate fully the nature and scope of political science in modern.
Political science is a social science discipline that systematically studies government systems,
political behavior, political thought, and the distribution of power. In modern times, the
nature and scope of political science have evolved to encompass a broad range of topics and
methodologies.
Nature of Political Science:
Interdisciplinary: Political science draws from various disciplines such as history,

sociology, economics, law, and philosophy to analyze political phenomena comprehensively.
Empirical and Normative: It combines empirical research to understand political systems

and behaviors with normative analysis, exploring how political entities ought to function
based on ethical principles.
Dynamic and Evolving: Political science is dynamic, reflecting the ever-changing nature of
political systems, ideologies, and global affairs. It adapts to new political challenges and
developments.
Descriptive and Prescriptive: Political science describes political events and systems and
prescribes solutions or recommendations for addressing political issues.
Scope of Political Science:
Political Theory: Examines the ideas and concepts underlying political systems, exploring
topics such as justice, authority, rights, and freedom.
Comparative Politics: Compares different political systems, institutions, and cultures to

identify patterns, differences, and similarities.
International Relations: Focuses on the interactions between states, international

organizations, and non-state actors, analyzing diplomacy, conflict, cooperation, and global
governance.

Political Economy: Studies the relationship between politics and economics, examining how
political institutions and processes impact economic policies and outcomes.
Public Administration: Analyzes the organization and functioning of government

institutions, bureaucracies, and public policies.
Political Methodology: Involves the development and application of research methods,

including statistical techniques and qualitative analysis, to study political phenomena.
Political Sociology: Explores the sociological aspects of politics, studying the influence of
social structures, groups, and individuals on political behavior.
Environmental Politics: Examines the political dimensions of environmental issues,

including policy responses to climate change and resource management.
Authoritarian is just opposite to democracy? Comment.
Authoritarianism and democracy are often considered opposites in terms of governance

styles, reflecting fundamental differences in the concentration and distribution of power.
Decision-Making:
Authoritarianism: Power is concentrated in a single authority or a small group, and

decisions are made by this authority without significant input from the broader population.
Democracy: Power is distributed among the people, who typically participate in

decisionmaking through voting and representation.
Citizen Participation:
Authoritarianism: Limited or no direct participation of citizens in decision-making; political

opposition may be suppressed.
Democracy: Emphasizes citizen participation, often through regular elections and the
protection of individual rights and freedoms.
Rule of Law:
Authoritarianism: Rule by law, where the legal system may serve the interests of the ruling
authority rather than providing equal protection for all citizens.
Democracy: Rule of law, with an independent judiciary ensuring fairness, justice, and
protection of individual rights.

Political Pluralism:
Authoritarianism: Limited political diversity and opposition; a single party or leader may
dominate the political landscape.
Democracy: Allows for political pluralism, with multiple parties and viewpoints, fostering a
competitive political environment.
Accountability:
Authoritarianism: Limited accountability of leaders to the public; decision-makers may not

be subject to regular elections.
Democracy: Leaders are accountable to the electorate, and regular elections provide a
mechanism for citizens to express their approval or disapproval.
Protection of Rights:
Authoritarianism: Individual rights and freedoms may be restricted or sacrificed for the sake
of stability or the state's interests.
Democracy: Emphasizes the protection of individual rights and freedoms as a fundamental

aspect of governance.
Define state and show the difference between state and government.
State:
A state is a politically organized community that has a defined territory, a permanent

population, a government, and the capacity to enter into relations with other states. It is a
sovereign entity with the authority to make and enforce laws within its borders. The state is a
complex political institution that includes various elements, such as government, legal
systems, and administrative structures, working together to maintain order and provide
governance.
Difference between State and Government:
Definition:
State: The state refers to the entire political entity, including its territory, population,
government, and sovereignty.
Government: The government is the administrative machinery or organization through

which state authority and power are exercised.

Nature:
State: The state is a broader concept that encompasses all the institutions and elements that
make up a sovereign political entity.
Government: The government is a specific component of the state responsible for

formulating and implementing policies, laws, and decisions.
Permanence:
State: The state is considered permanent and enduring, representing the ongoing political
entity.
Government: Governments can change through elections or other political processes,

indicating a more transient nature.
Composition:
State: Comprises various institutions, including the government, legal system, military, and
other administrative bodies.
Government: Refers specifically to the group of individuals or institutions holding executive

authority and responsible for the day-to-day administration of the state.
Sovereignty:
State: Possesses sovereignty, which is the supreme authority to make and enforce laws
within its territory.
Government: Acts as the agent of the state in exercising its authority but is not sovereign in
itself.
Change:
State: While the state is relatively stable, changes in borders (through treaties or conflicts)
can alter its territory.
Government: Changes more frequently, especially through elections or political processes.
Communism is losing its confidence in world politics day by day. Discuss.
The perception and influence of communism in world politics have indeed undergone
changes over time, and various factors contribute to the challenges faced by communist
ideologies in the contemporary global context.

1. Collapse of the Soviet Union:
The dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 marked the end of the Cold War and dealt a
significant blow to the credibility of communism. The economic struggles and political
changes in the post-Soviet states raised questions about the viability of centrally planned
economies.
2. Economic Performance:
Many communist states have faced economic challenges, with centrally planned economies
often struggling to compete with more market-oriented systems. This has led to skepticism
about the economic viability of communist models.
3. Authoritarianism Concerns:
Some countries that identify as communist or have historical ties to communism are
criticized for maintaining authoritarian political structures. Concerns about human rights
abuses and lack of political freedoms in such regimes have tarnished the image of
communism.
4. Globalization and Market Economy Dominance:

The rise of globalization and the predominance of market-oriented economies have shifted
the focus toward capitalism and liberal democracy. Market-driven economic models have
gained prominence, and this has marginalized the appeal of communist ideologies.
5. Ideological Shifts:
In several communist or formerly communist states, there has been a shift toward mixed
economies that incorporate elements of capitalism. China, for example, has embraced
economic reforms while maintaining a one-party political system.
7.Changing Geopolitical Dynamics:
Geopolitical shifts and realignments have led to changing alliances and global power
structures, impacting the influence of ideologies. The rise of multipolarity and the emergence
of new global players have reshaped the geopolitical landscape.
7. Perceived Inflexibility:
Critics argue that communist ideologies can be perceived as rigid and resistant to adaptation,
which may limit their ability to address contemporary challenges effectively.
8. Social and Cultural Factors:
Social and cultural factors also play a role. In some regions, there may be a preference for
democratic governance and individual freedoms over the collectivist principles associated
with communism.

Notes

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Notes

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Notes

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

MB SOLANGI

Sindh Mehran Institute Of Law

LLB PART 2 3rd Semester Solved Past Paper

INTRODUCTION TO POLITICAL SCIENCE 2022

What are the main organs of the state?

Executive Branch: The executive branch is responsible for implementing and

Legislative Branch: The legislative branch is responsible for making laws. It

Write a detailed note on forms of government?

Forms of government refer to the different systems or structures through which a

Democracy: In a democracy, power is vested in the people, who exercise it directly

Monarchy: A monarchy is a form of government in which a single individual,

Dictatorship: In a dictatorship, power is concentrated in the hands of a single leader

Oligarchy: An oligarchy is a form of government in which power is held by a small

Theocracy: A theocracy is a form of government in which religious leaders hold

Anarchy: Anarchy refers to a state of society without a government or central

Federalism: Federalism is a system of government in which power is divided

Socialism: Socialism is an economic and political system in which the means of

• Amending Laws: Legislatures can modify or repeal existing laws to adapt

• Budgetary Control: Legislatures have the power to approve budgets and

• Oversight: Legislatures can conduct inquiries, investigations, and audits to

• Policy Making: Executives have the authority to develop and implement

• Foreign Relations: Executives represent the country in international affairs,

• Commander-in-Chief: In countries with a military, the executive has the

• Protecting Rights: The judiciary plays a crucial role in safeguarding

checks and balances. This system of separation of powers helps maintain a

Discuss the state, nation and sovereignty.

State, Nation, and Sovereignty

A nation refers to a group of people who share a common culture, language,

Sovereignty refers to the supreme authority and independence of a state to govern

sovereignty is being challenged by globalization, international organizations, and

ISLAMIC JURISPRUDENCE 2022

Write Short Notes:

2. Mujtahid (ALREADY GIVEN IN PAST PAPERS 2020)

3. Hades ahad (ALREADY GIVEN IN PAST PAPERS 2020)

approvals, recorded in collections of Hadith, are particularly valuable for clarifying

"Wajib" is an Arabic term that means obligatory or mandatory in Islamic

The elements of Wajib acts include:

• Observance of Conditions: Some Wajib acts may have specific conditions

• Adherence to Prescribed Methods: Wajib acts often come with specific

Explain concept of abrogation and it's types under Islamic law?

There are two main types of abrogation:

• Abrogation of Recitation (Naskh al-Qira'ah): In this type, the recitation of

Scholars of Islamic jurisprudence (fiqh) have identified instances of abrogation

1. The change in the qiblah (direction of prayer) from Jerusalem to Mecca.

2. The reduction of the number of daily prayers from fifty to five.

3. The prohibition of drinking alcohol, which occurred in multiple stages.

Explain Quran and Quranic legislation as a primary source of law

2. Legislative Authority: The Quran serves as the fundamental legislative

5. Interpretation (Tafsir): Understanding the Quran requires interpretation, and

6. Supplemental Sources: While the Quran is paramount, Islamic jurisprudence

Explain Ijma and Qiyas(ALREADY GIVEN IN PAST PAPERS 2020)

Elaborate human rights under islamic law (ALREADY GIVEN IN PAST

Fundamentals of Economics 2022

Explain Malthusian population theory. is it applicable to the conditions of

Malthusian Population Theory

The applicability of the Malthusian population theory to Pakistan's conditions is a

On one hand, Pakistan faces challenges related to population growth, such as

Compiled by Ambreen Page 10

What are unemployment and underemployment? What are the causes of