 setup()

The setup() function is called when a sketch starts. Use it to initialize

variables, pin modes, start using libraries, etc. The setup function will only
run once, after each powerup or reset of the Arduino board.

Example

int buttonPin = 3;

void setup()
{
Serial.begin(9600);
pinMode(buttonPin, INPUT);
}

void loop()
{
// ...
}
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1
  loop()
After creating a setup() function, which initializes and sets the initial values,
the loop() function does precisely what its name suggests, and loops
consecutively, allowing your program to change and respond. Use it to
actively control the Arduino board.

Example

const int buttonPin = 3;

// setup initializes serial and the button pin

void setup()
{
Serial.begin(9600);
pinMode(buttonPin, INPUT);
}
// loop checks the button pin each time,
// and will send serial if it is pressed
void loop()
{
if (digitalRead(buttonPin) == HIGH)
Serial.write('H');
else
Serial.write('L');
delay(1000);
}

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released into the public domain.

 if (conditional) and ==, !=, <, > (comparison

operators)
if, which is used in conjunction with a comparison operator, tests whether a

certain condition has been reached, such as an input being above a certain
number. The format for an if test is:
if (someVariable > 50)
{
// do something here
}
The program tests to see if someVariable is greater than 50. If it is, the
program takes a particular action. Put another way, if the statement in
parentheses is true, the statements inside the brackets are run. If not, the
program skips over the code.
The brackets may be omitted after an if statement. If this is done, the next
line (defined by the semicolon) becomes the only conditional statement.

if (x > 120) digitalWrite(LEDpin, HIGH);

if (x > 120)
digitalWrite(LEDpin, HIGH);

if (x > 120){ digitalWrite(LEDpin, HIGH); }

if (x > 120){
digitalWrite(LEDpin1, HIGH);
digitalWrite(LEDpin2, HIGH);
} // all are correct

The statements being evaluated inside the parentheses require the use of
one or more operators:

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Comparison Operators:

x == y (x is equal to y)
x != y (x is not equal to y)
x < y (x is less than y)
x > y (x is greater than y)
x <= y (x is less than or equal to y)
x >= y (x is greater than or equal to y)

Warning:

Beware of accidentally using the single equal sign (e.g. if (x = 10) ). The

single equal sign is the assignment operator, and sets x to 10 (puts the value
10 into the variable x). Instead use the double equal sign (e.g. if (x ==
10) ), which is the comparison operator, and tests whether x is equal to 10

or not. The latter statement is only true if x equals 10, but the former
statement will always be true.
This is because C evaluates the statement if (x=10) as follows: 10 is

assigned to x (remember that the single equal sign is the assignment

operator), so x now contains 10. Then the 'if' conditional evaluates 10, which
always evaluates to TRUE, since any non-zero number evaluates to TRUE.
Consequently, if (x = 10) will always evaluate to TRUE, which is not the

desired result when using an 'if' statement. Additionally, the variable x will
be set to 10, which is also not a desired action.
if can also be part of a branching control structure using the if...else]
construction.
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 if / else
if/else allows greater control over the flow of code than the
basic if statement, by allowing multiple tests to be grouped together. For
example, an analog input could be tested and one action taken if the input
was less than 500, and another action taken if the input was 500 or greater.
The code would look like this:
if (pinFiveInput < 500)
{
// action A
}
else
{
// action B
}
else can proceed another if test, so that multiple, mutually exclusive tests
can be run at the same time.
Each test will proceed to the next one until a true test is encountered. When
a true test is found, its associated block of code is run, and the program then
skips to the line following the entire if/else construction. If no test proves to
be true, the default else block is executed, if one is present, and sets the
default behavior.
Note that an else if block may be used with or without a
terminating else block and vice versa. An unlimited number of such else
if branches is allowed.
if (pinFiveInput < 500)
{
// do Thing A
}

5
else if (pinFiveInput >= 1000)
{
// do Thing B
}
else
{
// do Thing C
}

Another way to express branching, mutually exclusive tests, is with

the switch case statement.

See also:

switch case Reference Home

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released into the public domain.

 for statements
Description

The for statement is used to repeat a block of statements enclosed in curly

braces. An increment counter is usually used to increment and terminate the
loop. The for statement is useful for any repetitive operation, and is often
used in combination with arrays to operate on collections of data/pins.
There are three parts to the for loop header:
for (initialization; condition; increment) {
//statement(s);
}

6
The initialization happens first and exactly once. Each time through the loop,
the condition is tested; if it's true, the statement block, and the increment is
executed, then the condition is tested again. When the condition becomes
false, the loop ends.

Example
// Dim an LED using a PWM pin
int PWMpin = 10; // LED in series with 470 ohm resistor on pin 10

void setup()
{
// no setup needed
}

void loop()
{
for (int i=0; i <= 255; i++){
analogWrite(PWMpin, i);
delay(10);
}
}

7
 Coding Tips

The C for loop is much more flexible than for loops found in some other
computer languages, including BASIC. Any or all of the three header
elements may be omitted, although the semicolons are required. Also the
statements for initialization, condition, and increment can be any valid C
statements with unrelated variables, and use any C datatypes including
floats. These types of unusual for statements may provide solutions to some
rare programming problems.
For example, using a multiplication in the increment line will generate a
logarithmic progression:
for(int x = 2; x < 100; x = x * 1.5){
println(x);
}
Generates: 2,3,4,6,9,13,19,28,42,63,94
Another example, fade an LED up and down with one for loop:
void loop()
{
int x = 1;
for (int i = 0; i > -1; i = i + x){
analogWrite(PWMpin, i);
if (i == 255) x = -1; // switch direction at peak
delay(10);
}
}

See also

 while

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released into the public domain.

 switch / case statements

Like if statements, switch...case controls the flow of programs by allowing
programmers to specify different code that should be executed in various
conditions. In particular, a switch statement compares the value of a variable
to the values specified in case statements. When a case statement is found
whose value matches that of the variable, the code in that case statement is
run.
The break keyword exits the switch statement, and is typically used at the
end of each case. Without a break statement, the switch statement will
continue executing the following expressions ("falling-through") until a
break, or the end of the switch statement is reached.

Example
switch (var) {
case 1:
//do something when var equals 1
break;
case 2:
//do something when var equals 2
break;
default:
// if nothing else matches, do the default
// default is optional
}

9
Syntax
switch (var) {
case label:
// statements
break;
case label:
// statements
break;
default:
// statements
}

Parameters

var: the variable whose value to compare to the various cases

label: a value to compare the variable to

See also:

if...else Reference Home

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while loops

10
Des c ri p tion
while loops will loop continuously, and infinitely, until the expression inside
the parenthesis, () becomes false. Something must change the tested
variable, or the while loop will never exit. This could be in your code, such
as an incremented variable, or an external condition, such as testing a
sensor.
S y n ta x
while(expression){
// statement(s)
}
Pa ra meters
expression - a (boolean) C statement that evaluates to true or false
E x amp l e
var = 0;
while(var < 200){
// do something repetitive 200 times
var++;
}

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 do - while

The do loop works in the same manner as the while loop, with the exception that the
condition is tested at the end of the loop, so the do loop will always run at least once.
do
{
// statement block
} while (test condition);

Example
do
{

11
 delay(50); // wait for sensors to stabilize
x = readSensors(); // check the sensors

} while (x < 100);

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domain.

 break

break is used to exit from a do, for, or while loop, bypassing the normal
loop condition. It is also used to exit from aswitch statement.
E x amp l e
for (x = 0; x < 255; x ++)
{
digitalWrite(PWMpin, x);
sens = analogRead(sensorPin);
if (sens > threshold){ // bail out on sensor detect
x = 0;
break;
}
delay(50);
}

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12
  continue

The continue statement skips the rest of the current iteration of a loop
(do, for, or while). It continues by checking the conditional expression of
the loop, and proceeding with any subsequent iterations.
E x amp l e

for (x = 0; x < 255; x ++)

{
if (x > 40 && x < 120){ // create jump in values
continue;
}

digitalWrite(PWMpin, x);
delay(50);
}

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 return

Terminate a function and return a value from a function to the calling

function, if desired.
S y n ta x :
return;
return value; // both forms are valid
Pa ra meters
value: any variable or constant type

13
E x amp l es:
A function to compare a sensor input to a threshold
int checkSensor(){
if (analogRead(0) > 400) {
return 1;
else{
return 0;
}
}
The return keyword is handy to test a section of code without having to
"comment out" large sections of possibly buggy code.
void loop(){

// brilliant code idea to test here

return;

// the rest of a dysfunctional sketch here

// this code will never be executed
}

 goto

Transfers program flow to a labeled point in the program

S y n ta x
label:
goto label; // sends program flow to the label
Tip
The use of goto is discouraged in C programming, and some authors of C
programming books claim that the gotostatement is never necessary, but
used judiciously, it can simplify certain programs. The reason that many
programmers frown upon the use of goto is that with the unrestrained use
of goto statements, it is easy to create a program with undefined program
flow, which can never be debugged.
With that said, there are instances where a goto statement can come in
handy, and simplify coding. One of these situations is to break out of deeply
nested for loops, or if logic blocks, on a certain condition.

14
E x amp l e
for(byte r = 0; r < 255; r++){
for(byte g = 255; g > -1; g--){
for (byte b = 0; b < 255; b++){
if (analogRead(0) > 250){ goto bailout;}
// more statements ...
}
}
}
bailout:

15