Iron Alloys

Joseph S. Santner, American Foundry Society, Schaumburg, Illinois

George M. Goodrich, Professional Metallurgical Services, Buchanan, Michigan

I ron castings are produced by a variety

of molding methods and are available
with a wide range of properties. Cast iron
is a generic term that designates a family
of metals. To achieve the best casting for
a particular application at the lowest cost
consistent with the component’s require-
ments, it is necessary to have an under-
standing of the six types of cast iron:
• gray iron;
• ductile iron;
• compacted graphite iron (CGI);
• malleable iron;
• white iron;
• alloyed iron.
Table 1 lists the typical composition
ranges for common elements in five
of the six generic types of cast iron.
The classification for alloyed irons
has a wide range of base compositions
with major additions of other elements,
such as nickel, chromium, molybdenum This gr ay iron manifold for wheel loaders w as developed by the casting supplier and cus-
or copper. tomer from concept-to-casting in less than one month. The ne w design cut the processing
The basic strength and hardness of time of the component in half.
all iron alloys is provided by the metallic
structures containing graphite. The prop- shape (sphericity) and volume fraction of oxidation and corrosion by developing
erties of the iron matrix can range from the graphite phase (percent free carbon). a tightly adhering oxide and subscale
those of soft, low-carbon steel (18 ksi/124 Because of their relatively high sili- to repel further attack. Iron castings are
MPa) to those of hardened, high-carbon con content, cast irons inherently resist used in applications where this resistance
steel (230 ksi/1,586 MPa). The modulus provides long life. Resistance to heat,
of elasticity varies with the class of iron, oxidation and corrosion are appreciably
enhanced with alloyed irons.
Properties of the cast iron family
can be adjusted over a wide range and
enhanced by heat treatment. Annealing
readily produces a matrix of soft machin-
able ferrite. In limited situations, this
annealing can be accomplished at
sub-critical temperatures. Heating
above this critical temperature takes
the carbon from the graphite
and places it in the matrix.
This engineered material can
Pictured is a dual de-
liver y seed and fertilizer be through-hardened and tem-
tool for use in the a gricul- pered using conventional heat treat-
tur al industr y. The sand cast ing or surface hardening. These adjust-
component features a ductile iron
knife body and a high-chrome point. ments create the cast iron family.
Gray iron—Flake graphite provides
Table 1 . Composition Range for Un-Alloyed Cast Irons
gray iron with unique properties (such
as excellent machinability) at hardness
Iron Family Carbon Silicon Manganese Sulfur Phosphorus
levels that produce superior wear-resistant
Gray 2.5-4.2 1.0-3.0 0.15-1.0 0.02-0.25 0.02-1.0 characteristics, the ability to resist galling
Ductile 3.0-4.0 1.8-3.0 0.1-1.0 0.01-0.03 0.01-0.1 and excellent vibration damping.
CGI 2.5-4.0 1.5-3.0 0.10-1.0 0.01-0.03 0.01-0.1 Ductile iron—An unusual combina-
Malleable 2.2-2.8 1.2-1.9 0.15-1.2 0.02-0.2 0.02-0.2
tion of properties is obtained in ductile
iron because the graphite occurs as spher-
White 1.8-3.6 0.5-2.0 0.15-0.8 0.02-0.2 0.02-0.2
oids rather than as flakes. The different

2006 CASTING SOURCE D IRECTORY E NGINEERED CASTING S OLUTIO NS 17

 grades are produced by controlling the trolling the matrix structure as-cast or to iron at a given level of ductility. ADI can
matrix structure around the graphite provide response to heat treatment. have strength in excess of 230 ksi (1,586
either as-cast or by heat treatment. Only The high-stre ngth grades can be MPa); however, its modulus is 20% lower
minor compositional differences (to pro- quenched and tempered to form a bainite- than steel with a comparable strength.
mote the desired matrix microstructure) like matrix produced by austempering. Compacted Graphite Iron (CGI)—In
exist among the regular grades. Alloy Austempered ductile iron (ADI) provides CGI, graphite locally occurs as intercon-
additions may be made to assist in con- twice the strength of conventional ductile nected blunt flakes. This graphite structure

Ta ble 2. Iron Specifications, Cha racteristics & Applications

Standard Specifi cations Characteristics Applications

• ASTM A48: gray iron castings Several strength grades; Automobile engine blocks &
• ASTM A74: cast iron soil & pipe fittings vibration damping; low heads; manifolds for internal
• ASTM A126: gray iron castings for valves, flanges & pipe fittings rate of thermal expansion & combustion engines; gas
•
Gray Iron

ASTM A159: automotive gray iron castings resistance to thermal fatigue; burners; machine tool bases;
• SAE J431: automotive gray iron castings lubrication retention; and dimensionally stable tooling sub-
• ASTM A278 & ASME SA278: gray iron castings for pressure-containing parts good machinability. jected to temperature variations,
for temperatures up to 650F (343C) such as gear blanks & forming
• ASTM A319: gray iron castings for elevated temperatures for die covers; cylinder liners for
non-pressure-containing parts internal combustion engines;
• ASTM A823: statically cast permanent mold castings intake manifolds; soil pipes;
• ASTM A834: common requirements for iron castings for general industrial use counterweights; and enclosures
& housings.

Standard Specifi cations Characteristics Applications

• ASTM A395 & ASME SA395: ferritic ductile iron pressure-retaining castings for Several grades for both Steering knuckles; plow
use at elevated temperatures strength & ductility; high shares; gears; automotive &
Ductile Iron

• ASTM A439: austenitic ductile iron castings strength, ductility & wear truck suspension components;
• ASTM A476 & ASME SA476: ductile iron castings for paper mill dryer rolls resistance; contact fatigue brake components; valves;
• ASTM A536 & SAE J434: ductile iron castings resistance; ability to pumps; linkages; hydraulic
• ASTM A571 & ASME SA571: austenitic ductile iron castings for withstand thermal cycling; components; and wind
pressure-containing parts suitable for low-temperature service and production of fracture- turbine housings.
• ASTM A874: ferritic ductile iron castings suitable for low-temperature service critical components.
• ASTM A897: austempered ductile iron castings

Standard Specifi cations Characteristics Applications

• ASTM A842: CGI castings A compromise of properties Diesel engine blocks &
between gray & ductile iron. frames; cylinder liners;
brake discs for trains;
CGI

power generators; exhaust

manifolds; pump housings;
and brackets.

Standard Specifi cations Characteristics Applications

• ASTM A532: abrasion-resistant white iron castings Extremely hard & Crushing & grinding
White
Iron

wear-resistant. applications; and

grinding balls.

Standard Specifi cations Characteristics Applications

• ASTM A47 & ASME SA47: ferritic malleable iron castings Soft & extremely ductile. Chains; sprockets; tool parts
• ASTM A197: cupola malleable iron & hardware; connecting rods;
M alleable

• ASTM A220: pearlitic malleable iron drive train & axle components;
Iron

• ASTM A338: malleable iron flanges, pipe fittings & valve parts for railroad, and spring suspensions.
marine & other heavy-duty service up to 650F (343C)
• ASTM A602 & SAE J158: automotive malleable iron castings

Standard Specifi cations Characteristics Applications

• ASTM A436: austenitic gray iron castings Corrosion resistant; Parts for chemical processing
• ASTM A518: corrosion-resistant high-silicon iron castings retains strength & plants; petroleum refining; food
Alloyed
Iron

dimensions during handling & marine service;

elevated-temperature control of corrosive fluids; and
exposure; and ability to pressure valves.
withstand thermal cycling.

18 E NGINEERED CASTIN G S OLUTIO NS 2006 CASTING S OURCE DIRECTORY

Table 3 . Property Comparisons for Gra y Iron Classes
Property Class 2 5 Class 3 0 Class 3 0 Class 3 5 Class 4 0
(as-cast) (as-cast) (annealed) (as-cast) (as-cast)
Brinell Hardness 187 207 109 212 235
Tensile Strength 29.9 ksi (206 MPa) 33.7 ksi (232 MPa) 20.6 ksi (142 MPa) 34.8 ksi (240 MPa) 41.9 ksi (289 MPa)
Modulus of Elasticity 16.6 Msi (114 GPa) 17.0 Msi (117 GPa) 14.5 Msi (100 GPa) 18.0 Msi (124 GPa) 18.2 Msi (126 GPa)
Tensile Poisson’s Ratio 0.29 0.19 0.21 0.22 0.24
Compression Poisson’s Ratio 0.27 0.28 0.26 0.28 0.23
Compression-to-Tensile Strength Ratio 3.68 3.84 4.05 3.63 3.71

ADI’s high strength-to- w eight ratio has resulted guidelines for their own capability in
in widespread use in automotive applications. dimensional control, these controls are
Sho w n below is an 8.5-lb. rear control arm
for the Ford Mustang Cobra .
typically established through concurrent
engineering based on the requirements of
the application.

M aterial Properties vs. Cast-

ing Processes
The properties of all metals are influ-
enced by the manner in which they solidify
and cool. The individual design of a casting
(the molding process, the way the molten
metal is introduced into the cavity and
the pouring temperature) determines the
rate of cooling in the various parts of a
casting. The cooling rate in any particular
section factors heavily into the mechanical
and the resulting properties are interme- properties of the iron. Therefore, a series
diate between gray and ductile irons. The quirements (actual strength, dimensional of standard test bars of increasing size has
compacted graphite shape also is called tolerances and surface finish) cannot be been established specifically for gray iron.
quasi-flake, aggregated flake, semi-nodular stated in a general specification. One of these bars should be selected to
and vermicular graphite. Table 2 gives iron specifications, char- determine the cooling rate in the critical
White iron—White iron is hard and acteristics and applications. There are sections of the casting.
essentially free of graphite. The metal so- no generally accepted standards for the
lidifies with a compound called cementite, surface finish, machining allowances or Ty pes of Specifications
which is a phase that dominates the mi- dimensional tolerances. Although some When mechanical properties are im-
crostructure and properties of white iron. production metalcasting fa- portant, the most common procedure to
The carbides are in a matrix that may be cilities have established qualify iron is to use a standard test bar
pearlitic, ferritic, austenitic, martensitic or poured separately with the specified lot of
any combination thereof. general engineered castings. Most specifica-
Malleable iron—In malleable iron, tions of the American Society for Testing
the graphite occurs as irregularly shaped and Materials (ASTM) apply this method
nodules called temper carbon because it is to qualify the iron used to pour the castings.
formed in the solid state during heat The actual properties of the metal in the
treatment. The iron is cast as a white casting will depend upon its characteristics
iron of a suitable chemical composi- and the cooling rate of the metal in the
tion to respond to the malleabilizing various sections of the casting.
heat treatment. Ductile iron has some variation
Alloyed iron—This classification in properties when not heat treated;
includes gray irons, ductile irons and white however, a single size test bar gener-
irons that have more than 3% alloying ally is satisfactory (ex-
elements (nickel, chromium, molybde- cept for large castings).
num, silicon or copper). Malleable irons Malleable iron is not
are not heavily alloyed because many of poured into heavy sec-
the alloying elements interfere with the tions, and because all
graphite-forming process that occurs dur- malleable iron castings
ing heat treatment. are heat treated, a single
size test bar will work.
Specifi cation Sources Ductile iron combines For some applications,
t he p roc e ss a d v a n -
There are a number of standard speci- tages of gra y iron (low
the finished component is
fications for several cast iron products, melting point, good fl u- tested in a manner in which it
such as pipes and fittings. But due to the idity, good castability and will be used. For example, pres-
ready m achinability) w ith high
important influence of the individual de- ductility. Sho w n a bove is a 4 0-lb. rear chute sure-containing parts can be 100%
sign on the characteristics of a casting, re- pivot for concrete mix er trucks. hydraulically proof tested.

2006 CASTING SOURCE D IRECTORY E NGINEERED CASTING S OLUTIO NS 19

 its tensile strength, ASTM Standard A48
and SAE Standard J431 provide the best
details to accomplish this task. The two
specifications approach the task from dif-
ferent standpoints but essentially the con-
cept remains the same. For example, the
number in a Class 30 gray iron refers
to the minimum tensile strength in
ksi. In ASTM A48, a standard size test
bar is added to the class. Class 30A
indicates that the iron must have
a minimum 30 ksi (207 MPa)
tensile strength in an “A” bar
(0.875-in. as-cast diameter).
In SAE Standard J431, ten-
sile strength is not required,
but hardness and a minimum
tensile strength to hardness
ratio are required. The class
then is identified as a grade.
A Class 30B iron for ASTM A48
With the capability of dr asti- would be comparable to a grade G3000
cally reducing w eight, CGI is in SAE Standard J431. The other gray
fi nding its w a y into m any applica- iron specifications build off of these two
tions. This 2.7L V6 diesel engine no w
is in high-volume production. primary specifications.

Ductile Iron Properties

Five grades of ductile iron are classi-
The acceptance of the castings is based fied by their tensile properties in ASTM
on characteristics that a metalcasting Standard A536 (Table 4). SAE Standard
facility can evaluate and control during ings. The damping capacity of gray iron J434c (for automotive castings a nd
production. Some specifications limit the is considerably greater than that of steel similar applications) identifies these five
amount of certain elements because they and other iron types. For example, if gray grades of ductile iron only by Brinell
can affect properties or characteristics of iron, CGI and ductile iron have a similar hardness. However, the appropriate mi-
the iron that are not readily apparent or composition, the relative damping capacity crostructure for the indicated hardness
measured. For example, the alloy con- of gray iron is 1.0, CGI is 0.35 and ductile also is a requirement. Specifications for
tent of iron can influence its corrosion iron is 0.14. The damping capacity of gray specialty applications not only define
resistance or its properties at elevated iron is about 20-25 times higher than steel. tensile properties, but also have composi-
temperatures. With the exceptions of For comparison, aluminum’s damping tion limits. In the ASTM specification, the
castings that have special performance capacity is one-tenth that of steel. focus is more on tensile properties than
applications, such as use at elevated tem- The graphite flakes in gray iron have less chemical composition.
peratures, the most economical approach influence on its compression properties The development and commercializa-
is to let the metalcasting facility recom- than on tension properties. A comparison tion of ADI provides design engineers
mend an iron composition that provides of compression and tension properties is with a new group of cast ferrous mate-
the desired properties. shown in Table 3. rials. Austempering at higher tempera-
Gray iron’s compressive strength is tures produces ADI with lower strength
Gra y Iron Properties typically three to four times more than its and hardness as well as higher ductility
Gray iron’s high damping capacity, tensile strength. The lack of graphite-asso- and toughness.
combined with its excellent machinability ciated volume changes allows for a similar In regards to heat treatment, it has been
and high hardness, is unique to this mate- Poisson’s ratio to other engineering metals found that quenching certain troublesome
rial and makes it ideally suited for machine but different tension properties. Poisson’s parts in hot media (more than 450F/230C)
bases and supports, engine cylinder blocks ratio remains constant at 0.25 over a large resulted in tougher parts with less distor-
and brake components. Excessive vibration compressive stress range and increases at tion than those conventionally quenched
causes inaccuracies in precision machinery higher stress levels. and tempered. These materials offer me-
and excessive wear on gear teeth and bear- To classify gray iron in accordance to chanical properties that are stronger and

Ta ble 4. Proper ty Comparisons for Ductile Iron Gra des (ASTM A5 3 6)

Grade Heat Tensile Yield % Elongation Brinell Poisson’s Tensile Elastic
Treatment Strength Strength (min. 2 in.) Hardness Ratio Modulus
60-40-18 1 60,000 psi (413 MPa) 40,000 psi (276 MPa) 18 130-170 0.28 24.5 Msi (169 GPa)
65-45-12 2 65,000 psi (448 MPa) 45,000 psi (310 MPa) 12 150-220 0.28 24.5 Msi (169 GPa)
80-50-06 2 80,000 psi (551 MPa) 55,000 psi (379 MPa) 6 170-250 0.28 24.5 Msi (169 GPa)
100-70-03 3 100,000 psi (689 MPa) 70,000 psi (482 MPa) 3 241-300 0.28 25.5 Msi (176 GPa)
120-90-02 4 120,000 psi (827 MPa) 90,000 psi (620 MPa) 2 240-300 0.28 25.5 Msi (176 Gpa)

20 E NGINEERED CASTIN G S OLUTIO NS 2006 CASTING S OURCE DIRECTORY

Ta ble 5. Proper ty Comparisons for ADI Gra des (ASTM A 8 9 7) The chromium-bearing ductile irons
Grade Tensile Yield % Brinell Fracture Toughness D-2 and D-5B, and the high-silicon Type
Strength Strength Elongation Hardness (ksi-sq.in. / MPa-sq. m)
D-5S, provide good oxidation resistance
1 140 ksi (966 MPa) 110 ksi (759 MPa) 11 302 100 / 109 and useful mechanical properties at
2 165 ksi (1,139 MPa) 130 ksi (897 MPa) 10 340 78 / 85 temperatures up to 1,400F (760C). At
3 190 ksi (1,311 MPa) 160 ksi (1,104 MPa) 7 387 55 / 60 higher temperatures, D-2B, D-3, D-4 and
4 220 ksi (1,518 MPa) 180 ksi (1,242 MPa) 5 418 48 / 52 D-5S have useful properties, and D-5S has
good oxidation resistance up to 1,700F
5 240 ksi (1,656 MPa) 210 ksi (1,449 MPa) 3 460 40 / 44
(925C). The high-nickel austenitic irons
are metallurgically stable over their useful
tougher than conventionally heat treated, and ductile iron are 1.0, 0.35 and 0.14. The temperature range, experience no phase
as-cast or as-formed ferrous materials. The damping capacity is independent of carbon changes and are resistant to warping,
property combinations available for ADI content and pearlite content for all practical distortion, cracking and growth during
list five standard grades in ASTM A897. CGI compositions. The damping capacity thermal cycling.
These specifications give the minimum can be increased 5–10% by increasing the
tensile and impact levels along with typical coarseness of graphite; however, this will M alle a ble Iron Properties
Brinell hardness values (Table 5). decrease the modulus. Malleable iron can be specified either
Compared to the best forged steel, by its tensile properties or by hardness
ASTM 897 Grade 5 ADI Charpy V-notch W hite Iron & Alloyed of the casting. Unless the relationship
impact toughness is low, but the fracture Iron Properties between the test bar properties and the
toughness is approximately equal. Ausfer- High-chromium white irons are used specific casting hardness is established,
rite microstructures respond to shot peen- for elevated-temperature service while both both strength and hardness should not be
ing, fillet rolling and grinding and leads high-chromium white irons and nickel- specified together. ASTM Specification
to an increase in bending fatigue strength chromium white irons (Ni-hard) are used A220 defines eight grades of pearlitic mal-
with favorable compressive residual for abrasion-resistant service. Other alloyed leable iron with increasing strength and
stresses impacted on the surfaces. irons are used for corrosion resistance or decreasing ductility. Specification A47 is
elevated-temperature service. for ferritic malleable iron, which has the
CGI Nickel alloyed austenitic irons are a lowest strength and highest ductility. The
CGI is an alternative to both gray well-established group of the high-alloy tensile properties of malleable iron are
iron and light metals in heavily loaded austenitic irons (commonly known as determined with a 0.625-in. (16-mm)
applications. It combines much of the Ni-Resist) that are produced for corrosion- diameter cast-to-size test bar. Machining
strength and stiffness of ductile iron with resistant applications. These versatile irons these test bars before testing has only a
the thermal conductivity and castability have excellent corrosion resistance due to slight effect on the properties.
of gray cast iron. The microstructure the presence of nickel (12–37%), chro-
defi nition of CGI is formally specified mium (0.5–6%) and copper (5.5–7.5%). M achining Cast Iron
by ASTM Standard A842 as a cast iron Most of the Ni-Resist compositions can To efficiently machine cast irons,
containing a minimum of 80% of the be produced as either gray the appropriate tool material of the
graphite particles in compacted form. or ductile iron. correct grade and shape must be se-
This means that at least 80% of the lected. Coated carbides, par ticularly
graphite particles must be individual those with aluminum oxide exteriors,
vermicular or “worm shaped” on a metal- are effective in production machining
lographic plane of polish with fewer than applications. New tool materials for
20% of the particles in spheroidal form. economical machining of iron castings
Contrarily, flake graphite—even in small are in a continual state of improvement
amounts—reduces the elastic modulus of and development.
CGI by as much as 20%.
The grades of CGI are 250, 300, 350, Coating & Surface
400 and 450, based on their tensile Engineering
strength, shown in Table 6. The The proper selection of a
lowest strength is ferritic, and coating often is difficult be-
the highest strength is pearl- cause it depends on knowing
itic. Although considerable what coatings are available,
range exists, relative damping This silicon-molybdenum ductile iron automotive ex haust manifold
what coatings are suitable, what
capacities among gray iron, CGI w as conver ted from a stainless steel w elded f abrication. limitations are imposed by the
casting design and how well the
coating will adhere to the casting. Coating
Ta ble 6. Proper ty Comparisons for CGI Gra des (AST M A 8 4 2) technologies that have been used on cast
Grade Min. Tensile Min. 0. 2% % Elongation Brinell iron components include electroplating,
Strength Yield Strength (in 5 0 mm) Hardness hot-dipping, thermal spraying, diffusion
250 36.2 ksi (250 MPa) 25.3 ksi (175 MPa) 3.0 179 max coating, conversion coating, porcelain
300 43.5 ksi (300 MPa) 30.4 ksi (210 MPa) 1.5 143-207 enameling, liquid organic coating and
350 50.7 ksi (350 MPa) 35.5 ksi (245 MPa) 1.0 163-229 dry powder organic coating.
400 58.0 ksi (400 MPa) 40.6 ksi (280 MPa) 1.0 197-255
Design Ra nge of Properties
450 65.2 ksi (450 MPa) 45.6 ksi (315 MPa) 1.0 207-269 Gray iron—Strength and hardness

2006 CASTING SOURCE D IRECTORY E NGINEERED CASTING S OLUTIO NS 21

are sensitive to section thickness. In thin the modulus of elasticity for gray iron is Ductile iron—Ductile iron has the
sections, the material can be hard and higher in compression than it is in ten- ability to be used as-cast and without
difficult to machine. In heavy sections, its sion, the use of standard structural for- heat treatments or other further refin-
strength is reduced significantly. Because mulas results in a conservative design. ing. It has a tensile strength comparable
to many steel alloys and a modulus of
elasticity between that of gray iron and
steel. As its name implies, it has a high
degree of ductility. It can be cast in a
wide range of casting sizes and section
thickness; however, thinner sections
may requi re an neali ng to obtai n a
high ductility. Alloy additions may be
needed to obtain the higher-strength
grades in heavy sections.
CGI—CGI has benefits in tensile
strength, stiffness, fatigue behavior and
strength-to-weight ratios for moderately
thin and medium section castings com-
pared to other irons.
White iron—This iron is unique in
that it is the only member of the cast
iron family in which carbon is pres-
ent only as a carbide. The presence
of different carbides, depending on
the alloy content, makes white iron
hard and abrasion-resistant but also
very brittle.
Malle able iron—Malleable
iron is ideal for thin-sectioned
components that require ductility.
Ferritic malleable iron is produced to
a lower strength range than pearlitic
malleable iron but with higher ductil-
ity. It is the most machinable of cast
irons, and it can be die-strengthened
or coined to bring key dimensions to
close tolerance limits. However, duc-
tile iron is replacing malleable iron in
many different applications because
the engineering properties of ductile
iron are almost identical to that of
malleable iron, and ductile iron does
not require extensive heat treatment to
precipitate graphite.
Alloyed irons—These irons are clas-
sified as two types: corrosion-resistant
and elevated-temperature service. Cor-
rosion-resistant alloyed cast iron is
used to produce parts for engineering
applications that operate in an environ-
ment such as sea water, sour well oils,
commercial organic and inorganic acids
and alkalis. Elevated-temperature
service alloyed iron resists forma-
tion and fracture under service
loads, oxidation by the ambient
atmosphere, growth and instability
in structure up to 1,100F (600C).
The ability to cast complex shapes
and machine alloyed irons makes
them an attractive material for
the production of components
in chemical processing plants, pe-
Sho wn here is a cast ADI independent truck trailer suspension bracket (top). Also sho wn is the
troleum refi ning, food handling
bracket installed on a truck trailer (belo w). and marine service. ECS

22 E NGINEERED CASTIN G S OLUTIO NS 2006 CASTING S OURCE DIRECTORY