03-04 G.R. No. 230642

G.R. No.
230642 8/20/24, 6:48 PM
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G.R. No. 230642, September 10, 2019,

♦ Decision, J. Reyes, Jr., [J]
♦ Separate Concurring Opinion, Perlas-Bernabe, [J]
♦ Separate Concurring & Dissenting Opinion, Leonen, [J]
♦ Concurring & Dissenting Opinion, Jardeleza, [J]
♦ Separate Concurring Opinion, Caguioa, [J]
♦ Concurring Opinion, A. Reyes, Jr., [J]
♦ Separate Concurring & Dissenting Opinion, Gesmundo, [J]
♦ Concurring & Dissenting Opinion, Lazaro-Javier, [J]
EN BANC
[ G.R. No. 230642, September 10, 2019 ]
OSCAR B. PIMENTEL, ERROL B. COMAFAY, JR., RENE B. GOROSPE, EDWIN R. SANDOVAL, VICTORIA B.
LOANZON, ELGIN MICHAEL C. PEREZ, ARNOLD E. CACHO, AL CONRAD B. ESPALDON, ED VINCENT S.
ALBANO, LEIGHTON R. SIAZON, ARIANNE C. ARTUGUE, CLARABEL ANNE R. LACSINA, KRISTINE JANE
R. LIU, ALYANNA MARL C. BUENVIAJE, IANA PATRICIA DULA T. NICOLAS, IRENE A. TOLENTINO AND
AUREA I. GRUYAL, PETITIONERS, VS. LEGAL EDUCATION BOARD, AS REPRESENTED BY ITS
CHAIRPERSON, HON. EMERSON B. AQUENDE, AND LEB MEMBER HON. ZENAIDA N. ELEPAÑO,
RESPONDENTS;
ATTYS. ANTHONY D. BENGZON, FERDINAND M. NEGRE, MICHAEL Z. UNTALAN; JONATHAN Q. PEREZ,

SAMANTHA WESLEY K. ROSALES, ERIKA M. ALFONSO, KRYS VALEN O. MARTINEZ, RYAN CEAZAR P.
ROMANO, AND KENNETH C. VARONA, RESPONDENTS-IN-INTERVENTION;
APRIL D. CABALLERO, JEREY C. CASTARDO, MC WELLROE P. BRINGAS, RHUFFY D. FEDERE, CONRAD

THEODORE A. MATUTINO AND NUMEROUS OTHERS SIMILARLY SITUATED, ST. THOMAS MORE SCHOOL
OF LAW AND BUSINESS, INC., REPRESENTED BY ITS PRESIDENT RODOLFO C. RAPISTA, FOR HIMSELF
AND AS FOUNDER, DEAN AND PROFESSOR, OF THE COLLEGE OF LAW, JUDY MARIE RAPISTA-TAN,
LYNNART WALFORD A. TAN, IAN M. ENTERINA, NEIL JOHN VILLARICO AS LAW PROFESSORS AND AS
CONCERNED CITIZENS, PETITIONERS-INTERVENORS;
[G.R. No. 242954]
FRANCIS JOSE LEAN L. ABAYATA,GRETCHEN M. VASQUEZ, SHEENAH S. ILUSTRISMO, RALPH LOUIE

SALAÑO, AIREEN MONICA B. GUZMAN, DELFINO ODIAS, DARYL DELA CRUZ, CLAIRE SUICO, AIVIE S.
PESCADERO, NIÑA CHRISTINE DELA PAZ, SHEMARK K. QUENIAHAN, AL JAY T. MEJOS, ROCELLYN L.
DAÑO,* MICHAEL ADOLFO, RONALD A. ATIG, LYNNETTE C. LUMAYAG, MARY CHRIS LAGERA, TIMOTHY
B. FRANCISCO, SHEILA MARIE C. DANDAN, MADELINE C. DELA PEÑA, DARLIN R. VILLAMOR,
LORENZANA L. LLORICO, AND JAN IVAN M. SANTAMARIA, PETITIONERS, VS. HON. SALVADOR
MEDIALDEA, EXECUTIVE SECRETARY, AND LEGAL EDUCATION BOARD, HEREIN REPRESENTED BY ITS
CHAIRPERSON, EMERSON B. AQUENDE, RESPONDENTS.
DECISION
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G.R. No. 230642 8/20/24, 6:48 PM
REYES, J. JR., J.:
On the principal grounds of encroachment upon the rule-making power of the Court concerning the practice of law,
violation of institutional academic freedom and violation of a law school aspirant's right to education, these
consolidated Petitions for Prohibition (G.R. No. 230642) and Certiorari and Prohibition (G.R. No. 242954) under
Rule 65 of the Rules of Court assail as unconstitutional Republic Act (R.A.) No. 7662,1 or the Legal Education
Reform Act of 1993, which created the Legal Education Board (LEB). On the same principal grounds, these petitions
also particularly seek to declare as unconstitutional the LEB issuances establishing and implementing the
nationwide law school aptitude test known as the Philippine Law School Admission Test or the PhiLSAT.
The Antecedents
Prompted by clamors for the improvement of the system of legal education on account of the poor performance of
law students and law schools in the bar examinations,2 the Congress, on December 23, 1993, passed into law R.A.
No. 7662 with the following policy statement:
SEC. 2. Declaration of Policies. - It is hereby declared the policy of the State to uplift the standards of
legal education in order to prepare law students for advocacy, counselling, problem-solving, and
decision-making, to infuse in them the ethics of the legal profession; to impress on them the
importance, nobility and dignity of the legal profession as an equal and indispensable partner of the
Bench in the administration of justice and to develop social competence.
Towards this end, the State shall undertake appropriate reforms in the legal education system, require
proper selection of law students, maintain quality among law schools, and require legal apprenticeship
and continuing legal education.
R.A. No. 7662 identifies the general and specific objectives of legal education in this manner:
SEC. 3. General and Specific Objective of Legal Education. -
(a) Legal education in the Philippines is geared to attain the following objectives:
(1) to prepare students for the practice of law;
(2) to increase awareness among members of the legal profession of the needs of the poor,
deprived and oppressed sectors of society;
(3) to train persons for leadership;
(4) to contribute towards the promotion and advancement of justice and the improvement of its
administration, the legal system and legal institutions in the light of the historical and
contemporary development of law in the Philippines and in other countries.
(b) Legal education shall aim to accomplish the following specific objectives:
(1) to impart among law students a broad knowledge of law and its various fields and of legal
institutions;
(2) to enhance their legal research abilities to enable them to analyze, articulate and apply the
law effectively, as well as to allow them to have a holistic approach to legal problems and Issues;
(3) to prepare law students for advocacy, [counseling], problem-solving and decision-making,
and to develop their ability to deal with recognized legal problems of the present and the future;
(4) to develop competence in any field of law as is necessary for gainful employment or sufficient
as a foundation for future training beyond the basic professional degree, and to develop in them
the desire and capacity for continuing study and self improvement;
(5) to inculcate in them the ethics and responsibilities of the legal profession; and
(6) to produce lawyers who conscientiously pursue the lofty goals of their profession and to fully
G.R. No. 230642 8/20/24, 6:48 PM
adhere to its ethical norms.
For these purposes, R.A. No. 7662 created the LEB, an executive agency which was made separate from the
Department of Education, Culture and Sports (DECS), but attached thereto solely for budgetary purposes and
administrative support.3 The Chairman and regular members of the LEB are to be appointed by the President for a
term of five years, without reappointment, from a list of at least three nominees prepared, with prior authorization
from the Court, by the Judicial and Bar Council (JBC).4
Section 7 of R.A. No. 7662 enumerates the powers and functions of the LEB as follows:
SEC. 7. Powers and Functions. - For the purpose of achieving the objectives of this Act, the Board
shall have the following powers and functions:
(a) to administer the legal education system in the country in a manner consistent with the
provisions of this Act;
(b) to supervise the law schools in the country, consistent with its powers and functions as herein
enumerated;
(c) to set the standards of accreditation for law schools taking into account, among others, the
size of enrollment, the qualifications of the members of the faculty, the library and other facilities,
without encroaching upon the academic freedom of institutions of higher learning;
(d) to accredit law schools that meet the standards of accreditation;
(e) to prescribe minimum standards for law admission and minimum qualifications and
compensation to faculty members;
(f) to prescribe the basic curricula for the course of study aligned to the requirements for
admission to the Bar, law practice and social consciousness, and such other courses of study as
may be prescribed by the law schools and colleges under the different levels of accreditation
status;
(g) to establish a law practice internship as a requirement for taking the Bar which a law student
shall undergo with any duly accredited private or public law office or firm or legal assistance
group anytime during the law course for a specific period that the Board may decide, but not to
exceed a total of twelve (12) months. For this purpose, the Board shall prescribe the necessary
guidelines for such accreditation and the specifications of such internship which shall include the
actual work of a new member of the Bar[;]
(h) to adopt a system of continuing legal education. For this purpose, the Board may provide for
the mandatory attendance of practicing lawyers in such courses and for such duration as the
Board may deem necessary; and
(i) to perform such other functions and prescribe such rules and regulations necessary for the
attainment of the policies and objectives of this Act.
On the matter of accreditation of law schools, R.A. No. 7662 further elaborates:
SEC. 8. Accreditation of Law Schools. - Educational institutions may not operate a law school unless
accredited by the Board. Accreditation of law schools may be granted only to educational institutions
recognized by the Government.
SEC. 9. Withdrawal or Downgrading of Accreditation. - The [LEB] may withdraw or downgrade the
accreditation status of a law school if it fails to maintain the standards set for its accreditation status.
SEC. 10. Effectivity of Withdrawal or Downgrading of Accreditation. - The withdrawal or downgrading of

accreditation status shall be effective after the lapse of the semester or trimester following the receipt
by the school of the notice of withdrawal or downgrading unless, in the meantime, the school meets
and/or upgrades the standards or corrects the deficiencies upon which the withdrawal or downgrading
of the accreditation status is based.
G.R. No. 230642 8/20/24, 6:48 PM
Bar Matter No. 979-B

Re: Legal Education
In July 2001, the Court's Committee on Legal Education and Bar Matters (CLEBM), through its Chairperson, Justice
Jose C. Vitug, noted several objectionable provisions of R.A. No. 7662 which "go beyond the ambit of education of
aspiring lawyers and into the sphere of education of persons duly licensed to practice the law profession."5
In particular, the CLEBM observed:
x x x [U]nder the declaration of policies in Section 2 of [R.A. No. 7662, the State "shall x x x require
apprenticeship and continuing legal education." The concept of continuing legal education
encompasses education not only of law students but also of members of the legal profession. [This]
implies that the [LEB] shall have jurisdiction over the education of persons who have finished the law
course and are already licensed to practice law[, in violation of the Supreme Court's power over the
Integrated Bar of the Philippines].
x x x Section 3 provides as one of the objectives of legal education increasing "awareness among
members of the legal profession of the needs of the poor, deprived and oppressed sectors of the
society." Such objective should not find a place in the law that primarily aims to upgrade the standard of
schools of ·law as they perform the task of educating aspiring lawyers. Section 5, paragraph 5 of Article
VIII of the Constitution also provides that the Supreme Court shall have the power to promulgate rules
on "legal assistance to the underprivileged" and hence, implementation of [R.A. No. 7662 might give
rise to infringement of a constitutionally mandated power.
x x x [Section 7(e) giving the LEB the power to prescribe minimum standards for law admission and
Section 7(h) giving the LEB the power to adopt a system of continuing legal education and for this
purpose, the LEB may provide for the mandatory attendance of practicing lawyers in such courses and
for such duration as the LEB may deem necessary] encroach upon the Supreme Court's powers under
Section 5, paragraph 5 of Article VIII of the Constitution. Aside from its power over the Integrated Bar of
the Philippines, the Supreme Court is constitutionally mandated to promulgate rules concerning
admission to the practice of law.6
While the CLEBM saw the need for the LEB to oversee the system of legal education, it cautioned that the law's
objectionable provisions, for reasons above-cited, must be removed.7
Relative to the foregoing observations, the CLEBM proposed the following amendments to R.A. No. 7662:
SEC. 2. Declaration of Policies. - It is hereby declared the policy of the State to uplift the standards of
legal education in order to prepare law students for advocacy, counseling, problem-solving, and
decision-making; to infuse in them the ethics of the legal profession; to impress upon them the
importance, nobility and dignity of the legal profession as an equal and indispensable partner of the
Bench in the administration of justice; and, to develop socially-committed lawyers with integrity and
competence.
proper selection of law students, provide for legal apprenticeship, and maintain quality among law
schools.
xxxx
SEC. 3. General and Specific Objectives of Legal Education. x x x
xxxx
2.) to increase awareness among law students of the needs of the poor, deprived and oppressed
sectors of society;
xxxx
SEC. 7. Power and functions. - x x x
G.R. No. 230642 8/20/24, 6:48 PM
(a) to regulate the legal education system in accordance with its powers and functions herein
enumerated;
(b) to establish standards of accreditation for law schools, consistent with academic freedom and
pursuant to the declaration of policy set forth in Section 2 hereof;
(c) to accredit law schools that meet the standards of accreditation;
(d) to prescribe minimum standards for admission to law schools including a system of law
aptitude examination;
(e) to provide for minimum qualifications for faculty members of law schools;
(f) to prescribe guidelines for law practice internship which the law schools may establish as part
of the curriculum; and
(g) to perform such other administrative functions as may be necessary for the attainment of the
policies and objectives of this Act.8 (Underscoring supplied)
xxxx
In a Resolution9 dated September 4, 2001, the Court approved the CLEBM's explanatory note and draft
amendments to R.A. No. 7662. The Senate and the House of Representatives were formally furnished with a copy
of said Resolution. This, notwithstanding, R.A. No. 7662 remained unaltered.
LEB Issuances
In 2003, the Court issued a resolution authorizing the JBC to commence the nomination process for the members of
the LEB. In 2009, the LEB was constituted with the appointment of Retired Court of Appeals Justice Hilarion L.
Aquino as the first Chairperson and followed by the appointment of LEB members, namely, Dean Eulogia M. Cueva,
Justice Eloy R. Bello, Jr., Dean Venicio S. Flores and Commission on Higher Education (CHED) Director Felizardo
Y. Francisco. Despite the passage of the enabling law in 1993, the LEB became fully operational only in June 2010.
Acting pursuant to its authority to prescribe the minimum standards for law schools, the LEB issued Memorandum
Order No. 1, Series of 2011 (LEBMO No. 1-2011) providing for the Policies and Standards of Legal Education and
Manual of Regulation for Law Schools.
Since then, the LEB had issued several orders, circulars, resolutions, and other issuances which are made available
through their website:
A. Orders
Number Title/Subject
LEBMO No. 2 Additional Rules in the Operation of the Law
Program
LEBMO No. 3-2016 Policies, Standards and, Guidelines for the
Accreditation of Law Schools to Offer and
Operate Refresher Courses
LEBMO No. 4-2016 Supplemental to [LEBMO] No. 3, Series of 2016

LEBMO No. 5-2016 Guidelines for the [Prerequisite] Subjects in the
Basic Law Courses
LEBMO No. 6-2016 Reportorial Requirements for Law Schools
LEBMO No. 7-2016 Policies and Regulations for the Administration of

a Nationwide Uniform Law School Admission Test
for Applicants to the Basic Law Courses in All
Law Schools in the Country
G.R. No. 230642 8/20/24, 6:48 PM
LEBMO No. 8-2016 Policies, Guidelines and Procedures Governing

Increases in Tuition and Other School Fees, and,
Introduction of New Fees by Higher, Education
Institutions for the Law Program
LEBMO No. 9-2017 Policies and Guidelines on the Conferment of
Honorary Doctor of Laws Degrees
LEBMO No. 10-2017 Guidelines on the Adoption of Academic/School

Calendar
LEBMO No. 11-2017 Additional Transition Provisions to [LEBMO] No.

7, Series of 2016, on PhiLSAT
LEBMO No. 12-2018 LEB Service/Transaction Fees
LEBMO No. 13-2018 Guidelines in the Conduct of Summer Classes
LEBMO No. 14-2018 Policy and Regulations in Offering Elective

Subjects
LEBMO No. 15-2018 Validation of the Licenses of, and the Law
Curriculum/Curricula for the Basic Law Courses in
use by Law Schools and Graduate Schools of
Law
LEBMO No. 16-2018 Policies, Standards and Guidelines for the
Academic Law Libraries of Law Schools
LEBMO No. 17-2018 Supplemental Regulations on the Minimum
Academic Requirement of Master of Laws Degree
for Deans and Law
Professors/Lecturers/Instructors in Law Schools
LEBMO No. 18-2018 Guidelines on Cancellation or Suspension of
Classes in All Law Schools
LEBMO No. 19-2018 Migration of the Basic Law Course to Juris Doctor
LEBMO No. 20-2019 Discretionary Admission in the AY 2019-2020 of
Examinees Who Rated Below the Cut-off/Passing
Score but Not Less than 45% in the Philippine
Law School Admission Test Administered on April
7, 2019
B. Memorandum Circulars
LEBMC No. 1 New Regulatory Issuances

LEBMC No. 2 Submission of Schedule of Tuition and Other
School Fees
LEBMC No. 3 Submission of Law School Information Report
LEBMC No. 4 Reminder to Submit Duly Accomplished LSIR

Form
LEBMC No. 5 Offering of the Refresher Course for AY 2017-

2018
G.R. No. 230642 8/20/24, 6:48 PM
LEBMC No. 6 Applications for LEB Certification Numbers

LEBMC No. 7 Application of Transitory Provision Under
[LEBMO] No. 7 Series of 2017 and [LEBMO] No.
11, Series of 2017 in the Admission of Freshmen
Law Students in Basic Law Courses in Academic
Year 2017-2018
LEBMC No. 8 Guidelines for Compliance with the Reportorial
Requirements Under [LEBMO] No. 7, Series of
2016 for Purposes of the Academic Year 2017-
2018
LEBMC No. 9 Observance of Law Day and Philippine National

Law Week
LEBMC No. 10 September 21, 2017 Suspension of Classes

LEBMC No. 11 Law Schools Authorized to Offer the Refresher
Course in the Academic Year 2016-2017
LEBMC No. 13 Legal Research Seminar of the Philippine Group
of Law Librarians on April 4-6, 2018
LEBMC No. 14 CSC Memorandum Circular No. 22, s.2016

LEBMC No. 16 Clarification to [LEBMO] No. 3, Series of 2016
LEBMC No. 17 Updated List of Law Schools Authorized to Offer
the Refresher Course in the Academic Year 2018-
2019
LEBMC No. 18 PHILSAT Eligibility Requirement for Freshmen in

the Academic Year 2018-2019
LEBMC No. 19 Guidelines for the Limited Conditional
Admission/Enrollment in the 1st Semester of the
Academic Year 2018-2019 Allowed for Those
Who Have Not Taken the PhiLSAT
LEBMC No. 20 Updated List of Law Schools Authorized to Offer

the Refresher Course in the Academic Year 2018-
2019
LEBMC No. 21 Adjustments/Corrections to the Requirements for
Law Schools to be Qualified to Conditionally
Admit/Enroll Freshmen Law Students in AY 2018-
2019
LEBMC No. 22 Advisory on who should take the September 23,
2018 PhiLSAT
LEBMC No. 23 Collection of the PhiLSAT Certificate of
Eligibility/Exemption by Law Schools from
Applicants for Admission
LEBMC No. 24 Observance of the Philippine National Law Week
G.R. No. 230642 8/20/24, 6:48 PM
LEBMC No. 25 Competition Law
LEBMC No. 26 Scholarship Opportunity for Graduate Studies for

Law Deans, Faculty Members and Law
Graduates with the 2020-2021 Philippine
Fulbright Graduate Student Program
LEBMC No. 27 Advisory on April 7, 2019 PhiLSAT and
Conditional [Enrollment] for Incoming
Freshmen/1st Year Law Students
LEBMC No. 28 April 25-26, 2019 Competition Law Training
Program
LEBMC No. 29 Detailed Guidelines for Conditional Enrollment

Permit Application
LEBMC No. 30 Law Schools Authorized to Offer Refresher

Course in AY 2019-2020
LEBMC No. 31 Law Schools Authorized to Offer Refresher
Course in AY 2019-2020
LEBMC No. 40 Reminders concerning Conditionally Enrolled

Freshmen Law Students in AY 2019-2020
C. Resolutions and Other Issuances
Resolution No. 16 Reportorial Requirement for Law Schools with

Small Students Population
Resolution No.7, Series of 2010 Declaring a 3-Year Moratorium in the Opening of
New Law Schools
Resolution No. 8, Series of 2010 Administrative Sanctions
Resolution No. 2011-21 A Resolution Providing for Supplementary Rules

to the Provisions of LEBMO No. 1 in regard to
Curriculum and Degrees Ad Eundem
Resolution No. 2012-02 A Resolution Eliminating the Requirement of
Special, Orders for Graduates of the Basic Law
Degrees and Graduate Law Degrees and
Replacing them with a Per Law School
Certification Approved by the Legal Education
Board
Resolution No. 2013-01 Ethical Standards of Conduct for Law Professors

Resolution No. 2014-02 Prescribing Rules on the Ll.M. Staggered
Compliance Schedule and the Exemption from
the Ll.M. Requirement
Resolution No. 2015-08 Prescribing the Policy and Rules in the
Establishment of a Legal Aid Clinic in Law
Schools
Order Annual Law Publication Requirements

Chairman Memorandum Restorative Justice to be Added as Elective
Subject
G.R. No. 230642 8/20/24, 6:48 PM
The PhiLSAT under LEBMO No.

7-2016, LEBMO No. 11-2017,
LEBMC No. 18-2018, and related
issuances
As above-enumerated, among the orders issued by the LEB was Memorandum Order No. 7, Series of
2016 (LEBMO No. 7-2016) pursuant to its power to "prescribe the minimum standards for law admission" under
Section 7(e) of R.A. No. 7662.
The policy and rationale of LEBMO No. 7-2016 is to improve the quality of legal education by requiring all those
seeking admission to the basic law course to take and pass a nationwide uniform law school admission test, known
as the PhiLSAT.10
The PhiLSAT is essentially an aptitude test measuring the examinee's communications and language proficiency,
critical thinking, verbal and quantitative reasoning.11 It was designed to measure the academic potential of the
examinee to pursue the study of law.12 Exempted from the PhiLSAT requirement were honor graduates who were
granted professional civil service eligibility and who are enrolling within two years from their college graduation.13
Synthesizing, the key provisions of LEBMO No. 7-2016 are as follows:
(1) The policy and rationale of requiring PhiLSAT is to improve the quality of legal education. The PhiLSAT
shall be administered under the control and supervision of the LEB;14
(2) The PhiLSAT is an aptitude test that measures the academic potential of the examinee to pursue the study
of law;15
(3) A qualified examinee is either a graduate of a four-year bachelor's degree; expecting to graduate with a
four-year bachelor's degree at the end of the academic year when the PhiLSAT was administered; or a
graduate from foreign higher education institutions with a degree equivalent to a four-year bachelor's degree.
There is no limit as to the number of times a qualified examinee may take the PhiLSAT;16
(4) The LEB may designate an independent third-party testing administrator;17
(5) The PhiLSAT shall be administered at least once a year, on or before April 16, in testing centers;18
(6) The testing fee shall not exceed the amount of P1,500.00 per examination;19
(7) The cut-off or passing score shall be 55% correct answers, or such percentile score as may be prescribed
by the LEB;20
(8) Those who passed shall be issued a Certificate of Eligibility while those who failed shall be issued a
Certificate of Grade;21
(9) Passing the PhiLSAT is required for admission to any law school. No applicant shall be admitted for
enrollment as a first year student in the basic law course leading to a degree of either Bachelor of Laws or
Juris Doctor unless he has passed the PhiLSAT taken within two years before the start of the study;22
(10) Honor graduates granted professional civil service eligibility who are enrolling within two years from
college graduation are exempted from taking and passing the PhiLSAT for purposes of admission to the basic
law course;23
(11) Law schools, in the exercise of academic freedom, can prescribe additional requirements for admission;24
(12) Law schools shall submit to LEB reports of first year students admitted and enrolled, and their PhiLSAT
scores, as well as the subjects enrolled and the final grades received by every first year student;25
(13) Beginning academic year 2018-2019, the general average requirement (not less than 80% or 2.5) for
G.R. No. 230642 8/20/24, 6:48 PM
admission to basic law course under Section 23 of LEBMO No. 1-2011 is removed;26
(14) In academic year 2017-2018, the PhiLSAT passing score shall not be enforced and the law schools shall
have the discretion to admit in the basic law course, applicants who scored less than 55% in the PhiLSAT,
provided that the law dean shall submit a justification for the admission and the required report;27 and
(15) Law schools, in violation of LEBMO No. 7-2016, shall be administratively sanctioned as prescribed in
Section 3228 of LEBMO No. 2-201329 and/or fined up to P10,000.00.30
Effective for the academic year 2017 to 2018, no applicant to law school was allowed admission without having
taken and passed the PhiLSAT. The first PhiLSAT examination was held on April 16, 2017 in seven pilot sites:
Baguio City, Metro Manila, Legazpi City, Cebu City, Iloilo City, Davao City, and Cagayan de Oro. A total of 6,575 out
of 8,074 examinees passed the first-ever PhiLSAT. For the first PhiLSAT, the passing grade was adjusted by the
LEB from 55% to 45% by way of consideration.
Since the PhiLSAT was implemented for the first time and considering further that there were applicants who failed
to take the PhiLSAT because of the inclement weather last April 16, 2017, the LEB issued Memorandum Order No.
11, Series of 2017 (LEBMO No. 11-2017).
Under LEBMO No. 11-2017, those who failed to take the first PhiLSAT were allowed to be admitted to law schools
for the first semester of academic year 2017 to 2018 for justifiable or meritorious reasons and conditioned under the
following terms:
2. Conditions - x x x
a. The student shall take the next scheduled PhiLSAT;
b. If the student fails to take the next scheduled PhiLSAT for any reason, his/her conditional
admission in the law school shall be automatically revoked and barred from enrolling in the
following semester;
c. If the student takes the next scheduled PhiLSAT but scores below the passing or cut-off score,
his/her conditional admission shall also be revoked and barred from enrolling in the following
semester, unless the law school expressly admits him/her in the exercise of the discretion given
under Section/Paragraph 14 of LEBMO No. 7, Series of 2016, subject to the requirements of the
same provision;
d. The student whose conditional admission and enrol[l]ment is subsequently revoked shall not
be entitled to the reversal of the school fees assessed and/or refund of the school fees paid; and
e. The student shall execute under oath, and file with his/her application for a Permit for
Conditional Admission/Enrol[l]ment, an UNDERTAKING expressly agreeing to the foregoing
conditions.31
The conditional admission and enrollment under LEBMO No. 11-2017 and the transitory provision provided in
LEBMO No. 7-2016 were subsequently clarified by the LEB through its Memorandum Circular No. 7, Series of
2017 (LEBMC No. 7-2017).
On September 24, 2017 and April 8, 2018, the second and third PhiLSATs were respectively held.
On October 26, 2017, the LEB issued a Memorandum reminding law schools, law students, and other interested
persons that the passing of the PhiLSAT is required to be eligible for admission/enrollment in the basic law course
for academic year 2017 to 2018. It was also therein clarified that the discretion given to law schools to admit those
who failed the PhiLSAT during the initial year of implementation is only up to the second semester of academic year
2017-2018.
Because of the confusion as to whether conditional admission for academic year 2018 to 2019 may still be allowed,
the LEB issued Memorandum Circular No. 18, Series of 2018 (LEBMC No. 18-2018). Under LEBMC No. 18-2018, it
was clarified that the conditional admission was permitted only in academic year 2017 to 2018 as part of the
transition adjustments in the initial year of the PhiLSAT implementation. As such, by virtue of LEBMC No. 18-2018,
the conditional admission of students previously allowed under LEBMO No. 11-2017 was discontinued.
G.R. No. 230642 8/20/24, 6:48 PM
Nevertheless, on July 25, 2018, the LEB issued Memorandum Circular No. 19, Series of 2018 (LEBMC No. 19-
2018) allowing limited conditional admission/enrollment in the first semester of academic year 2018 to 2019 for
those applicants who have never previously taken the PhiLSAT. Those who have taken the PhiLSAT and scored
below the cut-off score were disqualified. In addition, only those law schools with a passing rate of not less than
25%, are updated in the reportorial requirement and signified its intention to conditionally admit applicants were
allowed to do so. The limited enrollment was subject to the condition that the admitted student shall take and pass
the next PhiLSAT on September 23, 2018, otherwise the conditional enrollment shall be nullified. Non-compliance
with said circular was considered a violation of the minimum standards for the law program for which law schools
may be administratively penalized.
The fourth PhiLSAT then pushed through on September 23, 2018.
The Petitions
Days before the scheduled conduct of the first-ever PhiLSAT on April 16, 2017, petitioners Oscar B. Pimentel
(Pimentel), Errol B. Comafay (Comafay), Rene B. Gorospe (Gorospe), Edwin R. Sandoval (Sandoval), Victoria B.
Loanzon (Loanzon), Elgin Michael C. Perez (Perez), Arnold E. Cacho (Cacho), Al Conrad B. Espaldon (Espaldon)
and Ed Vincent S. Albano (Albano) [as citizens, lawyers, taxpayers and law professors], with their co-petitioners
Leighton R. Siazon (Siazon), Arianne C. Artugue (Artugue), Clarabel Anne R. Lacsina (Lacsina) and Kristine Jane
R. Liu (Liu) [as citizens, lawyers and taxpayers], Alyanna Mari C. Buenviaje (Buenviaje) and Iana Patricia Dula T.
Nicolas (Nicolas) [as citizens intending to take up law] and Irene A. Tolentino (Tolentino) and Aurea I. Gruyal
(Gruyal) [as citizens and taxpayers] filed their Petition for Prohibition,32 docketed as G.R. No. 230642, principally
seeking that R.A. No. 7662 be declared unconstitutional and that the creation of the LEB be invalidated together
with all its issuances, most especially the PhiLSAT, for encroaching upon the rule-making power of the Court
concerning admissions to the practice of law;33 They prayed for the issuance of a temporary restraining order (TRO)
to prevent the LEB from conducting the PhiLSAT.
Respondents-in-intervention Attys. Anthony D. Bengzon (Bengzon), Ferdinand M. Negre (Negre), Michael Z.

Untalan (Untalan), Jonathan Q. Perez (Perez), Samantha Wesley K. Rosales (Rosales), Erika M. Alfonso (Alfonso),
Krys Valen O. Martinez (Martinez), Ryan Ceazar P. Romano (Romano), and Kenneth C. Varona (Varona) [as
citizens and lawyers] moved to intervene and prayed for the dismissal of the Petition for Prohibition.34
On February 12, 2018, petitioners-in-intervention April D. Caballero (Caballero), Jerey C. Castardo (Castardo), MC
Wellroe P. Bringas (Bringas), Rhuffy D. Federe (Federe) and Conrad Theodore A. Matutino (Matutino) [as graduates
of four-year college course and applicants as first year law students], St. Thomas More School of Law and
Business, Inc., [as an educational stock corporation] and Rodolfo C. Rapista (Rapista), Judy Marie Rapista-Tan
(Rapista-Tan), Lynnart Walford A. Tan (Tan), Ian M. Enterina (Enterina) and Neil John Villarico (Villarico) [as citizens
and law professors] intervened and joined the Petition for Prohibition of Pimentel, et al., seeking to declare R.A. No.
7662 and the PhiLSAT as unconstitutional.35
Thereafter, a Petition for Certiorari and Prohibition, docketed as G.R. No. 242954, was filed by petitioners Francis
Jose Lean L. Abayata (Abayata), Gretchen M. Vasquez (Vasquez), Sheenah S. Ilustrismo (Ilustrismo), Ralph Louie
Salaño (Solaño), Aireen Monica B. Guzman (Guzman) and Delfino Odias (Odias) [as law students who failed to
pass the PhiLSAT], Daryl Dela Cruz (Dela Cruz), Claire Suico (Suico), Aivie S. Pescadero (Pescadero), Niña
Christine Dela Paz (Dela Paz), Shemark K. Queniahan (Queniahan), Al Jay T. Mejos (Mejos), Rocellyn L. Daño
(Daño), Michael Adolfo (Adolfo), Ronald A. Atig (Atig), Lynette C. Lumayag (Lumayag), Mary Chris Lagera (Lagera),
Timothy B. Francisco (Francisco), Sheila Marie C. Dandan (Dandan), Madeline C. Dela Peña (Dela Peña), Darlin R.
Villamor (Villamor), Lorenzana Llorico (Llorico) and Jan Ivan M. Santamaria (Santamaria) [as current law students
who failed to take the PhiLSAT] seeking to invalidate R.A. No. 7662 or, in the alternative, to declare as
unconstitutional the PhiLSAT. They also sought the issuance of a TRO to defer the holding of the aptitude test.36
These Petitions were later on consolidated by the Court and oral arguments thereon were held on March 5, 2019.
Temporary Restraining Order
On March 12, 2019, the Court issued a TRO37 enjoining the LEB from implementing LEBMC No. 18-2018 and, thus,
allowing those who have not taken the PhiLSAT prior to the academic year 2018 to 2019, or who have taken the
PhiLSAT, but did not pass, or who are honor graduates in college with no PhiLSAT Exemption Certificate, or honor
graduates with expired PhiLSAT Exemption Certificates to conditionally enroll as incoming freshmen law students
for the academic year 2019 to 2020 under the same terms as LEBMO No. 11-2017.
G.R. No. 230642 8/20/24, 6:48 PM
Subsequently, the LEB issued Memorandum Circular No. 27, Series of 2019 (LEBMC No. 27-2019) stating that the
PhiLSAT scheduled on April 7, 2019 will proceed and reiterated the requirements that must be complied with for the
conditional enrollment for the academic year 2019 to 2020.
The Parties' Arguments
In G.R. No. 230642
Petitioners in G.R. No. 230642 argue that R.A. No. 7662 and the PhiLSAT are offensive to the Court's power to
regulate and supervise the legal profession pursuant to Section 5(5), Article VIII38 of the Constitution and that the
Congress cannot create an administrative office that exercises the Court's power over the practice of law. They also
argue that R.A. No. 7662 gives the JBC additional functions to vet nominees for the LEB in violation of Section 8(5),
Article VIII39 of the Constitution.
In their Memorandum, petitioners also question the constitutionality of the LEB's powers under Section 7(c)40 and
7(e)41 to prescribe the qualifications and compensation of faculty members and Section 7(h)42 on the LEB's power to
adopt a system of continuing legal education as being repugnant to the Court's rule-making power concerning the
practice of law. They also argue that the PhiLSAT violates the academic freedom of law schools and the right to
education.
Petitioners-in-intervention meanwhile contend that the PhiLSAT violates the right to liberty and pursuit of happiness
of the student-applicants. They posit that the PhiLSAT violates the equal protection clause as it is an arbitrary form
of classification not based on substantial distinctions. They also argue that the PhiLSAT violates the right of all
citizens to quality and accessible education, violates academic freedom, and is an unfair academic requirement. It is
also their position that the PhiLSAT violates due process as it interferes with the right of every person to select a
profession or course of study. They also argue that R.A. No. 7662 constitutes undue delegation of legislative
powers.
In G.R. No. 242954
Petitioners in G.R. No. 242954 argue that certiorari and prohibition are proper remedies either under the expanded
or traditional jurisdiction of the Court. They also invoke the doctrine of transcendental importance.
Substantively, they contend that R.A. No. 7662, specifically Section 3(a)(2)43 on the objective of legal education to
increase awareness among members of the legal profession, Section 7(e) on law admission, 7(g)44 on law practice
internship, and 7(h) on adopting a system of continuing legal education, and the declaration of policy on continuing
legal education45 infringe upon the power of the Court to regulate admission to the practice of law. They profess that
they are not against the conduct of law school admission test per se, only that the LEB cannot impose the PhiLSAT
as the power to do so allegedly belongs to the Court.46
It is also their contention that the PhiLSAT violates academic freedom as it interferes with the law school's exercise
of freedom to choose who to admit. According to them, the LEB cannot issue penal regulations, and the consequent
forfeiture of school fees and the ban on enrollment for those who failed to pass the PhiLSAT violate due process.
The Comments
Procedurally, the Office of the Solicitor General (OSG), representing the LEB, argues that certiorari and prohibition
are not proper to assail the constitutionality of R.A. No. 7662 either under the traditional or expanded concept of
judicial power. For the OSG, R.A. No. 7662 was enacted pursuant to the State's power to regulate all educational
institutions, and as such, there could be no grave abuse of discretion. It also claims that the Congress is an
indispensable party to the petitions.
Substantively, the OSG contends that the Court's power to regulate admission to the practice of law does not
include regulation of legal education. It also defends Section 7(e) on the LEB's power to prescribe minimum
standards for law admission as referring to admission to law schools; Section 7(g) on the LEB's power to establish a
law practice internship as pertaining to the law school curriculum which is within the power of the LEB to regulate;
and 7(h) on the LEB's power to adopt a system of continuing legal education as being limited to the training of
lawyer-professors.47 Anent the argument that R.A. No. 7662 gives the JBC additional functions not assigned to it by
the Court, the OSG points out that the Court had actually authorized the JBC to process the applications for
membership to the LEB making this a non-issue.
G.R. No. 230642 8/20/24, 6:48 PM
In defending the validity of the PhiLSAT, the OSG advances the argument that the PhiLSAT is the minimum standard
for entrance to law schools prescribed by the LEB pursuant to the State's power to regulate education. The OSG
urges that the PhiLSAT is no different from the National Medical Admission Test (NMAT) which the Court already
upheld as a valid exercise of police power in the seminal case of Tablarin v. Gutierrez.48
It is also the position of the OSG that neither the PhiLSAT nor the provisions of R.A. No. 7662 violate academic
freedom because the standards for entrance to law school, the standards for accreditation, the prescribed
qualifications of faculty members, and the prescribed basic curricula are fair, reasonable, and equitable admission
and academic requirements.
For their part, respondents in-intervention contend that R.A. No. 7662 enjoys the presumption of constitutionality
and that the study of law is different from the practice of law.
In its Comment to the Petition-in-Intervention, the OSG dismisses as speculative the argument that the PhiLSAT is
anti-poor, and adds that the Court has no competence to rule on whether the PhiLSAT is an unfair or unreasonable
requirement, it being a question of policy.
Respondents-in-intervention, for their part, argue that the right of the citizens to accessible education means that the
State shall make quality education accessible only to those qualified enough, as determined by fair, reasonable, and
equitable admission and academic requirements. They dispute the claimed intrusion on academic freedom as law
schools are not prevented from selecting who to admit among applicants who have passed the PhiLSAT. They
stress that the right to education is not absolute and may be regulated by the State, citing Calawag v. University of
the Philippines Visayas.49
By way of Reply, petitioners-in-intervention emphasize that the doctrine in Tablarin50 is inapplicable as medical
schools are not the same as law schools. They further aver that the decline in enrollment as a result of the
implementation of the PhiLSAT is not speculative.51
The Issues
After a careful consideration of the issues raised by the parties in their pleadings and refined during the oral
arguments, the issues for resolution are synthesized as follows:
I. Procedural Issues:
A. Remedies of certiorari and prohibition; and
B. Requisites of judicial review and the scope of the Court's review in the instant petitions.
II. Substantive Issues:
A. Jurisdiction over legal education;
B. Supervision and regulation of legal education as an exercise of police power;
1. Reasonable supervision and regulation
2. Institutional academic freedom
3. Right to education
C. LEB's powers under R.A. No. 7662 vis-a-vis the Court's jurisdiction over the practice of law; and
D. LEB's powers under R.A. No. 7662 vis-a-vis the academic freedom of law schools and the right to
education.
The Rulings of the Court
I.
Procedural Issues
G.R. No. 230642 8/20/24, 6:48 PM
A.
Remedies of Certiorari and Prohibition
The propriety of the remedies of certiorari and prohibition is assailed on the ground that R.A. No. 7662 is a
legislative act and not a judicial, quasi-judicial, or ministerial function. In any case, respondents argue that the issues
herein presented involve purely political questions beyond the ambit of judicial review.
The Court finds that petitioners availed of the proper remedies.
The 193552 and 197353 Constitutions mention, but did not define, "judicial power." In contrast, the 1987 Constitution
lettered what judicial power is and even "expanded" its scope.
As constitutionally defined under Section 1, Article VIII of the 1987 Constitution,54 judicial power is no longer limited
to the Court's duty to' settle actual controversies involving rights which are legally demandable and enforceable, or
the power of adjudication, but also includes, the duty to determine whether or not there has been grave abuse of
discretion amounting to lack or excess of jurisdiction on the part of any branch or instrumentality of the Government.
This innovation under the 1987 Constitution later on became known as the Court's traditional jurisdiction and
expanded jurisdiction, respectively.55
The expanded scope of judicial review mentions "grave abuse of discretion amounting to lack or excess of
jurisdiction" to harbinger the exercise of judicial review; while petitions for certiorari56 and prohibition57 speak of "lack
or excess of jurisdiction or grave abuse of discretion amounting to lack or excess of jurisdiction." Petitions
for certiorari and prohibition as it is understood under Rule 65 of the Rules of Court are traditionally regarded as
supervisory writs used as a means by superior or appellate courts, in the exercise of their supervisory jurisdiction, to
keep subordinate courts within the bounds of their jurisdictions. As such, writs of certiorari and prohibition correct
only errors of jurisdiction of judicial and quasi-judicial bodies.58
However, considering the commonality of the ground of "grave abuse of discretion," a Rule 65 petition, as a
procedural vehicle to invoke the Court's expanded jurisdiction, has been allowed.59 After all, there is grave abuse of
discretion when an act is done contrary to the Constitution, the law or jurisprudence, or is executed whimsically,
capriciously or arbitrarily, out of malice, ill will, or personal bias.60 In Spouses Imbong v. Ochoa, Jr.,61 the Court
emphasized that certiorari, prohibition and mandamus are appropriate remedies to raise constitutional issues.
That it is a legislative act which is being assailed is likewise not a ground to deny the present petitions.
For one, the 1987 Constitution enumerates under Section 5(2)(a), Article VIII,62 the Court's irreducible powers which
expressly include the power of judicial review, or the power to pass upon the constitutionality or validity of any treaty,
international or executive agreement, law, presidential decree, proclamation, order, instruction, ordinance, or
regulation.
For another, the Court's expanded jurisdiction, when invoked, permits a review of acts not only by a tribunal, board,
or officer exercising judicial, quasi-judicial or ministerial functions, but also by any branch or instrumentality of the
Government. "Any branch or instrumentality of the Government" necessarily includes the Legislative and the
Executive, even if they are not exercising judicial, quasi-judicial or ministerial functions.63 As such, the Court may
review and/or prohibit or nullify, when proper, acts of legislative and executive officials, there being no plain, speedy,
or adequate remedy in the ordinary course of law.64
The power of judicial review over congressional action, in particular, was affirmed in Francisco, Jr. v. The House of
Representatives,65 wherein the Court held:
There is indeed a plethora of cases in which this Court exercised the power of judicial review over congressional
action. Thus, in Santiago v. Guingona, Jr., this Court ruled that it is well within the power and jurisdiction of the Court
to inquire whether the Senate or its officials committed a violation of the Constitution or grave abuse of discretion in
the exercise of their functions and prerogatives. In Tañada v. Angara, where petitioners sought to nullify an act of the
Philippine Senate on the ground that it contravened the Constitution, it held that the petition raised a justiciable
controversy and that when an action of the legislative branch is alleged to have seriously infringed the Constitution,
it becomes not only the right but in fact the duty of the judiciary to settle the dispute. In Bondoc v. Pineda, [this
Court] declared null and void a resolution of the House of Representatives withdrawing the nomination, and
rescinding the election, of a congressman as a member of the House Electoral Tribunal for being violative of Section
17, Article VI of the Constitution. In Coseteng v. Mitra, it held that the resolution of whether the House representation
G.R. No. 230642 8/20/24, 6:48 PM
in the Commission on Appointments was based on proportional representation of the political parties as provided in
Section 18, Article VI of the Constitution is subject to judicial review. In Daza v. Singson, it held that the act of the
House of Representatives in removing the petitioner from the Commission on Appointments is subject to judicial
review. In Tañada v. Cuenco, it held that although under the Constitution, the legislative power is vested exclusively
in Congress, this does not detract from the power of the courts to pass upon the constitutionality of acts of
Congress. In Angara v. Electoral Commission, it exercised its power of judicial review to determine which between
the Electoral Commission and the National Assembly had jurisdiction over an electoral dispute concerning members
of the latter. (Internal citations omitted; emphases supplied)
This was reiterated in Villanueva v. Judicial and Bar Council,66 as follows:
With respect to the Court, however, the remedies of certiorari and prohibition are necessarily broader in scope and
reach, and the writ of certiorari or prohibition may be issued to correct errors of jurisdiction committed not only by a
tribunal, corporation, board or officer exercising judicial, quasi-judicial or ministerial functions but also to set right,
undo and restrain any act of grave abuse of discretion amounting to lack or excess of jurisdiction by any branch or
instrumentality of the Government, even if the latter does not exercise judicial, quasi-judicial or ministerial functions.
This application is expressly authorized by the text of the second paragraph of Section 1, supra.
Thus, petitions for certiorari and prohibition are appropriate remedies to raise constitutional issues and to review
and/or prohibit or nullify the acts of legislative and executive officials. (Internal citation omitted; emphasis supplied)
Consistently, in Samahan ng mga Progresibong Kabataan (SPARK) v. Quezon City,67 the remedies of certiorari and
prohibition were regarded as proper vehicles to assail the constitutionality of curfew ordinances, and in Agcaoili v.
Fariñas,68 to question the contempt powers of the Congress in the exercise of its power of inquiry in aid of
legislation.
The consistency in the Court's rulings as to the propriety of the writs of certiorari and prohibition under Rule 65 of
the Rules of Court to correct errors of jurisdiction committed not only by a tribunal, corporation, board or officer
exercising judicial, quasi-judicial or ministerial functions, but also to correct, undo, or restrain any act of grave abuse
of discretion on the part of the legislative and the executive, propels the Court to treat the instant petitions in the
same manner.
B.
Requisites for Judicial Review
The power of judicial review is tritely defined as the power to review the constitutionality of the actions of the other
branches of the government.69 For a proper exercise of its power of review in constitutional litigation, certain
requisites must be satisfied: (1) an actual case or controversy calling for the exercise of judicial power; (2) the
person challenging the act must have "standing" to challenge; (3) the question of constitutionality must be raised at
the earliest possible opportunity; and (4) the issue of constitutionality must be the very lis mota of the case.70
These requisites are effective limitations on the Court's exercise of its power of review because judicial review in
constitutional cases is quintessentially deferential, owing to the great respect that each co-equal branch of the
Government affords to the other.
Of these four requisites, the first two, being the most essential,71 deserve an extended discussion in the instant
case.
1. Actual Case or Controversy
Fundamental in the exercise of judicial power, whether under the traditional or expanded setting, is the presence of
an actual case or controversy.72 An actual case or controversy is one which involves a conflict of legal rights and an
assertion of opposite legal claims susceptible of judicial resolution. The case must not be moot or academic, or
based on extra-legal or other similar considerations not cognizable by a court of justice.
To be justiciable, the controversy must be definite and concrete, touching on the legal relations of parties having
adverse legal interests. It must be shown from the pleadings that there is an active antagonistic assertion of a legal
right, on the one hand, and a denial thereof on the other. There must be an actual and substantial controversy and
not merely a theoretical question or issue. Further, the actual and substantial controversy must admit specific relief
through a conclusive decree and must not merely generate an advisory opinion based on hypothetical or conjectural
G.R. No. 230642 8/20/24, 6:48 PM
state of facts.73
Closely associated with the requirement of an actual or justiciable case or controversy is the ripening seeds for
adjudication. Ripeness for adjudication has a two-fold aspect: first, the fitness of the issues for judicial decision;
and second, the hardship to the parties entailed by withholding court consideration. The first aspect requires that the
issue must be purely legal and that the regulation subject of the case is a "final agency action." The second aspect
requires that the effects of the regulation must have been felt by the challenging parties in a concrete way.74
To stress, a constitutional question is ripe for adjudication when the challenged governmental act has a direct and
existing adverse effect on the individual challenging it.75 While a reasonable certainty of the occurrence of a
perceived threat to a constitutional interest may provide basis for a constitutional challenge, it is nevertheless still
required that there are sufficient facts to enable the Court to intelligently adjudicate the issues.76
In this regard, the Court's pronouncement in Philippine Association of Colleges and Universities (PACU) v. Secretary
of Education77 deserves reiteration:
It should be understandable, then, that this Court should be doubly reluctant to consider
petitioner's demand for avoidance of the law aforesaid, [e]specially where, as respondents
assert, petitioners suffered no wrong - nor allege any - from the enforcement of the criticized
statute.
It must be evident to any one that the power to declare a legislative enactment void is one
which the judge, conscious of the fallibility of human judgment, will shrink from exercising
in any case where he can conscientiously and with due regard to duty and official oath
decline the responsibility. x x x
When a law has been long treated as constitutional and important rights have become
dependent thereon, the Court may refuse to consider an attack on its validity. x x x
As a general rule, the constitutionality of a statute will be passed on only if, and to the
extent that, it is directly and necessarily involved in a justiciable controversy and is
essential to the protection of the rights of the parties concerned. x x x
xxxx
It is an established principle that to entitle a private individual immediately in danger of

sustaining a direct injury as the result of that action and it is not sufficient that he has
merely a general [interest] to invoke the judicial power to determine the validity of
executive or legislative action he must show that he has sustained or [has an] interest
common to all members of the public. x x x
Courts will not pass upon the constitutionality of a law upon the complaint of one who fails
to show that he is injured by its operation. x x x
The power of courts to declare a law unconstitutional arises only when the interests of
litigants require the use of that judicial authority for their protection against actual
interference, a hypothetical threat being insufficient. x x x
Bona fide suit. - Judicial power is limited to the decision of actual cases and controversies.
The authority to pass on the validity of statutes is incidental to the decision of such cases
where conflicting claims under the Constitution and under a legislative act assailed as
contrary to the Constitution are raised. It is legitimate only in the last resort, and as
necessity in the determination of real, earnest, and vital controversy between litigants. x x
x
xxxx
An action, like this, is brought for a positive purpose, nay, to obtain actual and positive relief. x
x x Courts do not sit to adjudicate mere academic questions to satisfy scholarly interest
therein, however intellectually solid the problem may be. This is [e]specially true where the
issues "reach constitutional dimensions, for then there comes into play regard for the court's
G.R. No. 230642 8/20/24, 6:48 PM
duty to avoid decision of constitutional issues unless avoidance becomes evasion." x x x

(Internal citations omitted; emphases supplied)
Ultimately, whether an actual case is present or not is determinative of whether the Court's hand should be stayed
when there is no adversarial setting and when the prerogatives of the co-equal branches of the Government should
instead be respected.
As ruled in Republic v. Roque: 78
A perusal of private respondents' petition for declaratory relief would show that they have failed to
demonstrate how they are left to sustain or are in immediate danger to sustain some direct injury as a
result of the enforcement of the assailed provisions of RA 9372. Not far removed from the factual milieu
in the Southern Hemisphere cases, private respondents only assert general interests as citizens, and
taxpayers and infractions which the government could prospectively commit if the enforcement of the
said law would remain untrammelled. As their petition would disclose, private respondents' fear of
prosecution was solely based on remarks of certain government officials which were addressed to the
general public. They, however, failed to show how these remarks tended towards any prosecutorial or
governmental action geared towards the implementation of RA 9372 against them. In other words,
there was no particular, real or imminent threat to any of them. As held in Southern Hemisphere:
Without any justiciable controversy, the petitions have become pleas for declaratory relief,
over which the Court has no original jurisdiction. Then again, declaratory actions
characterized by "double contingency," where both the activity the petitioners intend to
undertake and the anticipated reaction to it of a public official are merely theorized, lie
beyond judicial review for lack of ripeness.
The possibility of abuse in the implementation of RA 9372 does not avail to take the
present petitions out of the realm of the surreal and merely imagined. Such possibility is
not peculiar to RA 9372 since the exercise of any power granted by law may be abused.
Allegations of abuse must be anchored on real events before courts may step in to settle
actual controversies involving rights which are legally demandable and enforceable.
(Internal citations omitted; emphasis supplied)
Concededly, the Court had exercised the power of judicial review by the mere enactment of a law or approval of a
challenged action when such is seriously alleged to have infringed the Constitution. In Pimentel, Jr. v. Aguirre:79
First, on prematurity. According to the Dissent, when "the conduct has not yet occurred and the
challenged construction has not yet been adopted by the agency charged with administering the
administrative order, the determination of the scope and constitutionality of the executive action in
advance of its immediate adverse effect involves too remote and abstract an inquiry for the proper
exercise of judicial function."
This is a rather novel theory - that people should await the implementing evil to befall on them before
they can question acts that are illegal or unconstitutional. Be it remembered that the real issue here is
whether the Constitution and the law are contravened by Section 4 of AO 372, not whether they are
violated by the acts implementing it. In the unanimous en banc case Tañada v. Angara, this Court held
that when an act of the legislative department is seriously alleged to have infringed the Constitution,
settling the controversy becomes the duty of this Court. By the mere enactment of the questioned law
or the approval of the challenged action, the dispute is said to have ripened into a judicial controversy
even without any other overt act. Indeed, even a singular violation of the Constitution and/or the law is
enough to awaken judicial duty. Said the Court:
In seeking to nullify an act of the Philippine Senate on the ground that it contravenes the
Constitution, the petition no doubt raises a justiciable controversy. Where an action of the
legislative branch is seriously alleged to have infringed the Constitution, it becomes not
only the right but in fact the duty of the judiciary to settle the dispute. The question thus
posed is judicial rather than political. The duty (to adjudicate) remains to assure that the
supremacy of the Constitution is upheld. Once a controversy as to the application or
interpretation of a constitutional provision is raised before this Court x x x, it becomes a
legal issue which the Court is bound by constitutional mandate to decide.
G.R. No. 230642 8/20/24, 6:48 PM
xxxx
As this Court has repeatedly and firmly emphasized in many cases, it will not shirk,
digress from or abandon its sacred duty and authority to uphold the Constitution in matters
that involve grave abuse of discretion brought before it in appropriate cases, committed by
any officer, agency, instrumentality or department of the government.
In the same vein, the Court also held in Tatad v. Secretary of the Department of Energy:
x x x Judicial power includes not only the duty of the courts to settle actual controversies
involving rights which are legally demandable and enforceable, but also the duty to
determine whether or not there has been grave abuse of discretion amounting to lack or
excess of jurisdiction on the part of any branch or instrumentality of government. The
courts, as guardians of the Constitution, have the inherent authority to determine whether
a statute enacted by the legislature transcends the limit imposed by the fundamental law.
Where the statute violates the Constitution, it is not only the right but the duty of the
judiciary to declare such act unconstitutional and void.
By the same token, when an act of the President, who in our constitutional scheme is a
coequal of Congress, is seriously alleged to have infringed the Constitution and the laws,
as in the present case, settling the dispute becomes the duty and the responsibility of the
courts. (Internal citations omitted; emphases supplied)
In Spouses Imbong v. Ochoa,80 the Court took cognizance of the petitions despite posing
a facial challenge against the entire law as the petitions seriously alleged that fundamental
rights have been violated by the assailed legislation:
In this case, the Court is of the view that an actual case or controversy exists and that the same is
ripe for judicial determination. Considering that the RH Law and its implementing rules have
already taken effect and that budgetary measures to carry out the law have already been
passed, it is evident that the subject petitions present a justiciable controversy. As stated
earlier, when an action of the legislative branch is seriously alleged to have infringed the
Constitution, it not only becomes a right, but also a duty of the Judiciary to settle the dispute.
xxxx
Facial Challenge
The OSG also assails the propriety of the facial challenge lodged by the subject petitions, contending
that the RH Law cannot be challenged "on its face" as it is not a speech regulating measure.
The Court is not persuaded.
In United States (US) constitutional law, a facial challenge, also known as a First Amendment
Challenge, is one that is launched to assail the validity of statutes concerning not only protected
speech, but also all other rights in the First Amendment. These include religious freedom, freedom of
the press, and the right of the people to peaceably assemble, and to petition the Government for a
redress of grievances. After all, the fundamental right to religious freedom, freedom of the press and
peaceful assembly are but component rights of the right to one's freedom of expression, as they are
modes which one's thoughts are externalized.
In this jurisdiction, the application of doctrines originating from the U.S. has been generally maintained,
albeit with some modifications. While this Court has withheld the application of facial challenges
to strictly penal statutes, it has expanded its scope to cover statutes not only regulating free
speech, but also those involving religious freedom, and other fundamental rights. The underlying
reason for this modification is simple. For unlike its counterpart in the U.S., this Court, under its
expanded jurisdiction, is mandated by the Fundamental Law not only to settle actual
controversies involving rights which are legally demandable and enforceable, but also to
determine whether or not there has been a grave abuse of discretion amounting to lack or
excess of jurisdiction on the part of any branch or instrumentality of the Government. Verily, the
G.R. No. 230642 8/20/24, 6:48 PM
framers of Our Constitution envisioned a proactive Judiciary, ever vigilant with its duty to
maintain the supremacy of the Constitution.
Consequently, considering that the foregoing petitions have seriously alleged that the
constitutional human rights to life, speech and religion and other fundamental rights mentioned
above have been violated by the assailed legislation, the Court has authority to take cognizance
of these kindred petitions and to determine if the RH Law can indeed pass constitutional
scrutiny. To dismiss these petitions on the simple expedient that there exist no actual case or
controversy, would diminish this Court as a reactive branch of government, acting only when the
Fundamental Law has been transgressed, to the detriment of the Filipino people. (Internal citations
omitted; emphases supplied)81
Likewise in Belgica v. Ochoa,82 the Court held that the requirement of an actual case or controversy is satisfied by
the antagonistic positions taken by the parties:
The requirement of contrariety of legal rights is clearly satisfied by the antagonistic positions of the
parties on the constitutionality of the "Pork Barrel System." Also, the questions in these consolidated
cases are ripe for adjudication since the challenged funds and the provisions allowing for their
utilization-such as the 2013 GAA for the PDAF, PD 910 for the Malampaya Funds and PD 1869, as
amended by PD 1993, for the Presidential Social Fund - are currently existing and operational; hence,
there exists an immediate or threatened injury to petitioners as a result of the unconstitutional use of
these public funds.
1(a). Scope of Judicial Review
To determine whether petitioners presented an actual case or controversy, or have seriously alleged that R.A. No.
7662 suffers from constitutional infirmities to trigger the Court's power of judicial review, resort must necessarily be
had to the pleadings filed.
Petitioners in G.R. No. 230642 allege that R.A. No. 7662 and the LEB issuances relative to the admission and
practice of law encroach upon the powers of the Court.83 It is their position that the powers given to the LEB are
directly related to the Court's powers.84 In particular, they argue that the LEB's power to adopt a system of
continuing legal education under Section 7(h) of R.A. No. 7662 falls within the authority of the Court.85 In their
Memorandum, they additionally argue that the LEB's powers to prescribe the qualifications and compensation of
faculty members under Section 7(c) and 7(e) of R.A. No. 7662, Sections 50-51 of LEBMO No. 1, and Resolution No.
2014-02 intrude into the Court's rule-making power relative to the practice of law.86 They also argue that the
PhiLSAT violates the academic freedom of law schools and the right to education.87 It is their contention that the
LEB is without power to impose sanctions.88 They also question the authority of the LEB Chairperson and Members
to act in a hold-over capacity.89
For their part, petitioners-in-intervention allege that the PhiLSAT requirement resulted to a reduced number of law
student enrollees for St. Thomas More School of Law and Business, Inc. and constrained said law school to admit
only students who passed the PhiLSAT which is against their policy of admitting students based on values.90 Their
co-petitioners are students who either applied for law school, failed to pass the PhiLSAT, or, were conditionally
enrolled. Thus, they argue that Section 7(e) of R.A. No. 7662 and the PhiLSAT violate the law school's academic
freedom.
Petitioners in G.R. No. 242954 allege that they are current law students who failed to pass and/or take the PhiLSAT,
and who are therefore threatened with the revocation of their conditional enrollment and stands to be barred from
enrolling. Twelve of the 23 petitioners in G.R. No. 242954 were not allowed to enroll for failure to pass and/or take
the PhiLSAT.
It is their argument that the LEB's power under Section 7(e) of R.A. No. 7662 to prescribe minimum standards for
law admission, Section 7(g) to establish a law practice internship, Section 7(h) to adopt a system of continuing legal
education, and Section 3(a)(2) on the stated objective of legal education to increase awareness among members of
the legal profession of the needs of the poor, deprived and oppressed sectors of society usurp the Court's rule-
making powers concerning admission to the practice of law.91 In addition, they argue that the PhiLSAT issuances
violate academic freedom, and that the LEB is not authorized to revoke conditional enrollment nor is it authorized to
forfeit school fees and impose a ban enrollment which are penal sanctions violative of the due process clause. They
also argue that the classification of students to those who have passed or failed the PhiLSAT for purposes of
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admission to law school is repugnant to the equal protection clause.
The petitions therefore raise an actual controversy insofar as they allege that R.A. No. 7662, specifically Section 2,
paragraph 2, Section 3(a)(2), Section 7(c), (e), (g), and (h) of R.A. No. 7662 infringe upon the Court's power to
promulgate rules concerning the practice of law and upon institutional academic freedom and the right to quality
education. Necessarily, a review of the LEB issuances when pertinent to these assailed provisions of R.A. No. 7662
shall also be undertaken.
2. Legal Standing
Inextricably linked with the actual case or controversy requirement is that the party presenting the justiciable issue
must have the standing to mount a challenge to the governmental act.
By jurisprudence, standing requires a personal and substantial interest in the case such that the petitioner has
sustained, or will sustain, direct injury as a result of the violation of its rights,92 thus:
Legal standing or locus standi is the "right of appearance in a court of justice on a given question." To
possess legal standing, parties must show "a personal and substantial interest in the case such that
[they have] sustained or will sustain direct injury as a result of the governmental act that is being
challenged." The requirement of direct injury guarantees that the party who brings suit has such
personal stake in the outcome of the controversy and, in effect, assures "that concrete adverseness
which sharpens the presentation of issues upon which the court depends for illumination of difficult
constitutional questions."93 (Emphasis supplied)
The rule on standing admits of recognized exceptions: the over breadth doctrine, taxpayer suits, third-party standing
and the doctrine of transcendental importance.94
Petitioners-in-intervention Caballero, Castardo, Bringas, Federe and Matutino, being graduates of a four-year
college course and applicants as first year law students, as well as petitioners Abayata, Vasquez, Ilustrismo, Salaño,
Guzman and Odias, as law students who failed to pass the PhiLSAT and were denied admission to law school for
the academic year 2018 to 2019, and petitioners Dela Cruz, Suico, Pescadero, Dela Paz, Queniahan, Mejos, Daño,
Adolfo, Atig, Lumayag, Lagera, Francisco, Dandan, Dela Peña, Villamor, Llorico and Santamaria, being law students
who were conditionally enrolled, possess the requisite standing to challenge the constitutionality of Section 7(e) of
R.A. No. 7662 and the implementing LEB issuances, as they were, in fact, required to take the PhiLSAT, or to
comply with the terms of the conditional enrollment and failing which, were denied admission as regular students to
law school.
Petitioner-in-intervention St. Thomas More School of Law and Business, Inc., likewise sufficiently alleges injury that
it has sustained in the form of reduced number of enrollees due to the PhiLSAT requirement and the curtailment of
its discretion on who to admit in its law school. Under the specific and concrete facts available in this case, these
petitioners have demonstrated that they were, or tend to be directly and substantially, injured.
Meanwhile, petitioners Pimentel, Comafay, Gorospe, Sandoval, Loanzon, Perez, Cacho, Espaldon, Albano, Siazon,
Artugue, Lacsina, Liu, Buenviaje, Nicolas, Tolentino, and Gruyal; and petitioners-in intervention Rapista, Rapista-
Tan, Tan, Enterina and Villarico commonly anchor their standing to challenge R.A. No. 7662 and the PhiLSAT as
citizens.
Standing as a citizen has been upheld by this Court in cases where a petitioner is able to craft an issue of
transcendental importance or when paramount public interest is involved.95
Legal standing may be extended to petitioners for having raised a "constitutional issue of critical
significance."96 Without a doubt, the delineation of the Court's rule-making power vis-a-vis the supervision and
regulation of legal education and the determination of the reach of the State's supervisory and regulatory power in
the context of the guarantees of academic freedom and the right to education are novel issues with far-reaching
implications that deserve the Court's immediate attention. In taking cognizance of the instant petitions, the Court is
merely exercising its power to promulgate rules towards the end that constitutional rights are protected and
enforced.97
Now, to the core substantive issues.
G.R. No. 230642 8/20/24, 6:48 PM
II.
Substantive Issues
A.
Jurisdiction Over Legal Education
Petitioners in G.R. No. 230642 argue that the Court's power to promulgate rules concerning the admission to the
practice of law necessarily includes the power to do things related to the practice of law, including the power to
prescribe the requirements for admission to the study of law. In support, they point to Sections 698 and 16,99 Rule
138 of the Rules of Court. They contend that the Congress cannot create an administrative body, like the LEB, that
exercises this rule-making power of the Court. They emphasize that the LEB belongs to the Executive department,
and, as such, is not linked or accountable to the Court nor placed under the Court's regulation and supervision.
For their part, petitioners in G.R. No. 242954 maintain that the Court exercises authority over the legal profession
which includes the admission to the practice of law, to the continuing requirements for and discipline of
lawyers.100 According to them, the rule-making power of the Court is plenary in all cases regarding the admission to
and supervision of the practice of law. They argue that the Court's power to admit members to the practice of law
extends to admission to legal education because the latter is a preparatory process to the application for admission
to the legal profession, which "residual power" of the Court can be inferred from Sections 5101 and 6, Rule 138 of the
Rules of Court. They also emphasize that under Sections 1102 and 2103 of Rule 138-A, non-lawyers are allowed to
have limited practice of law and are held to answer by the Court under the same rules on privileged communication
and standard of conduct pursuant to Sections 3104 and 4105 of Rule 138-A.106
Contrary to petitioner's claims, the Court has no primary and direct jurisdiction over legal education. Neither the
history of the Philippine legal education nor the Rules of Court invoked by petitioners support their argument. The
supervision and regulation of legal education is an Executive function.
1 Regulation and supervision of legal education had

been historically and consistently exercised
by the political departments
Legal education in the Philippines was institutionalized in 1734, with the establishment of the Faculty of Civil Law in
the University of Santo Tomas with Spanish as the medium of instruction. Its curriculum was identical to that
adopted during the time in the universities in Europe107 and included subjects on Civil Law, Canon Law,
ecclesiastical discipline and elements of Natural Law.108
In 1901, Act No. 74 was passed centralizing the public school system, and establishing the Department of Public
Instruction headed by the General Superintendent.109 The archipelago was then divided into school divisions and
districts for effective management of the school system. It was through Act No. 74 that a Trade School110 and a
Normal School111 in Manila and a School of Agriculture in Negros were established.112
In 1908, the legislature approved Act No. 1870 which created the University of the Philippines (UP). However,
English law courses were not offered until 1910 when the Educational Department Committee of the Young Men's
Christian Association (YMCA), through the efforts of Justice George Malcolm, offered law courses in the English
language. In 1911, UP adopted these classes by formally establishing its College of Law,113 with its first graduates
being students who studied at YMCA.114 The curriculum adopted by the UP College of Law became the model of the
legal education curriculum of the other law schools in the country.115
Private schools were formally regulated in 1917 with the passage of Act No. 2706116 which made obligatory the
recognition and inspection of private schools and colleges by the Secretary of Public Instruction, so as to maintain a
standard of efficiency in all private schools and colleges117 in the country. As such, the Secretary of Public
Instruction was authorized to inspect schools and colleges to determine efficiency of instruction and to make
necessary regulations. Likewise, under Act No. 2706, the Secretary of Public Instruction was specifically authorized
to prepare and publish, from time to time, in pamphlet form, the minimum standards required of law schools and
other schools giving instruction of a technical or professional character.118
In 1924, a survey of the Philippine education and of all educational institutions, facilities and agencies was
conducted through Act No. 3162, which created the Board of Educational Survey. Among the factual findings of the
survey was that schools at that time were allowed to operate with almost no supervision at all. This led to the
conclusion that a great majority of schools from primary grade to the university are money-making devices of
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persons who organize and administer them. Thus, it was recommended that some board of control be· organized
under legislative control to supervise their administration.119 It was further recommended that legislation be enacted
to prohibit the opening of any school without the permission of the Secretary of Public Instruction. The grant of the
permission was, in turn, predicated upon a showing that the school is compliant with the proper standards as to the
physical structure, library and laboratory facilities, ratio of student to teacher and the qualifications of the teachers.120
Consistent with these statutory precursors, the 1935 Constitution expressed in no uncertain terms that "[a]ll
educational institutions shall be under the supervision and subject to regulation by the State."121
This was followed by several other statutes such as the Commonwealth Act No. 578122 which vests upon teachers,
professors, and persons charged with the supervision of public or duly-recognized private schools, colleges and
universities the status of "persons in authority" and Republic Act No. 139123 which created the Board of Textbooks,
mandating all public schools to use only the books approved by the Board and allowing all private schools to use
textbooks of their choice, provided it is not against the law or public policy or offensive to dignity.124
In 1947, the Department of Instruction was changed to the Department of Education.125 During this period, the
regulation and supervision of public and private schools belonged to the Bureau of Public and Private Schools. The
regulation of law schools in particular was undertaken by the Bureau of Private Schools through a special consultant
who acted as a supervisor of the law schools and as a national coordinator of the law deans.126
The Department of Education, through its Bureau of Private Schools, issued a Manual of Instructions for Private
Schools which contained the rules and regulations pertaining to the qualifications of the faculty and deans, faculty
load and library holdings of private learning institutions.127 Meantime, a Board of National Education was
created128 with the task of formulating, implementing and enforcing general educational policies and coordinating the
offerings and functions of all educational institutions. The Board of National Education was later renamed as the
National Board of Education.129 In 1972, the Department of Education became the Department of Education and
Culture,130 and was later on renamed as the Ministry of Education and Culture in 1978.131
Meanwhile, the 1973 Constitution remained consistent in mandating that all educational institutions shall be under
the supervision of and subject to regulation by the State.132
With the passage of Batas Pambansa Bilang 232133 (B.P. Blg. 232) or the Education Act of 1982, the regulatory
rules on both formal and non-formal systems in public and private schools in all levels of the entire educational
system were codified. The National Board of Education was abolished, and instead, a Ministry of Education, Culture
and Sports (MECS) was organized to supervise and regulate educational institutions. Part and parcel of the MECS'
authority to supervise and regulate educational institutions is its authority to recognize or accredit educational
institutions of all levels.134
Accordingly, the MECS was given the authority over public and private institutions of higher education, as well as
degree-granting programs, in all post-secondary public and private educational institutions.135 In particular, a Board
of Higher Education136 was established as an advisory body to the Minister of Education, Culture and Sports with
the functions of making policy recommendations on the planning and management of the integrated system of
higher education and recommending steps to improve the governance of the higher education system. Apart from
the Board of Higher Education, a Bureau of Higher Education was also established to formulate and evaluate
programs and educational standards for higher education137 and to assist the Board of Higher Education. Law
schools were placed, under the jurisdiction of the Bureau of Higher Education.138
The MECS later became the DECS in 1987 under Executive Order No. 117139 (E.O. No. 117). Nevertheless, the
power of the MECS to supervise all educational institutions remained unchanged.140
The Administrative Code141 also states that it shall be the State that shall protect and promote the right of all citizens
to quality education at all levels, and shall take appropriate steps to make such education accessible to all; and that
the DECS shall be primarily responsible for the formulation, planning, implementation, and coordination of the
policies, plans, programs and projects in the areas of formal and non-formal education. The Administrative Code
also empowered the Board of Higher Education to create technical panels of experts in the various disciplines
including law, to undertake curricula development.142 As will be discussed hereunder, the 1987 Constitution
crystallized the power of the State to supervise and regulate all educational institutions.143
2 DECS Order No. 27-1989 was
G.R. No. 230642 8/20/24, 6:48 PM
the precursor of R.A. No. 7662
Pursuant to its mandate under B.P. Blg. 232, the DECS promulgated DECS Order No. 27, Series of 1989 (DECS
Order No. 27-1989),144 in close coordination with the Philippine Association of Law Schools, the Philippine
Association of Law Professors and the Bureau of Higher Education. DECS Order No. 27-1989 specifically outlined
the policies and standards for legal education, and superseded all existing policies and standards related to legal
education. These policies were made applicable beginning school year 1989 to 1990.
"Legal education" was defined in DECS Order No. 27-1989 as an educational program including a clinical program
appropriate and essential in the understanding and application of law and the administration of justice. It is
professional education after completion of a required pre-legal education at the college level. For state colleges and
universities, the operation of their law schools was to depend on their respective charters, and for private colleges
and universities, by the rules and regulations issued by the DECS. Nevertheless, it was made clear under DECS
Order No. 27-1989 that the administration of a law school shall be governed primarily by the law school's own
policies and the provisions thereof apply only suppletorily.145
Likewise, in generally permissive terms, DECS Order No. 27-1989 prescribed the preferred qualifications and
functions of a law dean, as well as the preferred qualifications, conditions of employment and teaching load of law
faculty members. It also prescribed the general inclusions to the law curriculum, but gave the law schools the
prerogative to design its own curriculum. The DECS also drew a model law curriculum, thus, revising the 122-unit
curriculum prescribed in 1946 by the Office of Private Education, as well as the 134-unit curriculum prescribed in
1963. The law schools were also given the option to maintain a legal aid clinic as part of its law curriculum. It also
prescribed the need for law schools to have relevant library resources. Applicants for a law course are required to
comply with the specific requirements for admission by the Bureau of Higher Education and the Court.
Such was the state of the regulation of legal education until the enactment of R.A. No. 7662 in 1993. In 1994, R.A.
No. 7722146 was passed creating the Commission on Higher Education (CHED) tasked to supervise tertiary degree
programs. Except for the regulation and supervision of law schools which was to be undertaken by the LEB under
R.A. No. 7662, the structure of DECS as embodied in E.O. No. 117 remained practically unchanged.
Due to the fact that R.A. No. 7662 was yet to be implemented with the organization of the LEB, the CHED,
meanwhile, assumed the function of supervising and regulating law schools. For this purpose, the CHED constituted
a Technical Panel for Legal Education which came up with a Revised Policies and Standards for Legal Education,
which, however, was unpublished.
3 Legal education is a mere

composite of the educational system
As recounted, the historical development of statutes on education unerringly reflects the consistent exercise by the
political departments of the power to supervise and regulate all levels and areas of education, including legal
education.
Legal education is but a composite of the entire Philippine education system. It is perhaps unique because it is a
specialized area of study. This peculiarity, however, is not reason in itself to demarcate legal education and withdraw
it from the regulatory and supervisory powers of the political branches.
Notwithstanding, petitioners maintain that legal education, owing to its specialized "legal" nature and being
preparatory to the practice of law, should fall within the regulation and supervision of the Court itself. Petitioners in
G.R. No. 242954 went as far as professing that they are not against the creation of an administrative body that will
supervise and regulate law schools, only that such body should be placed under the Court's supervision and control.
Two principal reasons militate against such proposition:
First, it assumes that the Court, in fact, possesses the power to supervise and regulate legal education as a
necessary consequence of its power to regulate the admission to the practice of law. This assumption, apart from
being manifestly contrary to the above-recounted history of legal education in the Philippines, is likewise devoid of
legal anchorage.
Second, the Court exercises only judicial functions and it cannot, and must not, arrogate upon itself a power that is
not constitutionally vested to it, lest the Court itself violates the doctrine of separation of powers. For the Court to
G.R. No. 230642 8/20/24, 6:48 PM
void R.A. No. 7662 and thereafter, to form a body that regulates legal education and place it under its supervision
and control, as what petitioners suggest, is to demonstrate a highly improper form of judicial activism.
4 Court's exclusive rule-making

power covers the practice of
law and not the study of law
The Constitution lays down the powers which the Court can exercise. Among these is the power to promulgate rules
concerning admission to the practice of law.
The rule-making power of the Supreme Court had been uniformly granted under the 1935, the 1973 and the 1987
Constitutions. The complexion of the rule-making power, however, changes with the promulgation of these organic
laws.
Under the 1935 Constitution, existing laws on pleading, practice and procedure were repealed and were instead
converted as the Rules of Court which the Court can alter and modify. The Congress, on the other hand, was given
the power to repeal, alter or supplement the rules on pleading, practice and procedure, and the admission to the
practice of law promulgated by the Court.147
This power to promulgate rules concerning pleading, practice and procedure, and admission to the practice of law is
in fact zealously guarded by the Court.
Thus, in Philippine Lawyers Association v. Agrava,148 the Court asserted its "exclusive" and constitutional power with
respect to the admission to the practice of law and when the act falls within the term "practice of law," the Rules of
Court govern.149
In In Re: Petition of A.E. Garcia,150 the Court withheld from the executive the power to modify the laws and
regulations governing admission to the practice of law as the prerogative to promulgate rules for admission to the
practice of law belongs to the Court and the power to repeal, alter, or supplement such rules is reserved only to the
Congress.
Even then, the character of the power of the Congress to repeal, alter, or supplement the rules concerning pleading,
practice, and procedure, and the admission to the practice of law under the 1935 Constitution was held not to be
absolute and that any law passed by the Congress on the matter is merely permissive, being that the power
concerning admission to the practice of law is primarily a judicial function.
The 1973 Constitution is no less certain in reiterating the Court's power to promulgate rules concerning pleading,
practice, and procedure in all courts and the admission to the practice of law. As observed in Echegaray v. Secretary
of Justice,151 the 1973 Constitution further strengthened the independence of the judiciary by giving it the additional
power to promulgate rules governing the integration of the Bar.152
The ultimate power to promulgate rules on pleading, practice, and procedure, the admission to the practice of law,
and the integration of the Bar remains to be with the Court under the 1973 Constitution even when the power of the
Batasang Pambansa to pass laws of permissive and corrective character repealing, altering, or supplementing such
rules was retained.
The 1987 Constitution departed from the 1935 and the 1973 organic laws in the sense that it took away from the
Congress the power to repeal, alter, or supplement the rules concerning pleading, practice, and procedure, and the
admission to the practice of law, and the integration of the Bar and therefore vests exclusively and beyond doubt,
the power to promulgate such rules to the Court, thereby supporting a "stronger and more independent judiciary."153
While the 1935 and 1973 Constitutions "textualized a power-sharing scheme" between the legislature and the Court
in the enactment of judicial rules,154 the 1987 Constitution "textually altered the power-sharing scheme" by deleting
the Congress' subsidiary and corrective power.155
Accordingly, the Court's exclusive power of admission to the Bar has been interpreted as vesting upon the Court the
authority to define the practice of law,156 to determine who will be admitted to the practice of law,157 to hold in
contempt any person found to be engaged in unauthorized practice of law,158 and to exercise corollary disciplinary
authority over members of the Bar.159
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The act of admitting, suspending, disbarring and reinstating lawyers in the practice of law is a judicial function
because it requires "(1) previously established rules and principles; (2) concrete facts, whether past or present,
affecting determinate individuals; and (3) decision as to whether these facts are governed by the rules and
principles."160
Petitioners readily acknowledge that legal education or the study of law is not the practice of law, the former being
merely preparatory to the latter. In fact, the practice of law has a settled jurisprudential meaning:
The practice of law is not limited to the conduct of cases or litigation in court; it embraces the
preparation of pleadings and other papers incident to actions and social proceedings, the management
of such actions and proceedings on behalf of clients before judges and courts, and in addition,
conveying. In general, all advice to clients, and all action taken for them in matters connected with the
law corporation services, assessment and condemnation services contemplating an appearance before
a judicial body, the foreclosure of a mortgage, enforcement of a creditor's claim in bankruptcy and
insolvency proceedings, and conducting proceedings in attachment, and in matters of estate and
guardianship have been held to constitute law practice as the preparation and drafting of legal
instruments, where the work done involves the determination by the trained legal mind of the legal
effect of facts and conditions.
Practice of law under modern conditions consists in no small part of work performed outside of any
court and having no immediate relation to proceedings in court. It embraces conveyancing, the giving
of legal advice on a large variety of subjects, and the preparation and execution of legal instruments
covering an extensive field of business and trust relations and other affairs. Although these
transactions may have no direct connection with court proceedings, they are always subject to become
involved in litigation. They require in many aspects a high degree of legal skill, a wide experience with
men and affairs, and great capacity for adaptation to difficult and complex situations. These customary
functions of an attorney or counselor at law bear an intimate relation to the administration of justice by
the courts. No valid distinction, so far as concerns the question set forth in the order, can be drawn
between that part of the work of the lawyer which involved appearance in court and that part which
involves advice and drafting of instruments in his office. It is of importance to the welfare of the public
that these manifold customary functions be performed by persons possessed of adequate learning and
skill, of sound moral character, and acting at all times under the heavy trust obligations to clients which
rests upon all attorneys.161 (Internal citations omitted)
The definition of the practice of law, no matter how broad, cannot be further enlarged as to cover the study of law.
5 The Court exercises judicial power only
Section 12, Article VIII of the 1987 Constitution clearly provides that "[t]he Members of the Supreme Court and of
other courts established by law shall not be designated to any agency performing quasi-judicial or administrative
functions." The Court exercises judicial power only and should not assume any duty alien to its judicial functions, the
basic postulate being the separation of powers. As early as Manila Electric Co. v. Pasay Transportation Co.,162 the
Court already stressed:
The Supreme Court of the Philippine Islands represents one of the three divisions of power in our
government. It is judicial power and judicial power only which is exercised by the Supreme Court. Just
as the Supreme Court, as the guardian of constitutional rights, should not sanction usurpations by any
other department of the government, so should it as strictly confine its own sphere of influence to the
powers expressly or by implication conferred on it by the Organic Act. The Supreme Court and its
members should not and cannot be required to exercise any power or to perform any trust or to
assume any duty not pertaining to or connected with the administering of judicial functions. (Emphases
supplied)
Neither may the regulation and supervision of legal education be justified as an exercise of the Court's "residual"
power. A power is residual if it does not belong to either of the two co-equal branches and which the remaining
branch can, thus, exercise consistent with its functions. Regulation and supervision of legal education is primarily
exercised by the Legislative and implemented by the Executive, thus, it cannot be claimed by the judiciary.
It is with studied restraint that the Court abstains from exercising a power that is not strictly judicial, or that which is
not expressly granted to it by the Constitution.163 This judicial abstention is neither avoidance nor dereliction - there
G.R. No. 230642 8/20/24, 6:48 PM
is simply no basis for the Court to supervise and regulate legal education.
Court supervision over legal education is nevertheless urged164 to the same extent as the Court administers,
supervises and controls the Philippine Judicial Academy (PHILJA).165 The parallelism is mislaid because the PHILJA
is intended for judicial education.166 It particularly serves as the "training school for justices, judges, court personnel,
lawyers and aspirants to judicial posts."167 Court supervision over judicial education is but consistent with the Court's
power of supervision over all courts and the personnel thereof.168
Still, petitioners insist that the Court actually regulated legal education through Sections 5, 6, and 16 of Rule 138
and Sections 1, 2, 3, and 4 of Rule 138-A of the 1997 Rules of Court. On the contrary, the Rules of Court do not
intend nor provide for direct and actual Court regulation over legal education. At most, the Rules of Court are
reflective of the inevitable relationship between legal education and the admissions to the bar.
6 The Rules of Court do not support

the argument that the Court directly
and actually regulates legal education
While the power of the Court to promulgate rules concerning admission to the practice of law exists under the 1935
Constitution and reiterated under the 1973 and 1987 Constitutions, the Court has not promulgated any rule that
directly and actually regulates legal education.
Instead, the 1964 Rules of Court concerned only the practice of law, admission to the bar, admission to the bar
examination, bar examinations, and the duties, rights and conduct of attorneys. The 1997 Rules of Court is no
different as it contained only the rules on attorneys and admission to the bar under Rule 138, the law student
practice rule under Rule 138-A, the integrated bar in Rule 139-A and disbarment and discipline of attorneys in Rule
139-B.169
In the exercise of its power to promulgate rules concerning the admission to the practice of law, the Court has
prescribed the subjects covered by, as well as the qualifications of candidates to the bar examinations. Only those
bar examination candidates who are found to have obtained a passing grade are admitted to the bar and licensed to
practice law.170 The regulation of the admission to the practice of law goes hand in hand with the commitment of the
Court and the members of the Philippine Bar to maintain a high standard for the legal profession. To ensure that the
legal profession is maintained at a high standard, only those who are known to be honest, possess good moral
character, and show proficiency in and knowledge of the law by the standard set by the Court by passing the bar
examinations honestly and in the regular and usual manner are admitted to the practice of law.171
Thus, under the 1997 Rules of Court, admission to the bar requires: (1) furnishing satisfactory proof of educational,
moral, and other qualifications; (2) passing the bar examinations;172 and (3) taking the lawyer's oath,173 signing the
roll of attorneys and receiving from the clerk of court a certificate of the license to practice.174 An applicant for
admission to the bar must have these qualifications: (1) must be a citizen of the Philippines; (2) must at least be 21
years of age; (3) must be of good moral character; (4) must be a resident of the Philippines; (5) must produce
satisfactory evidence of good moral character; and (6) no charges against the applicant, involving moral turpitude,
have been filed or are pending in any court in the Philippines.175 It is beyond argument that these are the requisites
and qualifications for admission to the practice of law and not for admission to the study of law.
In turn, to be admitted to the bar examinations, an applicant must first meet the core academic qualifications
prescribed under the Rules of Court.
6(a). Sections 5, 6, and 16, Rule 138
Section 5 provides that the applicant should have studied law for four years and have successfully completed all the
prescribed courses. This section was amended by Bar Matter No. 1153,176 to require applicants to "successfully
[complete] all the prescribed courses for the degree of Bachelor of Laws or its equivalent, in a law school or
university officially recognized by the Philippine Government, or by the proper authority in foreign jurisdiction where
the degree has been granted." Bar Matter No. 1153 further provides that a Filipino citizen who is a graduate of a
foreign law school shall be allowed to take the bar examinations only upon the submission to the Court of the
required certifications.
In addition to the core courses of civil law, commercial law, remedial law, criminal law, public and private
international law, political law, labor and social legislation, medical jurisprudence, taxation, and legal ethics, Section
G.R. No. 230642 8/20/24, 6:48 PM
5 was further amended by A.M. No. 19-03-24-SC or the Revised Law Student Practice Rule dated June 25, 2019 to
include Clinical Legal Education as a core course that must be completed by an applicant to the bar examinations.
Notably, Section 5, Rule 138 of the Rules of Court, as amended, is not directed to law schools, but to those who
would like to take the bar examinations and enumerates the academic competencies required of them. The Court
does not impose upon law schools what courses to teach, or the degree to grant, but prescribes only the core
academic courses which it finds essential for an applicant to be admitted to the bar. Law schools enjoy the
autonomy to teach or not to teach these courses. In fact, the Court even extends recognition to a degree of Bachelor
of Laws or its equivalent obtained abroad or that granted by a foreign law school for purposes of qualifying to take
the Philippine Bar Examinations, subject only to the submission of the required certifications. Section 5 could not
therefore be interpreted as an exercise of the Court's regulatory or supervisory power over legal education since, for
obvious reasons, its reach could not have possibly be extended to legal education in foreign jurisdictions.
In similar fashion, Section 6, Rule 138 of the Rules of Court requires that an applicant to the bar examinations must
have completed a four-year high school course and a bachelor's degree in arts or sciences. Again, this requirement
is imposed upon the applicant to the bar examinations and not to law schools. These requirements are merely
consistent with the nature of a law degree granted in the Philippines which is a professional, as well as a post-
baccalaureate degree.
It is a reality that the Rules of Court, in prescribing the qualifications in order to take the bar examinations, had
placed a considerable constraint on the courses offered by law schools. Adjustments in the curriculum, for instance,
is a compromise which law schools apparently are willing to take in order to elevate its chances of graduating future
bar examinees. It is in this regard that the relationship between legal education and admissions to the bar becomes
unmistakable. This, however, does not mean that the Court has or exercises jurisdiction over legal education.
Compliance by law schools with the prescribed core courses is but a recognition of the Court's exclusive jurisdiction
over admissions to the practice of law - that no person shall be allowed to take the bar examinations and thereafter,
be admitted to the Philippine Bar without having taken and completed the required core courses.
Section 16, Rule 138 of the Rules of Court, on the other hand, provides that those who fail the bar examinations for
three or more times must take a refresher course. Similarly, this is a requirement imposed upon the applicant. The
Court does not impose that a law school should absolutely include in its curriculum a refresher course.
6(b). Revised Law Student Practice Rule
Neither does Rule 138-A of the Rules of Court as amended by A.M. No. 19-03-24-SC on law student practice
manifest the Court's exercise of supervision or regulation over legal education. The three-fold rationale of the law
student practice rule is as follows:
1. [T]o ensure that there will be no miscarriage of justice as a result of incompetence or inexperience of law
students, who, not having as yet passed the test of professional competence, are presumably not fully
equipped to act [as] counsels on their own;
2. [T]o provide a mechanism by which the accredited law school clinic may be able to protect itself from any
potential vicarious liability arising from some culpable action by their law students; and
3. [T]o ensure consistency with the fundamental principle that no person is allowed to practice a particular
profession without possessing the qualifications, particularly a license, as required by law.177
Consistently, the Revised Law Student Practice Rule is primordially intended to ensure access to justice of the
marginalized sectors and to regulate the law student practitioner's limited practice of law pursuant to the Court's
power to promulgate rules on pleading, practice, and procedure in all courts, the Integrated Bar, and legal
assistance to the underprivileged.
In allowing the law student and in governing the conduct of the law student practitioner, what the Court regulates
and supervises is not legal education, but the appearance and conduct of a law student before any trial court,
tribunal, board, or officer, to represent indigent clients of the legal clinic - an activity rightfully falling under the
definition of practice of law. Inasmuch as the law student is permitted to act for the legal clinic and thereby to
practice law, it is but proper that the Court exercise regulation and supervision over the law student practitioner.
Necessarily, the Court has the power to allow their appearance and plead their case, and hereafter, to regulate their
actions.
G.R. No. 230642 8/20/24, 6:48 PM
In all, the Rules of Court do not support petitioners' argument that the Court regulates and supervises legal
education. To reiterate, the Rules of Court are directed not towards legal education or law schools, but towards
applicants for admission to the bar and applicants for admission to the bar examinations - consistent with the Court's
power to promulgate rules concerning admission to the practice of law, the same being fundamentally a judicial
function.
Having, thus, established that the regulation and supervision of legal education do not fall within the competence of
the Court and is, instead, a power exercised by the political departments, the Court now proceeds to determine the
extent of such police power in relation to legal education.
B.
Reasonable Supervision and Regulation of Legal
Education as an Exercise of Police Power
The term police power was first used178 in jurisprudence in 1824 in Gibbons v. Ogden179 where the U.S. Supreme
Court, through Chief Justice Marshall, held that the regulation of navigation by steamboat operators for purposes of
interstate commerce was a power reserved to and exercised by the Congress, thus, negating state laws interfering
with the exercise of that power. Likewise often cited is Commonwealth v. Alger180 which defined police power as "the
power vested in legislature by the [C]onstitution, to make, ordain, and establish all manner of wholesome and
reasonable laws, statutes, and ordinances, either with penalties or without, not repugnant to the [C]onstitution, as
they shall judge to be for the good and welfare of the Commonwealth, and of the subjects of the same."
Closer to home, early Philippine jurisprudence pertain to police power as the power to promote the general welfare
and public interest;181 to enact such laws in relation to persons and property as may promote public health, public
morals, public safety and the general welfare of each inhabitant;182 to preserve public order and to prevent offenses
against the state and to establish for the intercourse of [citizens] those rules of good manners and good
neighborhood calculated to prevent conflict of rights.183
In Ermita-Malate Hotel and Motel [Operators] Association, Inc. v. City Mayor of Manila,184 the nature and scope of
police power was reaffirmed as embracing the power to prescribe regulations to promote the health, morals,
education, good order, safety, or the general welfare of the people. It is negatively defined as the authority to enact
legislation that may interfere with personal liberty or property in order to promote the general welfare185 and the
State's inherent power to prohibit all that is hurtful to the comfort, safety, and welfare of society,186 and flows from the
recognition that salus populi est suprema lex.187 It is described as the most essential, insistent and illimitable188 of
the powers of the State. It is co-existent with the concept of the State and is the very foundation and one of its
cornerstones,189 and therefore even precedes the written Constitution.
1 Enactment of education laws

is an exercise of police power
The State has a "high responsibility for [the] education of its citizens"190 and has an interest in prescribing
regulations to promote the education, and consequently, the general welfare of the people.191 The regulation or
administration of educational institutions, especially on the tertiary level, is invested with public interest.192 Thus, the
enactment of education laws, implementing rules and regulations and issuances of government agencies is an
exercise of the State's police power.193
As a professional educational program, legal education properly falls within the supervisory and regulatory
competency of the State. The legislative history of the Philippine legal educational system earlier recounted evinces
that the State, through statutes enacted by the Congress and administrative regulations issued by the Executive,
consistently exercises police power over legal education.
The exercise of such police power, however, is not absolute.
2 Supervisory and regulatory

exercise, not control
The 1935194 and 1973195 Constitutions plainly provide that all educational institutions shall be under the supervision
of and subject to regulation by the State. These reflect in express terms the police power already inherently
possessed by the State. Making express an already inherent power is not a superfluous exercise, but is rather
consequential in case of conflict between express powers. As elucidated in Philippine Association of Colleges and
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Universities:196
In this connection we do not share the belief that [now Article XIV, Section 4(1)] has added new power
to what the State inherently possesses by virtue of the police power. An express power is necessarily
more extensive than a mere implied power. For instance, if there is conflict between an express
individual right and the express power to control private education it cannot off-hand be said that the
latter must yield to the former - conflict of two express powers. But if the power to control education is
merely implied from the police power, it is feasible to uphold the express individual right[.] x x x
The 1987 Constitution under Section 4(1), Article XIV, even when expressly recognizing the complementary roles
played by the public and private schools in education, reiterated that these educational institutions are subject to
State supervision and regulation, thus:
SEC. 4.(1) The State recognizes the complementary roles of public and private institutions in the
educational system and shall exercise reasonable supervision and regulation of all educational
institutions. (Emphasis supplied)
As much as possible, the words of the Constitution are understood in the sense they have in common use. What it
says according to the text of the provision to be construed compels acceptance and negates the power of the courts
to alter it, based on the postulate that the framers and the people mean what they say.197
As worded, the Constitution recognizes that the role of public and private schools in education is complementary in
relation to each other, and primordial in relation to the State as the latter is only empowered to supervise and
regulate. The exercise of police power in relation to education must be compliant with the normative content of
Section 4(1), Article XIV of the 1987 Constitution.198 The exercise of police power over education must merely be
supervisory and regulatory.
The State's supervisory and regulatory power is an auxiliary power in relation to educational institutions, be it a
basic, secondary or higher education. This must necessarily be so since the right and duty to educate, being part
and parcel of youth-rearing, do not inure to the State at the first instance. Rather, it belongs essentially and naturally
to the parents,199 which right and duty they surrender by delegation to the educational institutions. As held
in Samahan ng mga Progresibong Kabataan (SPARK) v. Quezon City,200 the right and duty of parents to rear their
children being a natural and primary right connotes the parents' superior right over the State in the upbringing of
their children. The responsibility to educate lies with the parents and guardians as an inherent right,201 over which
the State assumes a supportive role.202 Withholding from the State the unqualified power to control education also
serves a practical purpose - it allows for a degree of flexibility and diversity essential to the very reason of education
to rear socially responsible and morally upright youth and to enable them, also, to come in contact with challenging
ideas.
In this sense, when the Constitution gives the State supervisory power, it is understood that what it enjoys is a
supportive power, that is, the power of oversight203 over all educational institutions. It includes the authority to check,
but not to interfere.
In addition to supervision, educational institutions are likewise made subject to State regulation. Dispensing a
regulatory function means imposing requirements, setting conditions, prescribing restrictions, and ensuring
compliance. In this regard, the political departments are vested with ample authority to set minimum standards to be
met by all educational institutions.204
Starkly withheld from the State is the power to control educational institutions. Consequently, in no way should
supervision and regulation be equated to State control. It is interesting to note that even when a suggestion had
been made during the drafting of the 1935 Constitution that educational institutions should be made "subject to the
laws of the State," the proponent of the amendment had no totalitarian intentions,205 and the proposal was not
meant to curtail the liberty of teaching,206 thus:
I think it only insures the efficient functioning of educational work and does not limit liberty of administrators of
schools. The gentleman will notice that my amendment does not tend to curtail which he used in asking the question
[sic]. I want the power of the State to be supervisory as supervision in educational parlance should be of the
constructive type in the matter of help rather than obstruction.207 (Emphasis supplied)
3 Reasonable exercise
G.R. No. 230642 8/20/24, 6:48 PM
To be valid, the supervision and regulation of legal education as an exercise of police power must be reasonable
and not repugnant to the Constitution.208
As held in Social Justice Society v. Atienza, Jr.,209 the exercise of police power, in order to be valid, must be
compliant with substantive due process:
[T]he State, x x x may be considered as having properly exercised [its] police power only if the following
requisites are met: (1) the interests of the public generally, as distinguished from those of a particular
class, require its exercise[;] and (2) the means employed are reasonably necessary for the
accomplishment of the purpose and not unduly oppressive upon individuals. In short, there must be
a concurrence of a lawful subject and a lawful method. (Emphases supplied)
In Philippine Association of Service Exporters, Inc. v. Drilon,210 the Court held that:
Notwithstanding its. extensive sweep, police power is not without its own limitations. For all its
awesome consequences, it may not be exercised arbitrarily or unreasonably. Otherwise, and in that
event, it defeats the purpose for which it is exercised, that is, to advance the public good. (Emphasis
supplied)
Obviating any inference that the power to regulate means the power to control, the 1987 Constitution added the
word "reasonable" before the phrase supervision and regulation.
The import of the word "reasonable" was elaborated in Council of Teachers,211 as follows:
x x x Section 4(1) was a provision added by the Framers to crystallize the State's recognition of the
importance of the role that the private sector plays in the quality of the Philippine education system.
Despite this recognition, the Framers added the second portion of Section 41 to emphasize that the
State, in the exercise of its police power, still possesses the power of supervision over private schools.
The Framers were explicit, however, that this supervision refers to external governance, as opposed
to internal governance which was reserved to the respective school boards, thus:
Madam President, Section 2(b) introduces four changes: one, the addition of the word
"reasonable" before the phrase "supervision and regulation"; two, the addition of the word
"quality" before the word "education"; three, the change of the wordings in the 1973
Constitution referring to a system of education, requiring the same to be relevant to the
goals of national development, to the present expression of "relevant to the needs of the
people and society"; and four, the explanation of the meaning of the expression
"integrated system of education" by defining the same as the recognition and
strengthening of the complementary roles of public and private educational institutions as
separate but integral parts of the total Philippine educational system.
When we speak of State supervision and regulation, we refer to the external governance
of educational institutions, particularly private educational institutions as distinguished
from the internal governance by their respective boards of directors or trustees and their
administrative officials. Even without a provision on external governance, the State would
still have the inherent right to regulate educational institutions through the exercise of its
police power. We have thought it advisable to restate the supervisory and regulatory
functions of the State provided in the 1935 and 1973 Constitutions with the addition of the
word "reasonable." We found it necessary to add the word "reasonable" because of
an obiter dictum of our Supreme Court in a decision in the case of Philippine Association
of Colleges and Universities vs. The Secretary of Education and the Board of Textbooks in
1955. In that case, the court said, and I quote:
It is enough to point out that local educators and writers think the Constitution
provides for control of education by the State.
The Solicitor General cites many authorities to show that the power to
regulate means power to control, and quotes from the proceedings of the
Constitutional Convention to prove that State control of private education was
intended by organic law.
G.R. No. 230642 8/20/24, 6:48 PM
The addition, therefore, of the word 'reasonable' is meant to underscore the sense of the
committee, that when the Constitution speaks of State supervision and regulation, it does
not in any way mean control. We refer only to the power of the State to provide regulations
and to see to it that these regulations are duly followed and implemented. It does not
include the right to manage, dictate, overrule and prohibit. Therefore, it does not include
the right to dominate. (Emphases in the original; underscoring supplied)
The addition of the word "reasonable" did not change the texture of police power that the State exercises over
education. It merely emphasized that State supervision and regulation of legal education cannot amount to control.
4 Academic freedom
Fundamental in constitutional construction is that the Constitution is to be interpreted as a whole, and that all
provisions bearing upon a particular subject are to be brought into view and to be so interpreted as to effectuate the
purposes of the Constitution.212
Accordingly, the reasonable supervision and regulation clause is not a stand-alone provision, but must be read in
conjunction with the other Constitutional provisions relating to education which include, in particular, the clause on
academic freedom.
Section 5(2), Article XIV of the 1987 Constitution, provides:
(2) Academic freedom shall be enjoyed in all institutions of higher learning.
This guarantee is not peculiar to the 1987 Constitution. A similar· provision was found in the 1973 Constitution
providing that: "All institutions of higher learning shall enjoy academic freedom."213 Both the 1973 and 1987
Constitutions provide for a broader scope of academic freedom compared to the 1935 Constitution which limits the
guarantee of academic freedom only to universities of higher learning established by the State.214
In fact, academic freedom is not a novel concept. This can be traced to the freedom of intellectual inquiry
championed by Socrates, lost and replaced by thought control during the time of Inquisition, until the movement
back to intellectual liberty beginning the 16th century, most particularly flourishing in German universities.215
Academic freedom has traditionally been associated as a narrow aspect of the broader area of freedom of thought,
speech, expression and the press. It has been identified with the individual autonomy of educators to "investigate,
pursue, [and] discuss free from internal and external interference or pressure."216 Thus, academic freedom of faculty
members, professors, researchers, or administrators is defended based on the freedom of speech and press.217
Academic freedom is enjoyed not only by members of the faculty, but also by the students themselves, as affirmed
in Ateneo de Manila University v. Judge Capulong:218
x x x. After protracted debate and ringing speeches, the final version which was none too different from
the way it was couched in the previous two (2) Constitutions, as found in Article XIV, Section 5(2)
states: "Academic freedom shall be enjoyed in all institutions of higher learning." In anticipation of the
question as to whether and what aspects of academic freedom are included herein, ConCom
Commissioner Adolfo S. Azcuna explained: "Since academic freedom is a dynamic concept, we want
to expand the frontiers of freedom, especially in education, therefore, we shall leave it to the courts to
develop further the parameters of academic freedom."
More to the point, Commissioner Jose Luis Martin C. Gascon asked: "When we speak of the sentence
'academic freedom shall be enjoyed in all institutions of higher learning,' do we mean that academic
freedom shall be enjoyed by the institution itself?" Azcuna replied: "Not only that, it also includes x x x"
Gascon finished off the broken thought, "the faculty and the students." Azcuna replied: "Yes."
Jurisprudence has so far understood academic freedom of the students as the latter's right to enjoy in school the
guarantees of the Bill of Rights. For instance, in Villar v. Technological Institute of the Philippines219 and in Non v.
Dames II,220 it was held that academic standards cannot be used to discriminate against students who exercise their
rights to peaceable assembly and free speech, in Malabanan v. Ramento,221 it was ruled that the punishment must
be commensurate with the offense, and in Guzman v. National University,222 which affirmed the student's right to due
process.
G.R. No. 230642 8/20/24, 6:48 PM
Apart from the academic freedom of teachers and students, the academic freedom of the institution itself is
recognized and constitutionally guaranteed.
The landmark case of Garcia v. The Faculty Admission Committee, Loyola School of Theology223 elucidates how
academic freedom is enjoyed by institutions of higher learning:
[I]t is to be noted that the reference is to the "institutions of higher learning" as the recipients of this
boon. It would follow then that the school or college itself is possessed of such a right. It decides for
itself its aims and objectives and how best to attain them. It is free from outside coercion or interference
save possibly when the overriding public welfare calls for some restraint. It has a wide sphere of
autonomy certainly extending to the choice of students. This constitutional provision is not to be
construed in a niggardly manner or in a grudging fashion. That would be to frustrate its purpose, nullify
its intent. Former President Vicente G. Sinco of the University of the Philippines, in his Philippine
Political Law, is similarly of the view that it "definitely grants the right of academic freedom to the
university as an institution as distinguished from the academic freedom of a university professor." He
cited the following from Dr. Marcel Bouchard, Rector of the University of Dijon, France, President of the
conference of rectors and vice-chancellors of European universities: "It is a well-established fact, and
yet one which sometimes tends to be obscured in discussions of the problems of freedom, that the
collective liberty of an organization is by no means the same thing as the freedom of the individual
members within it; in fact, the two kinds of freedom are not even necessarily connected. In considering
the problems of academic freedom one must distinguish, therefore, between the autonomy of the
university, as a corporate body, and the freedom of the individual university teacher." Also: To clarify
further the distinction between the freedom of the university and that of the individual scholar, he says:
The personal aspect of freedom consists in the right of each university teacher - recognized and
effectively guaranteed by society - to seek and express the truth as he personally sees it, both in his
academic work and in his capacity as a private citizen. Thus the status of the individual university
teacher is at least as important, in considering academic freedom, as the status of the institutions to
which they belong and through which they disseminate their learning. (Internal citations omitted;
emphasis supplied)
Garcia also enumerated the internal conditions for institutional academic freedom, that is, the academic staff should
have de facto control over: (a) the admission and examination of students; (b) the curricula for courses of study; (c)
the appointment and tenure of office of academic staff; and (d) the allocation of income among the different
categories of expenditure.224
Reference was also made to the influential language of Justice Frankfurter's concurring opinion in Sweezy v. New
Hampshire,225 describing it as the "business of the university" to provide a conducive atmosphere for speculation,
experimentation, and creation where the four essential freedoms of the university prevail: the right of the university
to determine for itself on academic grounds (a) who may teach; (b) what may be taught; (c) how it shall be taught;
and (d) who may be admitted to study.
4(a). State's supervisory and regulatory power over

legal education in relation to academic freedom
The rule is that institutions of higher learning enjoy ample discretion to decide for itself who may teach, what may be
taught, how it shall be taught and who to admit, being part of their academic freedom. The State, in the exercise of
its reasonable supervision and regulation over education, can only impose minimum regulations.
At its most elementary, the power to supervise and regulate shall not be construed as stifling academic freedom in
institutions of higher learning. This must necessarily be so since institutions of higher learning are not mere walls
within which to teach; rather, it is a place where research, experiment, critical thinking, and exchanges are secured.
Any form of State control, even at its most benign and disguised as regulatory, cannot therefore derogate the
academic freedom guaranteed to higher educational institutions. In fact, this non-intrusive relation between the State
and higher educational institutions is maintained even when the Constitution itself prescribes certain educational
"thrusts" or directions.226
This attitude of non-interference is not lost in jurisprudence. To cite an example, due regard for institutional
academic freedom versus State interference was recognized in Lupangco v. Court of Appeals,227 the commendable
purpose of the Philippine Regulation Commission of ensuring the integrity of the examination notwithstanding:
G.R. No. 230642 8/20/24, 6:48 PM
Another evident objection to Resolution No. 105 is that it violates the academic freedom of the
schools concerned. Respondent PRC cannot interfere with the conduct of review that review
schools and centers believe would best enable their enrolees to meet the standards required
before becoming a full-[f]ledged public accountant. Unless the means or methods of instruction
are clearly found to be inefficient, impractical, or riddled with corruption, review schools and
centers may not be stopped from helping out their students. x x x (Emphasis supplied)
Similarly, in University of the Philippines v. Civil Service Commission,228 the Court upheld the university's academic
freedom to choose who should teach and held that the Civil Service Commission had no authority to dictate to the
university the outright dismissal of its personnel. Nothing short of marked arbitrariness,229 or grave abuse of
discretion230 on the part of the schools, or overriding public welfare231 can therefore justify State interference with the
academic judgment of higher educational institutions. As held in Ateneo de Manila University v. Judge
Capulong,232 "[a]s corporate entities, educational institutions of higher learning are inherently endowed with the right
to establish their policies, academic and otherwise, unhampered by external controls or pressure."
5. Right to education
Apart from the perspective of academic freedom, the reasonable supervision and regulation clause is also to be
viewed together with the right to education. The 1987 Constitution speaks quite elaborately on the right to education.
Section 1, Article XIV provides:
SEC. 1. The State shall protect and promote the right of all citizens to quality education at all levels and shall take
appropriate steps to make such education accessible to all.
The normative elements of the general right to education under Section 1, Article XIV, are (1) to protect and promote
quality education; and (2) to take appropriate steps towards making such quality education accessible.
"Quality" education is statutorily defined as the appropriateness, relevance and excellence of the education given to
meet the needs and aspirations of the individual and society.233
In order to protect and promote quality education, the political departments are vested with the ample authority to
set minimum standards to be met by all educational institutions. This authority should be exercised within the
parameters of reasonable supervision and regulation. As elucidated in Council of Teachers:234
While the Constitution indeed mandates the State to provide quality education, the determination of
what constitutes quality education is best left with the political departments who have the necessary
knowledge, expertise, and resources to determine the same. The deliberations of the Constitutional
Commission again are very instructive:
Now, Madam President, we have added the word "quality" before "education" to send
appropriate signals to the government that, in the exercise of its supervisory and
regulatory powers, it should first set satisfactory minimum requirements in all areas
curriculum, faculty, internal administration, library, laboratory class and other facilities, et
cetera, and it should see to it that satisfactory minimum requirements are met by all
educational institutions, both public and private.
When we speak of quality education we have in mind such matters, among others, as
curriculum development, development of learning resources and instructional materials,
upgrading of library and laboratory facilities, innovations in educational technology and
teaching methodologies, improvement of research quality, and others. Here and in many
other provisions on education, the principal focus of attention and concern is the students.
I would like to say that in my view there is a slogan when we speak of quality of education
that I feel we should be aware of, which is, "Better than ever is not enough." In other
words, even if the quality of education is good now, we should attempt to keep on
improving it. (Emphases and underscoring supplied)
On the other hand, "accessible" education means equal opportunities to education regardless of social and
economic differences. The phrase "shall take appropriate steps" signifies that the State may adopt varied
approaches in the delivery of education that are relevant and responsive to the needs of the people and the society.
This is why, towards this end, the State shall:
G.R. No. 230642 8/20/24, 6:48 PM
(1) Establish, maintain, and support a complete, adequate, and integrated system of education
relevant to the needs of the people and society;
(2) Establish and maintain a system of free public education in the elementary and high school
levels. Without limiting the natural right of parents to rear their children, elementary education is
compulsory for all children of school age;
(3) Establish and maintain a system of scholarship grants, student loan programs, subsidies, and
other incentives which shall be available to deserving students in both public and private
schools, especially to the underprivileged;
(4) Encourage non-formal, informal, and indigenous learning systems, as well as self-learning,
independent, and out-of-school study programs particularly those that respond to community
needs; and
(5) Provide adult citizens, the disabled, and out-of-school youth with training in civics, vocational
efficiency, and other skills.235 (Emphases supplied)
The deliberations of the framers in this regard are instructive:
MR. GASCON: When we speak of education as a right, what we would like to emphasize is
that education should be equally accessible to all regardless of social and economic differences. So we
go into the issue of providing opportunities to such an education, recognizing that there are limitations
imposed on those who come from the poorer social classes because of their inability to continue
education.236 x x x (Emphasis supplied)
And further, as follows:
This is why when we speak of education as a right, it means very clearly that education should be
accessible to all, regardless of social and economic differences, meaning, educational opportunities
should be provided through a system of free education, at least, up to the secondary level. And
recognizing the limits of our financial resources, tertiary education should still be afforded and provided
availability to those who are poor and deserving. That is why when we say that education is a right, it
imposes a correlative duty on the part of the State to provide it to the citizens. Making it a right shows
that education is recognized as an important function of the State. Education is not merely a social
service to be provided by the State. The proposed provision recognizes that a right to education is a
right to acquire a decent standard of living, and that, therefore, the State cannot deprive anyone of this
right in the same manner that the right to life, the right to liberty and property cannot be taken away
without due process of law.237 (Emphasis supplied)
The element of accessibility under the Constitution, thus, pertains to both the elimination of discrimination especially
against disadvantaged groups and to the financial duty of the State for, after all, the right to education is part and
parcel of social justice. The objective is to make quality education accessible by appropriate means.
Apart from the Constitution, the right to education is also recognized in international human rights law under various
instruments to which the Philippines is a state signatory and to which it is concomitantly bound.
For instance, Article 13(2)238 of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR)
recognizes the right to receive an education with the following interrelated and essential features; (a) availability; (b)
accessibility; (c) acceptability; and (d) adaptability.239
In particular, accessibility is understood as giving everyone, without discrimination, access to educational institutions
and programs. Accessibility has three overlapping dimensions:
(1) Non-discrimination - education must be accessible to all, especially the most vulnerable groups, in law and
fact, without discrimination on any of the prohibited grounds x x x;
(2) Physical accessibility - education has to be within safe physical reach, either by attendance at some
reasonably convenient geographic location ([e.g.] a neighborhood school) or [via] modern technology ([e.g.]
access to a "distance learning" programme); [and]
G.R. No. 230642 8/20/24, 6:48 PM
(3) Economic accessibility - education has to be affordable to all. This dimension of accessibility is subject to
the differential wording of [A]rticle 13(2) in relation to primary, secondary and higher education: whereas
primary education shall be available "free to all", States parties are required to progressively introduce free
secondary and higher education[.]240
Pertinent to higher education, the elements of quality and accessibility should also be present as the Constitution
provides that these elements should be protected and promoted in all educational institutions.
Nevertheless, the right to receive higher education is not absolute.
5(a). Right to education is subject to fair,

reasonable, and equitable admission and
academic requirements
Article 26(1)241 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights provides that "[t]echnical and professional education
shall be made generally available and higher education shall be equally accessible to all on the basis of merit[,]"
while the ICESCR provides that "[h]igher education shall be made equally accessible to all, on the basis of capacity,
by every appropriate means, and in particular by the progressive introduction of free education[.]"242 Thus, higher
education is not to be generally available, but accessible only on the basis of capacity.243 The capacity of individuals
should be assessed by reference to all their relevant expertise and experience.244
The right to receive higher education must further be read in conjunction with the right of every citizen to select a
profession or course of study guaranteed under the Constitution. In this regard, the provisions of the 1987
Constitution under Section 5(3), Article XIV are more exacting:
SEC. 5. x x x
xxxx
(3) Every citizen has a right to select a profession or course of study, subject to fair, reasonable, and equitable
admission and academic requirements.
There is uniformity in jurisprudence holding that the authority to set the admission and academic requirements used
to assess the merit and capacity of the individual to be admitted and retained in higher educational institutions lie
with the institutions themselves in the exercise of their academic freedom.
In Ateneo de Manila University v. Judge Capulong,245 the Court ruled:
Since Garcia v. Loyola School of Theology, we have consistently upheld the salutary proposition
that admission to an institution of higher learning is discretionary upon a school, the same
being a privilege on the part of the student rather than a right. While under the Education Act of
1982, students have a right "to freely choose their field of study, subject to existing curricula
and to continue their course therein up to graduation," such right is subject, as all rights are, to
the established academic and disciplinary standards laid down by the academic institution.
"For private schools have the right to establish reasonable rules and regulations for the admission,
discipline and promotion of students. This right x x x extends as well to parents x x x as parents are
under a social and moral (if not legal) obligation, individually and collectively, to assist and cooperate
with the schools."
Such rules are "incident to the very object of incorporation and indispensable to the successful
management of the college. The rules may include those governing student discipline." Going a step
further, the establishment of rules governing university-student relations, particularly those pertaining to
student discipline, may be regarded as vital, not merely to the smooth and efficient operation of the
institution, but to its very survival.
Within memory of the current generation is the eruption of militancy in the academic groves as
collectively, the students demanded and plucked for themselves from the panoply of academic freedom
their own rights encapsulized under the rubric of "right to education" forgetting that, in Hohfeldian
terms, they have a concomitant duty, and that is, their duty to learn under the rules laid down by the
school. (Citation in the original omitted; emphases supplied)
G.R. No. 230642 8/20/24, 6:48 PM
In Villar v. Technological Institute of the Philippines,246 the Court similarly held:
xxxx
2. What cannot be stressed too sufficiently is that among the most important social, economic, and cultural
rights is the right to education not only in the elementary and high school grades but also on the college level.
The constitutional provision as to the State maintaining "a system of free public elementary education and, in
areas where finances permit, establish and maintain a system of free public education" up to the high school
level does not per se exclude the exercise of that right in colleges and universities. It is only at the most a
reflection of the lack of sufficient funds for such a duty to be obligatory in the case of students in the colleges
and universities. As far as the right itself is concerned, not the effectiveness of the exercise of such right
because of the lack of funds, Article 26 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights provides: "Everyone has
the right to education. Education shall be free, at least in the elementary and fundamental stages. Elementary
education shall be compulsory. Technical and professional education shall be made generally available and
higher education shall be equally accessible to all on the basis of merit."
3. It is quite clear that while the right to college education is included in the social economic, and cultural
rights, it is equally manifest that the obligation imposed on the State is not categorical, the phrase used being
"generally available" and higher education, while being "equally accessible to all should be on the basis of
merit." To that extent, therefore, there is justification for excluding three of the aforementioned petitioners
because of their marked academic deficiency.
4. The academic freedom enjoyed by "institutions of higher learning" includes the right to set academic
standards to determine under what circumstances failing grades suffice for the expulsion of students. Once it
has done so, however, that standard should be followed meticulously. It cannot be utilized to discriminate
against those students who exercise their constitutional rights to peaceable assembly and free speech. If it
does so, then there is a legitimate grievance by the students thus prejudiced, their right to the equal
protection clause being disregarded. (Emphases supplied)
Likewise, in Calawag:247
Lastly, the right to education invoked by Calawag cannot be made the basis for issuing a writ of
preliminary mandatory injunction. In Department of Education, Culture and Sports v. San Diego, we
held that the right to education is not absolute. Section 5(e), Article XIV of the Constitution provides that
"[e]very citizen has a right to select a profession or course of study, subject to fair, reasonable, and
equitable admission and academic requirements." The thesis requirement and the compliance with the
procedures leading to it, are part of the reasonable academic requirements a person desiring to
complete a course of study would have to comply with. (Citation in the original omitted; emphasis
supplied)
The deliberations of the framers on the qualifications to the right to education are also illuminating:
MR. NOLLEDO: Thank you, Madam President. Before I ask questions directed to the chairman and
members of the committee, I would like to warmly congratulate them for a job well-done. The
committee report to my mind, Madam President, is excellent and I hope it will not, in the course of
amendments, suffer from adulteration. With respect to page 1, lines 12-13: "Education is the right of
every citizen of the Philippines," I agree with this statement, but when we talk of the right, I understand
from the chairman that it is compellable and from Commissioner Guingona, that it is enforceable in
court. Suppose a student of a private school is not allowed to enroll by reason of misconduct or that his
stay in the school is considered by the administration of that school to be undesirable, does he have a
right to enforce his right to education under this situation?
MR. GUINGONA: Madam President, the right to education, like any other right, is not absolute. As a
matter of fact, Article XXVI of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, when it acknowledges the
right to education, also qualifies it when at the end of the provision, it say, "on the basis of merit."
Therefore, the student may be subject to certain reasonable requirements regarding admission and
retention and this is so provided in the draft Constitution. We admit even of discrimination. We have
accepted this in the Philippines, and I suppose in the United States there are schools that can refuse
admission to boys because they are supposed to be exclusively for girls. And there are schools that
may refuse admission to girls because they are exclusively for boys. There may even be discrimination
G.R. No. 230642 8/20/24, 6:48 PM
to accept a student who has a contagious disease on the ground that it would affect the welfare of the
other students. What I mean is that there could be reasonable qualifications, limitations or restrictions
to this right, Madam President.
MR. GASCON: May I add, Madam President.
MR. NOLLEDO: Yes, the Commissioner may.
MR. GASCON: When we speak of education as a right, what we would like to emphasize is that
education should be equally accessible to all regardless of social and economic differences. So we go
into the issue of providing opportunities to such an education, recognizing that there are limitations
imposed on those who come from the poorer social classes because of their inability to continue
education.
However, in the same light, this right to education is subject to the right of educational institutions to
admit students upon certain conditions such as ability to pay the required entrance examination fee and
maintaining a respectable school record. When we speak of this right of schools as far as maintaining a
certain degree or quality of students, these conditions must be reasonable and should not be used just
to impose certain unfair situations on the students.
MR. GUINGONA: Madam President, may I add.
There is already established jurisprudence about this. In the United States, in the case of [Lesser] v.
Board of Education of New York City, 239, NYS 2d 776, the court held that the refusal of a school to
admit a student who had an average of less than 85 percent which is the requirement for that school
was lawful.
In the Philippines, we have the case of Padriguilan [sic] v. Manila Central University where refusal to
retain the student was because of the alleged deficiency in a major subject and this was upheld by our
Supreme Court. There is also the case of Garcia v. Loyola School of Theology, wherein Garcia, a
woman, tried to continue studying in this school of theology.248 (Citation in the original omitted;
emphases supplied)
Extant from the foregoing is that while there is a right to quality higher education, such right is principally subject to
the broad academic freedom of higher educational institutions to impose fair, reasonable, and equitable admission
and academic requirements. Plainly stated, the right to receive education is not and should not be taken to mean as
a right to be admitted to educational institutions.
With the basic postulates that jurisdiction over legal education belongs primarily and directly to the political
departments, and that the exercise of such police power must be in the context of reasonable supervision and
regulation, and must be consistent with academic freedom and the right to education, the Court now proceeds to
address whether the assailed provisions of R.A. No. 7662 and the corresponding LEB issuances fall within, the
constitutionally-permissible supervision and regulation of legal education.
C.
LEB's Powers Under R.A. No. 7662 vis-a-vis the
Court's Jurisdiction Under Article VIII, Section
5(5) of the Constitution
1 Section 3(a)(2) on increasing awareness

among members of the legal profession
One of the general objectives of legal education under Section 3(a)(2) of R.A. No. 7662 is to "increase awareness
among members of the legal profession of the needs of the poor, deprived and oppressed sectors of society[.]" This
objective is reiterated by the LEB in LEBMO No. 1-2011, Section 7, Article II, as follows:
SEC. 7. (Section 3 of the law) General and Specific Objectives of Legal Education.
a) Legal education in the Philippines is geared to attain the following objectives:
xxxx
G.R. No. 230642 8/20/24, 6:48 PM
(2) to increase awareness among members of the legal profession of the needs of the poor, deprived
and oppressed sectors of society[.] (Emphasis supplied)
The plain language of Section 3(a)(2) of R.A. No. 7662 and Section 7(2) of LEBMO No. 1-2011 are clear and need
no further interpretation. This provision goes beyond the scope of R.A. No. 7662, i.e., improvement of the quality of
legal education, and, instead delves into the training of those who are already members of the bar. Likewise, this
objective is a direct encroachment on the power of the Court to promulgate rules concerning the practice of law and
legal assistance to the underprivileged and should, thus, be voided on this ground. As aptly observed by the CLEBM
and which the Court had approved:
In the same vein Section 3 provides as one of the objectives of legal education increasing "awareness
among members of the legal profession of the needs of the poor, deprived and oppressed sectors of
the society." Such objective should not find a place in the law that primarily aims to upgrade the
standard of schools of law as they perform the task of educating aspiring lawyers. Section 5, paragraph
5 of Article VIII of the Constitution also provides that the Supreme Court shall have the power to
promulgate rules on "legal assistance to the underprivileged" and hence, implementation of [R.A. No.
7662 might give rise to infringement of a constitutionally mandated power.249
2 Section 2, par. 2 and Section 7(g) on legal

apprenticeship and law practice internship
as a requirement for taking the bar
Towards the end of uplifting the standards of legal education, Section 2, par. 2 of R.A. No. 7662 mandates the State
to (1) undertake appropriate reforms in the legal education system; (2) require proper selection of law students; (3)
maintain quality among law schools; and (4) require legal apprenticeship and continuing legal education.
Pursuant to this policy, Section 7(g) of R.A. No. 7662 grants LEB the power to establish a law practice internship as
a requirement for taking the bar examinations:
SEC. 7. Powers and Functions. - x x x x
xxxx
(g) to establish a law practice internship as a requirement for taking the Bar, which a law student shall
undergo with any duly accredited private or public law office or firm or legal assistance group anytime
during the law course for a specific period that the Board may decide, but not to exceed a total of
twelve (12) months. For this purpose, the Board shall prescribe the necessary guidelines for such
accreditation and the specifications of such internship which shall include the actual work of a new
member of the Bar.
This power is mirrored in Section 11(g) of LEBMO No. 1-2011:
SEC. 11. (Section 7 of the law) Powers and Functions. - For the purpose of achieving the objectives of
this Act, the Board shall have the following powers and functions:
xxxx
g) to establish a law practice internship as a requirement for taking the Bar which a law student shall
undergo with any duly accredited private or public law office or firm or legal assistance group anytime
during the law course for a specific period that the Board may decide, but not to exceed a total of
twelve (12)months. For this purpose, the Board shall prescribe the necessary guidelines for such
accreditation and the specifications of such internship which shall include the actual work of a new
member of the Bar[.]
It is clear from the plain text of Section 7(g) that another requirement, i.e., completion of a law internship program, is
imposed by law for taking the bar examinations. This requirement unduly interferes with the exclusive jurisdiction of
the Court to promulgate rules concerning the practice of law and admissions thereto.
The jurisdiction to determine whether an applicant may be allowed to take the bar examinations belongs to the
Court. In fact, under the whereas clauses of the Revised Law Student Practice Rule, the Court now requires the
completion of clinical legal education courses, which may be undertaken either in a law clinic or through an
G.R. No. 230642 8/20/24, 6:48 PM
externship, as a prerequisite to take the bar examinations, thus:
Whereas, to produce practice-ready lawyers, the completion of clinical legal education courses must be
a prerequisite to take the bar examinations as provided in Section 5 of Rule 138.
Under Section 7(g), the power of the LEB is no longer confined within the parameters of legal education, but now
dabbles on the requisites for admissions to the bar examinations, and consequently, admissions to the bar. This is a
direct encroachment upon the Court's exclusive authority to promulgate rules concerning admissions to the bar and
should, therefore, be struck down as unconstitutional.
Further, and as will be discussed hereunder, the LEB exercised this power in a manner that forces upon law schools
the establishment of a legal apprenticeship program or a legal aid clinic, in violation of the schools' right to
determine for themselves their respective curricula.
3 Section 2, par. 2 and Section 7(h) on

continuing legal education of practicing lawyers
Petitioners in G.R. No. 230642 argue that the power given to the LEB to adopt a system of continuing legal
education implies that the LEB exercises jurisdiction not only over the legal education of those seeking to become
lawyers, but also over those who are already lawyers which is a function exclusively belonging to the
Court.250 Respondent, on the other hand, maintains that the LEB's power to adopt a system of continuing legal
education is different from the mandatory continuing legal education required of all members of the
bar.251 Respondent explains that the continuing legal education under R.A. No. 7662 is limited to the training of
lawyer-professors and not to the practice of the legal profession.252
The questioned power of the LEB to adopt a system of continuing legal education appears in Section 2, par. 2 and
Section 7(h) of R.A. No. 7662:
SEC. 2. Declaration of Policies. - x x x
xxxx
proper selection of law students, maintain quality among law schools, and require legal apprenticeship
and continuing legal education.
xxxx
SEC. 7. Powers and Functions. - x x x
xxxx
(h) to adopt a system of continuing legal education. For this purpose, the [LEB] may provide for the
mandatory attendance of practicing lawyers in such courses and for such duration as the [LEB] may
deem necessary; x x x (Emphases supplied)
This power is likewise reflected in Section 11(h) of LEBMO No. 1-2011, as follows:
SEC. 11. (Section 7 of the law) Powers and Functions. - For the purpose of achieving the objectives of
this Act, the Board shall have the following powers and functions:
xxxx
h) to adopt a system of continuing legal education. For this purpose, the Board may provide for
the mandatory attendance of practicing lawyers in such courses and for such duration as the
Board may deem necessary[.] x x x (Emphasis supplied)
By its plain language, the clause "continuing legal education" under Section 2, par. 2, and Section 7(h) of R.A. No.
7662 unduly give the LEB the power to supervise the legal education of those who are already members of the bar.
Inasmuch as the LEB is authorized to compel mandatory attendance of practicing lawyers in such courses and for
such duration as the LEB deems, necessary, the same encroaches upon the Court's power to promulgate rules
G.R. No. 230642 8/20/24, 6:48 PM
concerning the Integrated Bar which includes the education of "lawyer-professors" as teaching of law is practice of
law. The mandatory continuing legal education of the members of the bar is, in fact, covered by B.M. No. 850 or the
ℒαwρhi!
Rules on Mandatory Continuing Legal Education (MCLE) dated August 22, 2000 which requires members of the bar,
not otherwise exempt, from completing, every three years, at least 36 hours of continuing legal education activities
approved by the MCLE Committee directly supervised by the Court.
As noted by the CLEBM:
Thus, under the declaration of policies in Section 2 of [R.A. No. 7662, the State "shall undertake
appropriate reforms in the legal education system, require the proper selection of law students,
maintain quality among law schools and require apprenticeship and continuing legal education["]. The
concept of continuing legal education encompasses education not only of law students but also of
members of the legal profession. Its inclusion in the declaration of policies implies that the [LEB] shall
have jurisdiction over the education of persons who have finished the law course and are already
licensed to practice law. Viewed in the light of Section 5, paragraph 5 of Article VIII of the Constitution
that vests the Supreme Court with powers over the Integrated Bar of the Philippines, said portion of
Section 2 of [R.A. No. 7662 risks a declaration of constitutional infirmity.253 (Underscoring supplied)
4 Section 7(e) on minimum

standards for law admission
and the PhiLSAT issuances
Of the several powers of the LEB under R.A. No. 7662, its power to prescribe minimum standards for law admission
under Section 7(e) received the strongest objection from the petitioners. Section 7(e), provides:
SEC. 7. Powers and Functions. - x x x
xxxx
(e) to prescribe minimum standards for law admission and minimum qualifications and compensation of
faculty members; (Emphasis supplied)
Petitioners argue that the power to prescribe the minimum standards for law admission belongs to the Court
pursuant to its rule-making power concerning the admission to the practice of law; Thus, Section 7(e) of R.A. No.
7662 which gives the LEB the power to prescribe the minimum standards for law admission is allegedly
unconstitutional as it violates the doctrine of separation of powers. Necessarily, according to the petitioners, the
PhiLSAT which was imposed by the LEB pursuant to Section 7(e) of R.A. No. 7662 is likewise void.
The Court finds no constitutional conflict between its rule-making power and the power of the LEB to prescribe the
minimum standards for law admission under Section 7(e) of R.A. No. 7662. Consequently, the PhiLSAT, which
intends to regulate admission to law schools, cannot be voided on this ground.
4(a). LEB's power to prescribe minimum standards

for "law admission" pertain to admission to
legal education and not to the practice of law
Much of the protestation against the LEB's exercise of the power to prescribe the minimum standards for law
admission stems from the interpretation extended to the phrase "law admission." For petitioners, "law admission"
pertains to the practice of law, the power over which belongs exclusively to the Court.
The statutory context and the intent of the legislators do not permit such interpretation.
Basic is the rule in statutory construction that every part of the statute must be interpreted with reference to the
context, that is, every part must be read together with the other parts, to the end that the general intent of the law is
given primacy.254 As such, a law's clauses and phrases cannot be interpreted as isolated expressions nor read in
truncated parts, but must be considered to form a harmonious whole.255
Accordingly, the LEB's power under Section 7(e) of R.A. No. 7662 to prescribe the minimum standards for law
admission should be read with the State policy behind the enactment of R.A. No. 7662 which is fundamentally to
uplift the standards of legal education and the law's thrust to undertake reforms in the legal education system.
G.R. No. 230642 8/20/24, 6:48 PM
Construing the LEH's power to prescribe the standards for law admission together with the LEB's other powers to
administer, supervise, and accredit law schools, leads to the logical interpretation that the law circumscribes the
LEB's power to prescribe admission requirements only to those seeking enrollment to a school or college of law and
not to the practice of law.
Reference may also be made to DECS Order No. 27-1989, as the immediate precursor of R.A. No. 7662, as to what
is sought to be regulated when the law speaks of "law admission" requirements.
Section 1, Article VIII of DECS Order No. 27-1989 is clear that the admission requirement pertains to enrollment in a
law course, or law school, or legal education, thus:
Article VIII
Admission, Residence and Other Requirements
SEC. 1. No applicant shall be enrolled in the law course unless he complies with specific requirements
for admission by the Bureau of Higher Education and the Supreme Court of the Philippines, for which
purpose he must present to the registrar the necessary credentials before the end of the enrollment
period. (Emphases supplied)
This contemporary interpretation suffice in itself to hold that the phrase "law admission" pertains to admission to the
study of law or to legal education, and not to the practice of law. Further support is nevertheless offered by the
exchanges during the Senate interpellations, wherein it was assumed that the phrase "minimum standards for law
admission" refers to the requirements that the student must fulfill before being admitted to law school. This
assumption was not corrected by the bill's sponsor.256
4(b). Section 7(e) of R.A. No. 7662 is reasonable supervision and regulation
Section 7(e) of R.A. No. 7662, insofar as it gives the LEB the power to prescribe the minimum standards for law
admission is faithful to the reasonable supervision and regulation clause. It merely authorizes the LEB to prescribe
minimum requirements not amounting to control.
Emphatically, the law allows the LEB to prescribe only the minimum standards and it did not, in any way, impose
that the minimum standard for law admission should be by way of an exclusionary and qualifying exam nor did it
prevent law schools from imposing their respective admission requirements.
Thus, under LEBMO No. 1-2011, the minimum standards for admission to law schools as implemented by the LEB
are: (1) completion of a four-year high school course; and (2) completion of a course for a bachelor's degree in arts
or sciences.257 Again, these requirements are but consistent with the nature of the law course in the Philippines as
being both a professional and post-baccalaureate education.
As the facts disclose, however, the LEB later on introduced the PhiLSAT as an additional prerequisite for admission
to law school.
4(c). Pursuant to Section 7(e), LEB is authorized to administer

an aptitude test as a minimum standard for law admission
Evident from the Senate deliberations that, in prescribing the minimum standards for law admission, an aptitude test
may be administered by the LEB although such is not made mandatory under the law. Thus:
Senator Tolentino: x x x
I will proceed to another point, Mr. President. I have taught law for more than 25 years in private
schools and in the University of the Philippines as well. There is one thing I have noticed in all these
years of teaching and that is, many students in the law school are not prepared or apt by inclination or
by ability to become lawyers. I see that the objectives of the legal education that are provided for in this
bill do not provide for some mechanism of choosing people who should take up the law course.
As it is now, because of our democratic principles, anybody who wants to become a lawyer, who can
afford the tuition fee, or who has the required preparatory course, can be admitted into the law school.
And yet, while studying law, many of these students - I would say there are about 30 or 40 percent of
students in private schools - should not be taking up law but some other course because, simply, they
G.R. No. 230642 8/20/24, 6:48 PM
do not have the inclination, they do not have the aptitude or the ability to become lawyers.
Can that be provided for in this bill, Madam Sponsor? Would it contravene really our principles of
democracy where everybody should be free to take the course that he wants to take? Or should the
State be able to determine who should be able or who should be allowed to take a particular course, in
this case of law?
Senator Shahani: Mr. President, there are those aptitude tests which are being taken when the student
is in high school to somehow guide the guidance councilors [sic] into the aptitude of the students. But
the talent or the penchant for the legal profession is not one of those subjects specifically measured. I
think what is measured really is who is, more or less, talented for an academic education as against a
vocational education. But maybe, a new test will have to be designed to really test the aptitude of those
who would like to enter the law school. x x x
Senator Tolentino: x x x
Many parents want to see their children become lawyers. But they do not consider the aptitude of these
children, and they waste money and time in making these children take up law when they really are not
suited to the law course. My real concern is whether by legislation, we can provide for selection of
those who should be allowed to take up law, and not everybody would be allowed to take up law. x x x
xxxx
Senator Shahani: Mr. President, of course, the right to education is a constitutional right, and I think
one cannot just categorically deny a student - especially if he is bright - entrance to a law school. I think
I would stand by what I had previously said that an aptitude examination will have to be specially
designed. It is not in existence yet. x x x258 (Emphases supplied)
This matter was amplified in second reading:
Senator Angara: x x x
Senator Tolentino asked why there is an omission on the requirements for admission to law school. I
think [Senator Shahani] has already answered that, that the [LEB] may prescribe an aptitude test for
that purpose. Just as in other jurisdictions, they prescribe a law admission test for prospective students
of law. I think the board may very well decide to prescribe such a test, although it is not mandatory
under this bill.259 (Emphasis and underscoring supplied)
The lawmakers, therefore, recognized and intended that the LEB be vested with authority to administer an aptitude
test as a minimum standard for law admission. The presumption is that the legislature intended to enact a valid,
sensible, and just law and one which operates no further than may be necessary to effectuate the specific purpose
of the law.260 This presumption has not been successfully challenged by petitioners.
It also bears to note that the introduction of a law aptitude examination was actually supported by the Court when it
approved the CLEBM's proposed amendment to Section 7(e), as follows:
SEC. 6. Section 7 of the same law is hereby amended to read as follows:
"SEC. 7. Power and Functions. - x x x
xxxx
d). to prescribe minimum standards for ADMISSION TO LAW SCHOOLS INCLUDING A SYSTEM OF
LAW APTITUDE EXAMINATION x x x[.]" (Underscoring supplied)
And further in Bar Matter No. 1161261 when the Court referred to the LEB the conduct of a proposed law entrance
examination.
4(d). PhiLSAT, as an aptitude exam,

is reasonably related to the improvement
of legal education
G.R. No. 230642 8/20/24, 6:48 PM
Having settled that the LEB has the power to administer an aptitude test, the next issue to be resolved is whether
the exercise of such power, through the PhiLSAT, was reasonable.
Indeed, an administrative regulation is susceptible to attack for unreasonableness. In Lupangco v. Court of

Appeals,262 the Court held:
It is an [axiom] in administrative law that administrative authorities should not act arbitrarily
and capriciously in the issuance of rules and regulations. To be valid, such rules and
regulations must be reasonable and fairly adapted to secure the end in view. If shown to bear
no reasonable relation to the purposes for which they are authorized to be issued, then they
must be held to be invalid. (Emphasis supplied)
To determine whether the PhiLSAT constitutes a valid exercise of police power, the same test of
reasonableness, i.e., the concurrence of a lawful subject and lawful means, is employed. Petitioners argue that the
PhiLSAT is unreasonable because: it is not a conclusive proof of the student's aptitude;263 it entails unreasonable
examination and travel expenses and burdensome documentary requirements;264 applying for PhiLSAT exemption is
inconvenient;265 it is redundant to existing law school entrance exams;266 and it is not supported by scientific
study.267
Unfortunately, these grounds are not only conclusions of fact which beg the presentation of competent evidence, but
also necessarily go into the wisdom of the PhiLSAT which the Court cannot inquire into. The Court's pronouncement
as to the reasonableness of the PhiLSAT based on the grounds propounded by petitioners would be an excursion
into the policy behind the examinations - a function which is administrative rather than judicial.
Petitioners also argue that there is no reasonable relation between improving the quality of legal education and
regulating access thereto. The Court does not agree.
The subject of the PhiLSAT is to improve the quality of legal education. It is indubitable that the State has an interest
in prescribing regulations promoting education and thereby protecting the common good. Improvement of the quality
of legal education, thus, falls squarely within the scope of police power. The PhiLSAT, as an aptitude test, was the
means to protect this interest.
4(e). Tablarin sustained the conduct of an

admission test as a legitimate exercise
of the State's regulatory power
Moreover, by case law, the Court already upheld the validity of administering an aptitude test as a reasonable police
power measure in the context of admission standards into institutions of higher learning.
In Tablarin, the Court upheld not only the constitutionality of Section 5(a) of R.A. No. 2382, or the Medical Act of
1959, which gave the Board of Medical Education (BME) the power to prescribe requirements for admission to
medical schools, but also MECS Order No. 52, Series of 1985 (MECS Order No. 52-1985) issued by the BME which
prescribed NMAT.
Using the rational basis test, the Court upheld the constitutionality of the NMAT as follows:
Perhaps the only issue that needs some consideration is whether there is some reasonable relation
between the prescribing of passing the NMAT as a condition for admission to medical school on the
one hand, and the securing of the health and safety of the general community, on the other hand. This
question is perhaps most usefully approached by recalling that the regulation of the practice of
medicine in all its branches has long been recognized as a reasonable method of protecting the health
and safety of the public. That the power to regulate and control the practice of medicine includes the
power to regulate admission to the ranks of those authorized to practice medicine, is also well
recognized. Thus, legislation and administrative regulations requiring those who wish to practice
medicine first to take and pass medical board examinations have long ago been recognized as valid
exercises of governmental power. Similarly, the establishment of minimum medical educational
requirements - i.e., the completion of prescribed courses in a recognized medical school - for
admission to the medical profession, has also been sustained as a legitimate exercise of the regulatory
authority of the state. What we have before us in the instant case is closely related; the regulation of
access to medical schools. MECS Order No. 52, s. 1985, as noted earlier, articulates the rationale of
G.R. No. 230642 8/20/24, 6:48 PM
regulation of this type: the improvement of the professional and technical quality of the graduates of
medical schools, by upgrading the quality of those admitted to the student body of the medical
schools. That upgrading is sought by selectivity in the process of admission, selectivity consisting,
among other things, of limiting admission to those who exhibit in the required degree the aptitude for
medical studies and eventually for medical practice. The need to maintain, and the difficulties of
maintaining, high standards in our professional schools in general, and medical schools in particular, in
the current stage of our social and economic development, are widely known.
We believe that the government is entitled to prescribe an admission test like the NMAT as a means for
achieving its stated objective of "upgrading the selection of applicants into [our] medical schools" and of
"improv[ing] the quality of medical education, in the country." Given the widespread use today of such
admission tests in, for instance, medical schools in the United States of America the Medical College
Admission Test [MCAT] and quite probably in other countries with far more developed educational
resources than our own, and taking into account the failure or inability of the petitioners to even attempt
to prove otherwise, we are entitled to hold that the NMAT is reasonably related to the securing of the
ultimate end of legislation and regulation in this area. That end, it is useful to recall, is the protection of
the public from the potentially deadly effects of incompetence and ignorance in those who would
undertake to treat our bodies and minds for disease or trauma.268 (Emphases supplied)
The Court reached its conclusion that NMAT is a valid exercise of police power because the method employed, i.e.,
regulation of admissions to medical education is reasonably related to the subject, i.e., the protection of the public
by ensuring that only those qualified are eventually allowed to practice medicine.
The necessity of State intervention to ensure that the medical profession is not infiltrated by those unqualified to
take care of the life and health of patients was likewise the reason why the Court in Department of Education,
Culture and Sports v. San Diego269 upheld the "three-flunk" rule in NMAT:
We see no reason why the rationale in the [TabIarin] case cannot apply to the case at bar. The issue
raised in both cases is the academic preparation of the applicant. This may be gauged at least initially
by the admission test and, indeed with more reliability, by the three-flunk rule. The latter cannot be
regarded any less valid than the former in the regulation of the medical profession.
There is no need to redefine here the police power of the State. Suffice it to repeat that the power is
validly exercised if (a) the interests of the public generally, as distinguished from those of a particular
class, require the interference of the State, and (b) the means employed are reasonably necessary to
the attainment of the object sought to be accomplished and not unduly oppressive upon individuals.
In other words, the proper exercise of the police power requires the concurrence of a lawful subject and
a lawful method.
The subject of the challenged regulation is certainly within the ambit of the police power. It is
the right and indeed the responsibility of the State to insure that the medical profession is not
infiltrated by incompetents to whom patients may unwarily entrust their lives and health.
The method employed by the challenged regulation is not irrelevant to the purpose of the law
nor is it arbitrary or oppressive. The three-flunk rule is intended to insulate the medical schools
and ultimately the medical profession from the intrusion of those not qualified to be
doctors. (Emphases supplied)
Tablarin recognized that State intervention was necessary, and therefore was allowed, because of the need to meet
the goal of promoting public health and safety.
In similar vein, the avowed purpose of the PhiLSAT is to improve the quality of legal education by evaluating and
screening applicants to law school. As elucidated, the State has an interest in improving the quality of legal
education for the protection of the community at-large, and requiring an entrance test is reasonably related to that
interest. In other words, the State has the power and the prerogative to impose a standardized test prior to entering
law school, in the same manner and extent that the State can do so in medical school when it prescribed the NMAT.
In all, the Court finds no constitutional conflict between the Court's rule-making power concerning admissions to the
practice of law and on the LEB's power to prescribe minimum standards for law admission under Section 7(e) of
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R.A. No. 7662.
Further, pursuant to its power under Section 7(e), the Court affirms the LEB's authority to initiate and administer an
aptitude test, such as the PhiLSAT, as a minimum standard for law admission. Thus, the PhiLSAT, insofar as it
functions as an aptitude exam that measures the academic potential of the examinee to pursue the study of law to
the end that the quality of legal education is improved is not per se unconstitutional.
However, there are certain provisions of the PhiLSAT that render its operation exclusionary, restrictive, and
qualifying which is contrary to its design as an aptitude exam meant to be used as a tool that should only help and
guide law schools in gauging the aptness of its applicants for the study of law. These provisions effectively and
absolutely exclude applicants who failed to pass the PhiLSAT from taking up a course in legal education, thereby
restricting and qualifying admissions to law schools. As will be demonstrated, these provisions of the PhiLSAT are
unconstitutional for being manifestly violative of the law schools' exercise of academic freedom, specifically the
autonomy to determine for itself who it shall allow to be admitted to its law program.
D.
LEB's Powers vis-a-vis Institutional Academic
Freedom and the Right to Education
1 PhiLSAT
Paragraphs 7, 9, 11, and 15 of LEBMO No. 7-2016, provide:
xxxx
7. Passing Score - The cut-off or passing score for the PhiLSAT shall be FIFTY-FIVE PERCENT (55%)
correct answers, or such percentile score as may be prescribed by the LEB.
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9. Admission Requirement - All college graduates or graduating students applying for admission to the
basic law course shall be required to pass the PhiLSAT as a requirement for admission to any law
school in the Philippines. Upon the effectivity of this memorandum order, no applicant shall be admitted
for enrollment as a first year student in the basic law courses leading to a degree of either Bachelor of
Laws or Juris Doctor unless he/she has passed the PhiLSAT taken within 2 years before the start of
studies for the basic law course and presents a valid [Certificate of Eligibility] as proof thereof.
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11. Institutional Admission Requirements - The PhiLSAT shall be without prejudice to the right of a law
school in the exercise of its academic freedom to prescribe or impose additional requirements for
admission, such as but not limited to:
a. A score in the PhiLSAT higher than the cut-off or passing score set by the LEB;
b. Additional or supplemental admission tests to measure the competencies and/or personality of the
applicant; and
c. Personal interview of the applicant.
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15. Sanctions - Law schools violating this Memorandum Order shall [be] imposed the administrative
sanctions prescribed in Section 32 of LEBMO No. 2, Series of 2013 and/or fine of up to Ten Thousand
Pesos (P10,000) for each infraction. (Emphases supplied)
Without doubt, the above provisions exclude and disqualify those examinees who fail to reach the prescribed
passing score from being admitted to any law school in the Philippines. In mandating that only applicants who
scored at least 55% correct answers shall be admitted to any law school, the PhiLSAT actually usurps the right and
duty of the law school to determine for itself the criteria for the admission of students and thereafter, to apply such
criteria on a case-by-case basis. It also mandates law schools to absolutely reject applicants with a grade lower than
G.R. No. 230642 8/20/24, 6:48 PM
the prescribed cut-off score and those with expired PhiLSAT eligibility. The token regard for institutional academic
freedom comes into play, if at all, only after the applicants had been "pre-selected" without the school's participation.
The right of the institutions then are constricted only in providing "additional" admission requirements, admitting of
the interpretation that the preference of the school itself is merely secondary or supplemental to that of the State
which is antithetical to the very principle of reasonable supervision and regulation.
The law schools are left with absolutely no discretion to choose its students at the first instance and in accordance
with its own policies, but are dictated to surrender such discretion in favor of a State-determined pool of applicants,
under pain of administrative sanctions and/or payment of fines. Mandating law schools to reject applicants who
failed to reach the prescribed PhiLSAT passing score or those with expired PhiLSAT eligibility transfers complete
control over admission policies from the law schools to the LEB. As Garcia tritely emphasized: "[c]olleges and
universities should [not] be looked upon as public utilities devoid of any discretion as to whom to admit or reject.
Education, especially higher education, belongs to a different, and certainly higher category."270
1(a). Comparison of PhiLSAT with NMAT and LSAT
Respondent urges the Court to treat the PhiLSAT in the same manner that the Court treated the NMAT in Tablarin.
Petitioners oppose on the ground that the PhiLSAT and the NMAT are different because there is a Constitutional
body, i.e., the Court, tasked to regulate the practice of law while there is none with respect to the practice of
medicine.
The Court treats the PhiLSAT differently from the NMAT for the fundamental reason that these aptitude exams
operate differently.
For one, how these exams allow the schools to treat the scores therein obtained is different.
While both exams seem to prescribe a "cut-off" score, the NMAT score is evaluated by the medical schools in
relation to their own cut-off scores. Unlike the PhiLSAT score, the NMAT score is not the sole determining factor on
whether or not an examinee may be admitted to medical school. The NMAT score is only meant to be one of the
bases for evaluating applicants for admission to a college of medicine.
Medical schools further enjoy the discretion to determine how much weight should be assigned to an NMAT score
relative to the schools' own admissions policy. Different medical schools may therefore set varying acceptable NMAT
scores. Different medical schools may likewise assign different values to the NMAT score. This allows medical
schools to consider the NMAT score along with the other credentials of the applicant. The NMAT score does not
constrain medical schools to accept pre-selected applicants; it merely provides for a tool to evaluate all applicants.
Obtaining a low NMAT percentile score will not immediately and absolutely disqualify an applicant from being
admitted to medical school. Obtaining a high NMAT percentile score only increases an applicant's options for
medical schools. Taking the NMAT, thus, expands the applicant's options for medical schools; it does not limit them.
For another, medical schools are not subjected to sanctions in case they decide to admit an applicant pursuant to
their own admissions policy. In fact, at some point,271 there was even no prescribed cut-off percentile score for the
NMAT, and instead it was stressed that a student may enroll in any school, college or university upon meeting the
latter's specific requirements and reasonable regulations.272 Also, the issuance of a certificate of eligibility for
admission to a college of medicine had been transferred to. the medical schools, thus, rightfully giving the
responsibility for and accountability of determining eligibility of students for admission to the medical program to the
schools concerned.273
Similar to the NMAT, the Law School Admission Test (LSAT) is only one of the several criteria for evaluation for law
school admission. It is just one of the methods that law schools may use to differentiate applicants for law school.
The American Bar Association actually allows a law school to use an admission test other than the LSAT and it does
not dictate the particular weight that a law school should give to the results of the LSAT in deciding whether to admit
an applicant.274
In contrast, the PhiLSAT score itself determines whether an applicant may be admitted to law school or not, the
PhiLSAT being strictly a pass or fail exam. It excludes those who failed to reach the prescribed cut-off score from
being admitted to any law school. It qualifies admission to law school not otherwise imposed by the schools
themselves. The PhiLSAT, as presently crafted, employs a totalitarian scheme in terms of student admissions. This
leaves the consequent actions of the applicant-student and the school solely dependent upon the results of the
G.R. No. 230642 8/20/24, 6:48 PM
PhiLSAT.
1(b). Balancing State interest with

institutional academic freedom ℒαwρhi!
Thus far, it is settled that the PhiLSAT, when administered as an aptitude test, is reasonably related to the State's
unimpeachable interest in improving the quality of legal education. This aptitude test, however, should not be
exclusionary, restrictive, or qualifying as to encroach upon institutional academic freedom. Moreover, in the exercise
of their academic freedom to choose who to admit, the law schools should be left with the discretion to determine for
themselves how much weight should the results of the PhiLSAT carry in relation to their individual admission
policies. At all times, it is understood that the school's exercise of such academic discretion should not be gravely
abused, arbitrary, whimsical, or discriminatory.
With the conclusion that the PhiLSAT, when administered as an aptitude test, passes the test of reasonableness,
there is no reason to strike down the PhiLSAT in its entirety. Instead, the Court takes a calibrated approach and
partially nullifies LEBMO No. 7-2016 insofar as it absolutely prescribes the passing of the PhiLSAT and the taking
thereof within two years as a prerequisite for admission to any law school which, on its face, run directly counter to
institutional academic freedom. The rest of LEBMO No. 7-2016, being free from any taint of unconstitutionality,
should remain in force and effect, especially in view of the separability clause275 therein contained.
1(c). PhiLSAT and the right to education
Anent the argument that the PhiLSAT transgresses petitioners' right to education and their right to select a
profession or course of study, suffice to state that the PhiLSAT is a minimum admission standard that is rationally
related to the interest of the State to improve the quality of legal education and, accordingly, to protect the general
community. The constitutionality of the PhiLSAT, therefore, cannot be voided on the ground that it violates the right
to education as stated under Section 1, Article XIV of the Constitution. The Court's pronouncement
in Tablarin276 again resonates with significance:
Turning to Article XIV, Section 1, of the 1987 Constitution, we note that once more, petitioners have
failed to demonstrate that the statute and regulation they assail in fact clash with that provision. On the
contrary, we may note - x x x - that the statute and the regulation which petitioners attack are in fact
designed to promote "quality education" at the level of professional schools. When one reads Section 1
in relation to Section 5(3) of Article XIV, as one must, one cannot but note that the latter phrase of
Section 1 is not to be read with absolute literalness. The State is not really enjoined to take appropriate
steps to make quality education "accessible to all" who might for any number of reasons wish to enroll
in a professional school, but rather merely to make such education accessible to all who qualify under
"fair, reasonable and equitable admission and academic requirements."
2 Other LEB issuances on law admission
Apart from the PhiLSAT, the LEB also imposed additional requirements for admission to law schools under LEBMO
No. 1-2011, specifically:
Article III
Prerequisites and Program Specification
SEC. 15. Prerequisites to admission to Law School. - x x x
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Where the applicant for admission into a law school is a graduate of a foreign institution or school
following a different course and progression of studies, the matter shall be referred to the Board that
shall determine the eligibility of the candidate for admission to law school.
SEC. 16. Board Prerequisites for Admission to the Ll.B. or J.D. Program. - The Board shall apply
Section 6 of Rule 138 in the following wise: An applicant for admission to the Ll.B. or J.D. program of
studies must be a graduate of a bachelor's degree and must have earned at least eighteen (18) units in
English, six (6) units in Mathematics, and eighteen (18) units of social science subjects.
SEC. 17. Board Prerequisites for Admission to Graduate Programs in Law. - Without prejudice to other
G.R. No. 230642 8/20/24, 6:48 PM
requirements that graduate schools may lay down, no applicant shall be admitted for the Master of
Laws (Ll.M.) or equivalent master's degree in law or juridical science, without an Ll.B. or a J.D. degree.
Admission of non-Members of the Philippine Bar to the master's degree shall be a matter of academic
freedom vested in the graduate school of law. The candidate for the doctorate degree in juridical
science, or doctorate in civil law or equivalent doctorate degree must have completed a Master of Laws
(Ll.M.) or equivalent degree.
Graduate degree programs in law shall have no bearing on membership or non-membership in the
Philippine Bar.277 (Emphases supplied)
Further, LEBMO No. 1-2011, Article V, provides:
xxxx
SEC. 23. No student who has obtained a general average below 2.5 or 80 in the college course
required for admission to legal studies may be admitted to law school. Exceptions may be made by the
Dean in exceptionally meritorious cases, after having informed the Board.278
These provisions similarly encroach upon the law school's freedom to determine for itself its admission policies.
With regard to foreign students, a law school is completely bereft of the right to determine for itself whether to accept
such foreign student or not, as the determination thereof now belongs to the LEB.
Similarly, the requirement that an applicant obtain a specific number of units in English, Mathematics, and Social
Science subjects affects a law school's admission policies leaving the latter totally without discretion to admit
applicants who are deficient in these subjects or to allow such applicant to complete these requirements at a later
time. This requirement also effectively extends the jurisdiction of the LEB to the courses and units to be taken by the
applicant in his or her pre-law course. Moreover, such requirement is not to be found under Section 6, Rule 138 of
the Rules of Court as this section simply requires only the following from an applicant to the bar exams:
SEC. 6. Pre-Law. - No applicant for admission to the bar examination shall be admitted unless he presents a
certificate that he has satisfied the Secretary of Education that, before he began the study of law, he had pursued
and satisfactorily completed in an authorized and recognized university or college, requiring for admission thereto
the completion of a four-year high school course, the course of study prescribed therein for a bachelor's degree in
arts or sciences with any of the following subjects as major or field of concentration: political science, logic, english,
spanish, history and economics.
Likewise, in imposing that only those with a basic degree in law may be admitted to graduate programs in law
encroaches upon the law school's right to determine who may be admitted. For instance, this requirement effectively
nullifies the option of admitting non-law graduates on the basis of relevant professional experience that a law school,
pursuant to its own admissions policy, may otherwise have considered.
The required general weighted average in the college course suffers the same infirmity and would have been struck
down had ·it not been expressly repealed by the LEB because of the PhiLSAT.279
3 Section 7(c) and 7(e) on the minimum

qualifications of faculty members
The LEB is also empowered under Section 7(c) to set the standards of accreditation taking into account, among
others, the "qualifications of the members of the faculty" and under Section 7(e) of R.A. No. 7662 to prescribe
"minimum qualifications and compensation of faculty members[.]"
Relative to the power to prescribe the minimum qualifications of faculty members, LEB prescribes under LEBMO
No. 1-2011 the following:
[PART I]
Article V
Instructional Standards
SEC. 20. The law school shall be headed by a properly qualified dean, maintain a corps of professors
drawn from the ranks of leading and acknowledged practitioners as well as academics and legal
scholars or experts in juridical science[.] x x x
G.R. No. 230642 8/20/24, 6:48 PM
xxxx
PART III
QUALIFICATIONS AND CURRICULUM
Article I
Faculty Qualifications
SEC. 50. The members of the faculty of a law school should, at the very least, possess a L1.B. or a
J.D. degree and should be members of the Philippine Bar. In the exercise of academic freedom, the
law school may also ask specialists in various fields of law with other qualifications, provided that they
possess relevant doctoral degrees, to teach specific subjects.
Within a period of five (5) years of the promulgation of the present order, members of the faculty of
schools of law shall commence their studies in graduate schools of law.
Where a law school offers the J.D. curriculum, a qualified Ll.B. graduate who is a member of the
Philippine Bar may be admitted to teach in the J.D. course and may wish to consider the privilege
granted under Section 56 hereof.
SEC. 51. The dean should have, aside from complying with the requirements above, at least a Master
of Laws (Ll.M.) degree or a master's degree in a related field, and should have been a Member of the
Bar for at least 5 years prior to his appointment as dean.
SEC. 52. The dean of a graduate school of law should possess at least a doctorate degree in law and
should be an acknowledged authority in law, as evidenced by publications and membership in learned
societies and organizations; members of the faculty of a graduate school of law should possess at least
a Master of Laws (Ll.M.) degree or the relevant master's or doctor's degrees in related fields.
Aside from the foregoing, retired justices of the Supreme Court, the Court of Appeals, the
Sandiganbayan and the Court of Tax Appeals may serve as deans of schools of law, provided that they
have had teaching experience as professors of law and provided further that, with the approval of the
Legal Education Board, a graduate school of law may accredit their experience in the collegiate
appellate courts and the judgments they have penned towards the degree [ad eundem] of Master of
Laws.280 (Emphases supplied)
Thus, under LEBMO No. 1-2011, a law faculty member must have an Ll.B or J.D. degree and must, within a period
of five years from the promulgation of LEBMO No. 1-2011, or from June 14, 2011 to June 14, 2016, commence
studies in graduate school of law.
The mandatory character of the requirement of a master's degree is underscored by the LEB in its Resolution No.
2014-02, a "sequel rule" to Section 50 of LEBMO No. 1-2011, which provides that:
xxxx
1. Members of the law faculty are required to be holders of the degree of Master of Laws. It is the
responsibility of the law deans to observe and implement this rule.
2. The law faculty of all law schools shall have the following percentage of holders of the master
of laws degree:
2.1. School Year- 2017-2018-20%
2.2. School Year- 2018-2019 - 40%
2.3. School Year- 2019-2020-60%
2.4. School Year- 2020-2021-80%
In computing the percentage, those who are exempted from the rule shall be included.
G.R. No. 230642 8/20/24, 6:48 PM
3. Exempted from this requirement of a master's degree in law are the following:
The Incumbent or Retired Members of the:
3.1. Supreme Court;
3.2. Court of Appeals, Sandiganbayan and Court of Tax Appeals;
3.3. Secretary of Justice and Under-Secretaries of Justice, Ombudsman, Deputy

Ombudsmen, Solicitor General and Assistant Solicitors General
3.4. Commissioners of the National Labor Relations Commission who teach Labor Laws;
3.5. Regional Trial Court Judges;
3.6. DOJ State and Regional State Prosecutors and Senior Ombudsman Prosecutors who
teach Criminal Law and/or Criminal Procedure;
3.7. Members of Congress who are lawyers who teach Political Law, Administrative Law,
Election Law, Law on Public Officers and other related subjects;
3.8. Members of Constitutional Commissions who are Lawyers;
3.9. Heads of bureaus who are lawyers who teach the law subjects which their respective
bureaus are implementing;
3.10. Ambassadors, Ministers and other [D]iplomatic Officers who are lawyers who teach
International Law or related subjects;
3.11. Those who have been teaching their subjects for 10 years or more upon
recommendation of their deans; and
3.12. Other lawyers who are considered by the Board to be experts in any field of law
provided they teach the subjects of their expertise.
4. The following are the sanctions for non-compliance with the foregoing rules:
4.1. If a law school is non-compliant with these rules for the first time beginning School
Year 2017-2018, the Board shall downgrade its Recognition status to Permit status;
4.2. If a law school under a Permit status should remain non-compliant with these rules in
succeeding school years, the Board shall downgrade the Permit status to Phase-Out
status;
4.3. If a law school which is under Phase-Out status remains non-compliant with these
rules in succeeding school years, the Board shall order its closure to take effect at the end
of the school year.
5. If a law school under sanction shall become compliant, its Recognition status shall be
restored. (Emphases supplied)
xxxx
And under LEBMO No. 2:
SEC. 31. Unfitness to Continue Operating a Law Program. A law school which is operated below
quality standards of a law school is unfit to continue operating a law program.
xxxx
2) A law school is substandard if the result of the inspection and evaluation of the law school and its
facilities by members of the Board or its staff shows that the law school has serious deficiencies
G.R. No. 230642 8/20/24, 6:48 PM
including a weak faculty as indicated, among others, by the fact that most of the members are
neophytes in the teaching of law[.] x x x
xxxx
SEC. 32. The imposable administrative sanctions are the following:
a) Termination of the law program (closing the law school);
b) Phase-out of the law program;
c) Provisional cancellation of the Government Recognition and putting the law program of the
substandard law school under Permit Status.
This master of laws degree requirement is reiterated in LEBMO No. 17, Series of 2018 (Supplemental Regulations
on the Minimum Academic Requirement of Master of Laws Degree for Deans and Law
Professors/Lecturers/Instructors in Law Schools), as follows:
xxxx
B) For Members of the Law Faculty
SEC. 6. For purposes of determining compliance with the minimum academic requirement of a Ll.M.
degree for the members of the law faculty in law schools required under Section 50 of LEBMO No. 1,
Series of 2011 and Resolution No. 2014-02, the required percentage of holders of Ll.M. shall be
computed based on the aggregate units of all courses/subjects offered during the semester by the law
school.
SEC. 7. Within thirty (30) days upon completion the effectivity this of this memorandum [sic], the
President of the HEI and the Dean of each law school shall jointly submit to the LEB separate
certification of the total teaching assignments/load for the 1st Semester and 2nd Semester of the
Academic Year 2017-2018 in the prescribed matrix form containing the names of every faculty member,
his/her highest academic law degree, qualification for , exemption from the Ll.M. requirement, if
applicable, courses/subjects assigned to teach, and academic weight of each course/subject, and a
disclosure whether or not the law school is compliant with the prescribed percentage of Ll.M. holders
for faculty members. Thereafter, the same certification shall be submitted for every regular semester
not later than 45 days from the start of the semester.
xxxx
SEC. 12. Law schools failing to meet the prescribed percentage of its faculty members required to have
Ll.M. degrees shall be imposed the appropriate administrative sanction specified under Resolution No.
2014-02. (Emphases supplied)
To be sure, under its supervisory and regulatory power, the LEB can prescribe the minimum qualifications of faculty
members. This much was affirmed by the Court when it approved the CLEBM's proposal to revise the powers of
LEB under R.A. No. 7662, but nevertheless retaining the LEB's power to "provide for minimum qualifications for
faculty members of law schools." As worded, the assailed clauses of Section 7(c) and 7(e) insofar as they give LEB
the power to prescribe the minimum qualifications of faculty members are in tune with the reasonable supervision
and regulation clause and do not infringe upon the academic freedom of law schools.
Moreover, this minimum qualification can be a master of laws degree. In University of the East v. Pepanio,281 the
Court held that the requirement of a masteral degree, albeit for tertiary education teachers, is not unreasonable.
Thus:
The requirement of a masteral degree for tertiary education teachers is not unreasonable. The
operation of educational institutions involves public interest. The government has a right to
ensure that only qualified persons, in possession of sufficient academic knowledge and
teaching skills, are allowed to teach in such institutions. Government regulation in this field of
human activity is desirable for protecting, not only the students, but the public as well from ill-
prepared teachers, who are lacking in the required scientific or technical knowledge. They may
G.R. No. 230642 8/20/24, 6:48 PM
be required to take an examination or to possess postgraduate degrees as prerequisite to

employment. (Emphasis supplied)
This was reiterated in Son v. University of Santo Tomas,282 as follows:
As early as in 1992, the requirement of a Master's degree in the undergraduate program professor's
field of instruction has been in place, through DECS Order 92 (series of 1992, August 10, 1992) or the
Revised Manual of Regulations for Private Schools. Article IX, Section 44, paragraph [1(a)] thereof
provides that college faculty members must have a master's degree in their field of instruction as a
minimum qualification for teaching in a private educational institution and acquiring regular status
therein.
DECS Order 92, Series of 1992 was promulgated by the DECS in the exercise of its [rule]-making
power as provided for under Section 70 of Batas Pambansa Blg. 232, otherwise known as the
Education Act of 1982. As such, it has the force and effect of law. In University of the East v. Pepanio,
the requirement of a masteral degree for tertiary education teachers was held to be not unreasonable
but rather in accord with the public interest.
xxxx
From a strict legal viewpoint, the parties are both in violation of the law: respondents, for maintaining
professors without the mandated masteral degrees, and for petitioners, agreeing to be employed
despite knowledge of their lack of the necessary qualifications. Petitioners cannot therefore insist to be
employed by UST since they still do not possess the required master's degrees; the fact that UST
continues to hire and maintain professors without the necessary master's degrees is not a ground for
claiming illegal dismissal, or even reinstatement. As far as the law is concerned, respondents are in
violation of the CHED regulations for continuing the practice of hiring unqualified teaching personnel;
but the law cannot come to the aid of petitioners on this sole ground. As between the parties herein,
they are in pari delicto.
xxxx
The minimum requirement of a master's degree in the undergraduate teacher's field of instruction has
been cemented in DECS Order 92, Series of 1992. Both petitioners and respondents have been
violating it. The fact that government has not cracked down on violators, or that it chose not to strictly
implement the provision, does not erase the violations committed by erring educational institutions,
including the parties herein; it simply means that government will not punish these violations for the
meantime. The parties cannot escape its concomitant effects, nonetheless. And if respondents knew
the overwhelming importance of the said provision and the public interest involved - as they now
fiercely advocate to their favor - they should have complied with the same as soon as it was
promulgated.
xxxx
In addition, the Court already held in Herrera-Manaoisi v. St. Scholastica's College that -
Notwithstanding the existence of the SSC Faculty Manual, Manaois still cannot legally
acquire a permanent status of employment. Private educational institutions must still
supplementarily refer to the prevailing standards, qualifications, and conditions set by the
appropriate government agencies (presently the Department of Education, the
Commission on Higher Education, and the Teclmical Education and Skills Development
Authority). This limitation on the right of private schools, colleges, and universities to
select and determine the employment status of their academic personnel has been
imposed by the state in view of the public interest nature of educational institutions, so as
to ensure the quality and competency of our schools and educators. (Internal citations
omitted)
Thus, the masteral degree required of law faculty members and dean, and the doctoral degree required of a dean of
a graduate school of law are, in fact, minimum reasonable requirements. However, it is the manner by which the
LEB had exercised this power through its various issuances that prove to be unreasonable.
G.R. No. 230642 8/20/24, 6:48 PM
On this point, the amicus curiae, Dean Sedfrey M. Candelaria, while admitting that the masteral degree requirement
is a "laudable aim" of the LEB, nevertheless adds that the LEB-imposed period of compliance is unreasonable given
the logistical and financial obstacles:
The masteral degree requirement is a laudable aim of LEB, but the possibility of meeting the LEB
period of compliance is unreasonable and unrealistic in the light of logistical and financial
considerations confronting the deans and professors, including the few law schools offering graduate
degrees in law.
To illustrate, to the best of my knowledge there are no more than six (6) graduate schools of law around
the country to service potential applicants. Those who have opted for graduate studies in law find it
very costly to fly to the venue. While one or two programs may have been delivered outside the
provider's home school venue to reach out to graduate students outside the urban centers,
pedagogical standards are often compromised in the conduct of the modules. This is even aggravated
by the fact that very few applicants can afford to go into full-time graduate studies considering that most
deans and professors of law are in law practice. Perhaps, LEB should work in consultation with PALS
in designing a cost-effective but efficient delivery system of any graduate program in law, [especially]
for deans and law professors.283
Further, the mandatory character of the master of laws degree requirement, under pain of downgrading, phase-out
and closure of the law school, is in sharp contrast with the previous requirement under DECS Order No. 27-1989
which merely prefer faculty members who are holders of a graduate law degree, or its equivalent. The LEB's
authority to review the strength or weakness of the faculty on the basis of experience or length of time devoted to
teaching violates an institution's right to set its own faculty standards. The LEB also imposed strict reportorial
requirements that infringe on the institution's right to select its teachers which, for instance, may be based on
expertise even with little teaching experience. Moreover, in case a faculty member seeks to be exempted, he or she
must prove to the LEB, and not to the concerned institution, that he or she is an expert in the field, thus, usurping
the freedom of the institution to evaluate the qualifications of its own teachers on an individual basis.
Also, while the LEB requires of faculty members and deans to obtain a master of laws degree before they are
allowed to teach and administer a law school, respectively, it is ironic that the LEB, under Resolution No. 2019-406,
in fact considers the basic law degrees of Ll.B. or J.D. as already equivalent to a doctorate degree in other non-law
academic disciplines for purposes of "appointment/promotion, ranking, and compensation."
In this connection, the LEB also prescribes who may or may not be considered as full-time faculty, the classification
of the members of their faculty, as well as the faculty load, including the regulation of work hours, all in violation of
the academic freedom of law schools. LEBMO No. 2 provides:
SEC. 33. Full-time and Part-time Faculty. There are two general kinds of faculty members, the full-time
and part-time faculty members.
a) A full-time faculty member is one:
1) Who possesses the minimum qualification of a member of the faculty as prescribed in

Sections 50 and 51 of LEBMO No. 1;
2) Who devotes not less than eight (8) hours of work for the law school;
3) Who has no other occupation elsewhere requiring regular hours of work, except when
permitted by the higher education institution of which the law school is a part; and
4) Who is not teaching full-time in any other higher education institution.
b) A part-time faculty member is one who does not meet the qualifications of a full-time professor
as enumerated in the preceding number.
SEC. 34. Faculty Classification and Ranking. Members of the faculty may be classified, in the
discretion of the higher education institution of which the law school is a part, according to academic
proceeding, training and scholarship into Professor, Associate Professor, Assistant Professor, and
Instructor.
G.R. No. 230642 8/20/24, 6:48 PM
Part-time members of the faculty may be classified as Lecturers, Assistant Professorial Lecturers,
Associate Professorial Lecturers and Professorial Lecturers. The law schools shall devise their scheme
of classification and promotion not inconsistent with these rules.
SEC. 35. Faculty Load. Generally, no member of the faculty should teach more than 3 consecutive
hours in any subject nor should he or she be loaded with subjects requiring more than three
preparations or three different subjects (no matter the number of units per subject) in a day.
However, under exceptionally meritorious circumstances, the law deans may allow members of the
faculty to teach 4 hours a day provided that there is a break of 30 minutes between the first 2 and the
last 2 hours. (Emphases supplied)
The LEB is also allowed to revoke permits or recognitions given to law schools when the LEB deems that there is
gross incompetence on the part of the dean and the corps of professors or instructors under Section 41.2(d) of
LEBMO No. 1-2011, thus:
SEC. 41.2. Permits or recognitions may be revoked, or recognitions reverted to permit status for just
causes including but not limited to:
a) fraud or deceit committed by the institution in connection with its application to the Board;
b) the unauthorized operation of a school of law or a branch or an extension of a law school;
c) mismanagement or gross inefficiency in the operation of a law school;
d) gross incompetence on the part of the dean and the corps of professors or instructors;
e) violation of approved standards governing institutional operations, announcements and

advertisements;
f) transfer of the school of law to a site or location detrimental to the interests of the students and
inimical to the fruitful and promising study of law;
g) repeated failure of discipline on the part of the student body; and
h) other grounds for the closure of schools and academic institutions as provided for in the rules
and regulations of the Commission on Higher Education.284 (Emphasis supplied)
In this regard, the LEB is actually assessing the teaching performance of faculty members and when such is
determined by the LEB as constituting gross incompetence, the LEB may mete out penalties, thus, usurping the law
school's right to determine for itself the competence of its faculty members.
4 Section 2, par. 2 and Section 7(g)

on legal apprenticeship and legal internship
While the clause "legal apprenticeship" under Section 2, par. 2 and Section 7(g) on legal internship, as plainly
worded, cannot immediately be interpreted as encroaching upon institutional academic freedom, the manner by
which LEB exercised this power through several of its issuances undoubtedly show that the LEB controls and
dictates upon law schools how such apprenticeship and internship programs should be undertaken.
Pursuant to its power under Section 7(g), the LEB passed Resolution No. 2015-08 (Prescribing the Policy and Rules
in the Establishment of a Legal Aid Clinic in Law Schools) wherein it classified legal aid clinics into three types: (1) a
legal aid clinic which is an outreach project of a law school; (2) a legal aid clinic which entitles the participating
student to curricular credits; and (3) a legal aid clinic that entitles the participating student to avail of the privileges
under Rule 138-A of the Rules of Court.
Pertinent to the third type, the LEB requires the law schools to comply with the following rules:
xxxx
b) Implementing Rules
G.R. No. 230642 8/20/24, 6:48 PM
(1) A LAC should be established by the law school.
(2) The law school should formulate its Clinical Legal Education Program and submit it to
the Legal Education board for its assessment and evaluation.
(3) If Legal Education Board finds the Clinical Legal Education Program to be proper and
in order it shall endorse it to the Supreme Court for its approval.
(4) Once approved by the Supreme Court, fourth (4th) year law students in that law school
enrolled in it shall be allowed to practice law on a limited manner pursuant to the provisions of
Rule 138-A of the Rules of Court. (Emphasis supplied)
Further, Section 24(c), Article IV of LEBMO No. 2 prescribes the activities that should be included in the law school's
apprenticeship program, as follows:
Article IV
Law School: Administrative Matters and Opening of Branches or Extension Classes
SEC. 24. Administrative Matters.
xxxx
c) Apprenticeship Program. The apprenticeship program should be closely supervised by the Dean or a
member of the faculty assigned by the Dean to do the task. The apprenticeship program should at least
include any of the following activities:
1) Preparation of legal documents
2) Interviewing clients
3) Courtroom observation and participation
4) Observation and assistance in police investigations, inquests and preliminary investigations
5) Legal counseling
6) Legal assistance to detention prisoners
7) For working students, participation in the legal work of the legal section or office of the
employer-entity x x x (Emphasis supplied)
Relatedly, Section 59(d) of LEBMO No. 1-2011, provides:
Article IV
Grading System
SEC. 59. Grading System. - The law school, in the exercise of academic freedom, shall devise its own
grading system provided that on the first day of classes, the students are apprised of the grading
system and provided further that the following are observed:
xxxx
(d) When apprenticeship is required and the student does not complete the mandated number of
apprenticeship hours, or the person supervising the apprenticeship program deems the performance of
the student unsatisfactory, the dean shall require of the student such number of hours more in
apprenticeship as will fulfill the purposes of the apprenticeship program.285 (Emphasis supplied)
These provisions unduly interfere with the discretion of a law school regarding its curriculum, particularly its
apprenticeship program. Plainly, these issuances are beyond mere supervision and regulation.
III.
Conclusion
G.R. No. 230642 8/20/24, 6:48 PM
In general, R.A. No. 7662, as a law meant to uplift the quality of legal education, does not encroach upon the Court's
jurisdiction to promulgate rules under Section 5(5), Article VIII of the Constitution. It is well-within the jurisdiction of
the State, as an exercise of its inherent police power, to lay down laws relative to legal education, the same being
imbued with public interest.
While the Court is undoubtedly an interested stakeholder in legal education, it cannot assume jurisdiction where it
has none. Instead, in judicial humility, the Court affirms that the supervision and regulation of legal education is a
political exercise, where judges are nevertheless still allowed to participate not as an independent branch of
government, but as part of the sovereign people.
Nevertheless, inasmuch as the power to promulgate rules concerning the protection and enforcement of
constitutional rights, pleading, practice, and procedure in all courts, the admission to the practice of law, the
Integrated Bar, and legal assistance to the underprivileged is settled as belonging exclusively to the Court, certain
provisions and clauses of R.A. No. 7662 which, by its plain language and meaning, go beyond legal education and
intrude upon the Court's exclusive jurisdiction suffer from patent unconstitutionality and should therefore be struck
down.
Moreover, the exercise of the power to supervise and regulate legal education is circumscribed by the normative
contents of the Constitution itself, that is, it must be reasonably exercised. Reasonable exercise means that it should
not amount to control and that it respects the Constitutionallyguaranteed institutional academic freedom and the
citizen's right to quality and accessible education. Transgression of these limitations renders the power and the
exercise thereof unconstitutional.
Accordingly, the Court recognizes the power of the LEB under its charter to prescribe minimum standards for law
admission. The PhiLSAT, when administered as an aptitude test to guide law schools in measuring the applicants'
aptness for legal education along with such other admissions policy that the law school may consider, is such
minimum standard.
However, the PhiLSAT presently operates not only as a measure of an applicant's aptitude for law school. The
PhiLSAT, as a pass or fail exam, dictates upon law schools who among the examinees are to be admitted to any law
program. When the PhiLSAT is used to exclude, qualify, and restrict admissions to law schools, as its present design
mandates, the PhiLSAT goes beyond mere supervision and regulation, violates institutional academic freedom,
becomes unreasonable and therefore, unconstitutional. In striking down these objectionable clauses in the PhiLSAT,
the State's inherent power to protect public interest by improving legal education is neither emasculated nor
compromised. Rather, the institutional academic freedom of law schools to determine for itself who to admit
pursuant to their respective admissions policies is merely protected. In turn, the recognition of academic discretion
comes with the inherent limitation that its exercise should not be whimsical, arbitrary, or gravely abused.
In similar vein, certain LEB issuances which exceed the powers granted under its charter should be nullified for
being ultra vires.
As in all levels and areas of education, the improvement of legal education indeed deserves serious attention. The
parties are at a consensus that legal education should be made relevant and progressive. Reforms for a more
responsive legal education are constantly introduced and are evolving. The PhiLSAT, for instance, is not a perfect
initiative. Through time and a better cooperation between the LEB and the law schools in the Philippines, a
standardized and acceptable law admission examination may be configured. The flaws which the Court assessed to
be unconstitutional are meanwhile removed, thereby still allowing the PhiLSAT to develop into maturity. It is, thus,
strongly urged that recommendations on how to improve legal education, including tools for screening entrants to
law school, reached possibly through consultative summits, be taken in careful consideration in further issuances or
legislations.
WHEREFORE, the petitions are PARTLY GRANTED.
The jurisdiction of the Legal Education Board over legal education is UPHELD.
The Court further declares:
As CONSTITUTIONAL:
1. Section 7(c) of R.A. No. 7662 insofar as it gives the Legal Education Board the power to set the standards
of accreditation for law schools taking into account, among others, the qualifications of the members of the
G.R. No. 230642 8/20/24, 6:48 PM
faculty without encroaching upon the academic freedom of institutions of higher learning; and
2. Section 7(e) of R.A. No. 7662 insofar as it gives the Legal Education Board the power to prescribe the
minimum requirements for admission to legal education and minimum qualifications of faculty members
without encroaching upon the academic freedom of institutions of higher learning.
As UNCONSTITUTIONAL for encroaching upon the power of the Court:
1. Section 2, par. 2 of R.A. No. 7662 insofar as it unduly includes "continuing legal education" as an aspect of
legal education which is made subject to Executive supervision and control;
2. Section 3(a)(2) of R.A. No. 7662 and Section 7(2) of LEBMO No. 1-2011 on the objective of legal education
to increase awareness among members of the legal profession of the needs of the poor, deprived and
oppressed sectors of society;
3. Section 7(g) of R.A. No. 7662 and Section 11(g) of LEBMO No. 1-2011 insofar as it gives the Legal
Education Board the power to establish a law practice internship as a requirement for taking the Bar; and
4. Section 7(h) of R.A. No. 7662 and Section 11(h) of LEBMO No. 1-2011 insofar as it gives the Legal
Education Board the power to adopt a system of mandatory continuing legal education and to provide for the
mandatory attendance of practicing lawyers in such courses and for such duration as it may deem necessary.
As UNCONSTITUTIONAL for being ultra vires:
1. The act and practice of the Legal Education Board of excluding, restricting, and qualifying admissions to
law schools in violation of the institutional academic freedom on who to admit, particularly:
a. Paragraph 9 of LEBMO No. 7-2016 which provides that all college graduates or graduating students
applying for admission to the basic law course shall be required to pass the PhiLSAT as a requirement
for admission to any law school in the Philippines and that no applicant shall be admitted for enrollment
as a first year student in the basic law courses leading to a degree of either Bachelor of Laws or Juris
Doctor unless he/she has passed the PhiLSAT taken within two years before the start of studies for the
basic law course;
b. LEBMC No. 18-2018 which prescribes the passing of the PhiLSAT as a prerequisite for admission to
law schools; Accordingly, the temporary restraining order issued on March 12, 2019 enjoining the Legal
Education Board from implementing LEBMC No. 18-2018 is made PERMANENT. The regular
admission of students who were conditionally admitted and enrolled is left to the discretion of the law
schools in the exercise of their academic freedom; and
c. Sections 15, 16, and 17 of LEBMO No. 1-2011;
2. The act and practice of the Legal Education Board of dictating the qualifications and classification of faculty
members, dean, and dean of graduate schools of law in violation of institutional academic freedom on who
may teach, particularly:
a. Sections 41.2(d), 50, 51, and 52 of LEBMO No. 1-2011;
b. Resolution No. 2014-02;
c. Sections 31(2), 33, 34, and 35 of LEBMO No. 2;
d. LEBMO No. 17-2018; and
3. The act and practice of the Legal Education Board of dictating the policies on the establishment of legal
apprenticeship and legal internship programs in violation of institutional academic freedom on what to teach,
particularly:
a. Resolution No. 2015-08;
b. Section 24(c) of LEBMO No. 2; and
G.R. No. 230642 8/20/24, 6:48 PM
c. Section 59(d) of LEBMO No. 1-2011.
SO ORDERED.
Bersamin, C. J., I join the separate dissenting and concurring opinion of J. Leonen.
Carpio, Carandang, Inting, and Zalameda, JJ., concur.
Peralta, J., no part.
Perlas-Bernabe, J., Please see separate concurring opinion.
Leonen, J., See separate dissenting and concurring opinion.
Jardeleza, J., Please see separate concurring and dissenting opinion.
Caguioa, J., Please see separate concurring.
A. Reyes, Jr., J., Please see my concurring opinion.
Gesmundo, J., Please separate concurring and dissenting opinion.
Hernando, J., on official business.
Lazaro-Javier, J., Please see concurring and dissenting opinion.
NOTICE OF JUDGMENT
Sirs/Mesdames:
Please take notice that on September 10, 2019 a Decision, copy attached herewith, was rendered by the Supreme
Court in the above-entitled cases, the original of which was received by this Office on November 29, 2019 at 3:40
p.m.
Very truly yours,
(SGD) EDGAR O. ARICHETA

Clerk of Court
Footnotes
* Also referred to as "Jocelyn L. Daño" in some parts of the rollo.

1
AN ACT PROVIDING FOR REFORMS IN LEGAL EDUCATION, CREATING FOR THE PURPOSE, A
LEGAL EDUCATION BOARD AND FOR OTHER PURPOSES.
2
See In Re: Legal Education, B.M. No. 979-B, September 4, 2001 (Resolution).
3
Republic Act No. 7662, Sec. 4.
4
Id. at Sec. 5.
5
In Re: Legal Education, B.M. No. 979-B, supra note 2.
6
Id.
7
Id.
8
Id.
G.R. No. 230642 8/20/24, 6:48 PM
9
Id.
10
LEBMO No. 7-2016, par. 1.
11
Rollo (G.R. No. 230642), Vol. I, p. 216.
12
LEBMO No. 7-2016, supra, par. 2.
13
Id. at par. 10.
14
Id. at par. 1.
15
Id. at par. 2.
16
Id. at par. 3.
17
Id. at par. 4.
18
Id. at par. 5.
19
Id. at par. 6.
20
Id. at par. 7.
21
Id. at par. 8.
22
Id. at par. 9.
23
Id. at par. 10.
24
Id. at par. 11.
25
Id. at par. 12.
26
Id. at par. 13.
27
Id. at par. 14.
28
Sec. 32. The imposable administrative sanctions are the following:
a) Termination of the law program (closing the law school);
b) Phase-out of the law program; and
c) Provisional cancellation of the Government Recognition and putting the law program of the
substandard law school under Permit Status.
29
Additional Rules in the Operation of the Law Program.
30
LEBMO No. 7-2016, par. 15.
31
LEBMO No. 11-2017, par. 2.
32
Rollo (G.R. No. 230642), Vol. I, pp. 6-22.
33
Id. at 8-11.
34
Id. at 38-59.
35
Id. at 289-320.
36
Rollo (G.R. No. 242954), Vol. I, pp. 3-39.
G.R. No. 230642 8/20/24, 6:48 PM
37
Rollo (G.R. No. 230642), Vol. III, pp. 1309-1311.
38
Sec. 5. The Supreme Court shall have the following power:
xxxx
(5) Promulgate rules concerning pleading, practice, and procedure in all courts, the admission to the
practice of law, and the integration of the Bar which, however, may be repealed, altered, or
supplemental by the Batasang Pambansa. Such rules shall provide a simplified and inexpensive
procedure for the speedy disposition of cases, shall be uniform for all courts of the same grade, and
shall not diminish, increase, or modify substantive rights.
39
Sec. 8. x x x
(5) The [Judicial and Bar] Council shall have the principal function of recommending appointees to the
Judiciary. It may exercise such other functions and duties as the Supreme Court may assign to it.
40
Republic Act No. 7622, Sec. 7. Powers and Functions. - x x x
xxxx
(c) [T]o set the standards of accreditation for law schools taking into account, among others, the size of
enrollment, the qualifications of the members of the faculty, the library and other facilities, without
enroaching upon the academic freedom of institutions of higher learning[.] (Emphasis supplied)
41
Sec. 7. (e) [T]o prescribe minimum standards for law admission and minimum qualifications and
compensation of faculty members[.] (Emphasis supplied)
42
Sec. 7. (h) [T]o adopt a system of continuing legal education. For this purpose, the Board may provide for
the mandatory attendance of practicing lawyers in such courses and for such duration as the Board may
deem necessary[.] (Emphases supplied)
43
Sec. 3. General and Specific Objective of Legal Education. - (a) Legal education in the Philippines is
geared to attain the following objectives:
xxxx
(2) [T]o increase awareness among members of the legal profession of the needs of the poor, deprived
and oppressed sectors of society[.] (Emphasis supplied)
44
Sec. 7. (g) [T]o establish a law practice internship as a requirement for taking the Bar which a law student
shall undergo with any duly accredited private or public law office or firm or legal assistance group anytime
during the law course for a specific period that the Board may decide, but not to exceed a total of twelve (12)
months. For this purpose, the Board shall prescribe the necessary guidelines for such accreditation and the
specifications of such internship which shall include the actual work of a new member of the Bar[.] (Emphasis
supplied)
45
Sec. 2. Declaration of Policies. - It is hereby declared the policy of the State to uplift the standards of legal
education in order to prepare law students for advocacy, counselling, problem solving, and decision-making,
to infuse in them the ethics of the legal profession; to impress on them the importance, nobility and dignity of
the legal profession as an equal and indispensable partner of the Bench in the administration of justice and to
develop social competence.
proper selection of law students, maintain quality among law schools, arid require legal apprenticeship
and continuing legal education. (Emphasis supplied)
46
Rollo (G.R. No. 242954), Vol. I, p. 29.
47
Id. at 86-87.
G.R. No. 230642 8/20/24, 6:48 PM
48
236 Phil. 768 (1987).
49
716 Phil. 208 (2013).
50
Tablarin v. Gutierrez, supra.
51
In support, petitioners-in-intervention attached to their Partial Compliance and Motion, certifications issued
by St. Thomas More School of Law and Business, Inc., St. Mary's College of Tagum, Inc. College of Law, and
Western Leyte College School of Law tending to show a decrease in the number of enrollees from academic
year 2017 to 2018 to academic year 2018 to 2019. They also attached a Summary of Enrollment (of 44 out of
the 126 law schools) furnished by the Philippine Association of Law Schools which tend to show that 37 out of
the 44 law schools experienced a decrease in enrollment. (Rollo [G.R. No. 242954, Vol. III, pp. 1463-1477).
52
Art. VIII, Sec. 1. The Judicial power shall be vested in one Supreme Court and in such inferior courts as
may be established by law.
53
Art. X, Sec. 1. The Judicial power shall be vested in one Supreme Court and in such inferior courts as may
be established by law. The Batasang Pambansa shall have the power to define, prescribe, and apportion the
jurisdiction of the various courts, but may not deprive the Supreme Court of its jurisdiction over cases
enumerated in Section five hereof.
54
Sec. 1. The judicial power shall be vested in the Supreme Court and in such lower courts as may be
established by law.
Judicial power includes the duty of the courts of justice to settle actual controversies involving
rights which are legally demandable and enforceable, and to determine whether or not there has
been a grave abuse of discretion amounting to lack or excess of jurisdiction on the part of any
branch or instrumentality of the Government.
55
See Francisco, Jr. v. The House of Representatives, 460 Phil. 830, 883, 909-910 (2003).
56
RULES OF COURT, Rule 65, Sec. 1, provides:
Sec. 1. Petition for certiorari. - When any tribunal, board or officer exercising judicial or quasi-
judicial functions has acted without or in excess of its or his jurisdiction, or with grave abuse of
discretion amounting to lack or excess of jurisdiction, and there is no appeal, or any plain,
speedy, and adequate remedy in the ordinary course of law, a person aggrieved thereby may file
a verified petition in the proper court, alleging the facts with certainty and praying that judgment
be rendered annulling or modifying the proceedings of such tribunal, board or officer, and
granting such incidental reliefs as law and justice may require.
57
Id. at Sec. 2. Petition for Prohibition. - When the proceedings of any tribunal, corporation, board, officer or
person, whether exercising judicial, quasi-judicial or ministerial functions, are without or in excess of its or his
jurisdiction, or with grave abuse of discretion amounting to lack or excess of jurisdiction, and there is no
appeal or any other plain, speedy, and adequate remedy in the ordinary course of law, a person aggrieved
thereby may file a verified petition in the proper court, alleging the facts with certainty and praying that
judgment be rendered commanding the respondent to desist from further proceedings in the action or matter
specified therein, or otherwise granting such incidental reliefs as law and justice may require.
58
Association of Medical Clinics for Overseas Workers, Inc. (AMCOW) v. GCC Approved Medical Centers
Association, Inc., 802 Phil. 116, 136 (2016).
59
Id. at 139.
60
Ocampo v. Enriquez, 798 Phil. 227, 294 (2016).
61
732 Phil. 1, 121 (2014).
62
Sec. 5. The Supreme Court shall have the following powers:
xxxx
G.R. No. 230642 8/20/24, 6:48 PM
(2) Review, revise, reverse, modify, or affirm on appeal or certiorari, as the law or the Rules of
Court may provide, final judgments and orders of lower courts in:
(a) All cases in which the constitutionality or validity of any treaty, international or
executive agreement, law, presidential decree, proclamation, order, instruction, ordinance,
or regulation is in question.
63
Araullo v. Aquino III, 737 Phil. 457, 531 (2014), citing Holy Spirit Homewoners Association, Inc. v. Defensor,
529 Phil. 573, 587 (2006).
64
Spouses Imbong v. Ochoa, supra.
65
Supra note 55, at 891-892.
66
757 Phil. 534, 544 (2015).
67
G.R. No. 225442, August 8, 2017, 835 SCRA 350.
68
G.R. No. 232395, July 3, 2018.
69
Garcia v. Executive Secretary, 602 Phil. 64, 73 (2009). See also Angara v. Electoral Commission, 63 Phil.
139, 158 (1936), where the Court held that the Court's duty under the Constitution is "to determine conflicting
claims of authority under the Constitution and to establish for the parties in an actual controversy the rights
which that instrument secures and guarantees to them."
70
Garcia v. Executive Secretary, id., citing Francisco, Jr. v. The House of Representatives, supra note 55, at
892.
71
Southern Hemisphere Engagement Network, Inc. v. Anti-Terrorism Council, 646 Phil. 452, 471 (2010).
72
Association of Medical Clinics for Overseas Workers, Inc., (AMCOW), v. GCC Approved Medical Centers
Association, Inc., supra note 58, at 140.
73
Information Technology Foundation of the Philippines v. Commission on Elections, 499 Phil. 281, 304-305
(2005).
74
De Borja v. Pinalakas na Ugnayan ng Maliliit na Mangingisda ng Luzon, Mindanao at Visayas, G.R. Nos.
185320 and 185348, April 19, 2017, 823 SCRA 550, 571-572.
75
ABAKADA Guro Partylist v. Purisima, 584 Phil. 246, 266 (2008).
76
De Castro v. Judicial and Bar Council, 629 Phil. 629, 686-687 (2010), citing Buckley v. Valeo, 424 U.S. 1,
113-118 (1976) and Regional Rail Reorganization Act Cases, 419 U.S. 102, 138-148 (1974) (visited May 31,
2019).
77
97 Phil. 806, 809-811 (1955).
78
718 Phil. 294, 305-306 (2013).
79
391 Phil. 84, 106-108 (2000).
80
Supra note 61.
81
Id. at 124-126.
82
721 Phil. 416, 520 (2013).
83
Rollo (G.R. No. 230642), Vol. 1, p. 11.
84
Id. at 15.
G.R. No. 230642 8/20/24, 6:48 PM
85
Id. at 17.
86
Rollo (G.R. No. 230642), Vol. 3, pp. 1370-1371.
87
Id. at 1375-1380.
88
Id. at 1381.
89
Id. at 1382.
90
Rollo (G.R. No. 230642), Vol. 1, p. 304.
91
Rollo (G.R. No. 242954), Vol. 1, p. 22.
92
BAYAN v. Zamora, 396 Phil. 623, 646 (2000) and Kilosbayan, Inc. v. Morato, 316 Phil. 652, 695-696 (1995).
93
The Provincial Bus Operators Association of the Philippines v. Department of Labor and Employment, G.R.
No. 202275, July 17, 2018.
94
Private Hospitals, Association of the Philippines, Inc. v. Medialdea, G.R. No. 234448, November 6, 2018.
95
See Integrated Bar of the Philippines v. Zamora, 392 Phil. 618, 634 (2000).
96
Funa v. Villar, 686 Phil. 571, 585 (2012).
97
1987 CONSTITUTION, Art. VIII, Sec. 5(5), supra note 38.
98
Sec. 6. Pre-Law. - No applicant for admission to the bar examination shall be admitted unless he presents a
certificate that he has satisfied the Secretary of Education that, before he began the study of law, he had
pursued and satisfactorily completed in an authorized and recognized university or college, requiring for
admission thereto the completion of a four-year high school course, the course of study prescribed therein for
a bachelor's degree in arts or sciences with any of the following subjects as major or field of concentration:
political science, logic, [E]nglish, [S]panish, history and economics.
99
Sec. 16. Failing candidates to take review course. - Candidates who have failed the bar examinations for
three times shall be disqualified from taking another examination unless they show to the satisfaction of the
court that they have enrolled in and passed regular fourth year review classes as well as attended a pre-bar
review course in a recognized law school.
The professors of the individual review subjects attended by the candidates under this rule shall
certify under oath that the candidates have regularly attended classes and passed the subjects
under the same conditions as ordinary students and the ratings obtained by them in the
particular subject.
100
Rollo (G.R. No. 242954), Vol. 1, p. 18.
101
Sec. 5. Additional requirements for other applicants. - All applicants for admission other than those
referred to in the two preceding sections shall, before being admitted to the examination, satisfactorily show
that they have regularly studied law for four years, and successfully completed all prescribed courses
[Bachelor of Laws] in a law school or university, officially approved and recognized by the Secretary of
Education. The affidavit of the candidate, accompanied by a certificate from the university or school of law,
shall be filed as evidence of such facts, and further evidence may be required by the court.
No applicant who obtained the Bachelor of Laws degree in this jurisdiction shall be admitted to
the bar examination unless he or she has satisfactorily completed the following courses in a law
school or university duly recognized by the government: civil law, commercial law, remedial law,
criminal law, public and private international law, political law, labor and social legislation,
medical jurisprudence, taxation and legal ethics.
102
Sec. 1. Conditions for student practice. - A law student who has successfully completed his 3rd year of the
regular four-year prescribed law curriculum and is enrolled in a recognized law school's clinical legal
G.R. No. 230642 8/20/24, 6:48 PM
education program approved by the Supreme Court, may appear without compensation in any civil, criminal
or administrative case before any trial court, tribunal, board or officer, to represent indigent clients accepted
by the legal clinic of the law school.
103
Sec. 2. Appearance. - The appearance of the law student authorized by this rule, shall be under the direct
supervision and control of a member of the Integrated Bar of the Philippines duly accredited by the law
school. Any and all pleadings, motions, briefs, memoranda or other papers to be filed, must be signed by the
supervising attorney for and in behalf of the legal clinic.
104
Sec. 3. Privileged communications. - The Rules safeguarding privileged communications between attorney
and client shall apply to similar communications made to or received by the law student, acting for the legal
clinic.
105
Sec. 4. Standards of conduct and supervision. - The law student shall comply with the standards of
professional conduct governing members of the Bar. Failure of an attorney to provide adequate supervision of
student practice may be a ground for disciplinary action.
106
Supra note 91.
107
Faculty of Civil Law (1734) (visited April 1, 2019).
108
Cortes, Irene R. (1994), ESSAYS ON LEGAL EDUCATION, Quezon City: University of the Philippines,
Law Center.
109
The implementation of this Act created a heavy shortage of teachers so the Philippine Commission
authorized the Secretary of Public Instruction to bring to the Philippines 600 teachers from the United States
known as the "Thomasites."
110
Philippine College of Arts and Trade, now known as the Technological University of the Philippines.
111
Philippine Normal School, now known as the Philippine Normal University.
112
Act No. 74, Sec. 18.
113
University of the Philippines College of Law (visited April 1, 2019).
114
ESSAYS ON LEGAL EDUCATION, supra note 108.
115
Id.
116
AN ACT MAKING THE INSPECTION AND RECOGNITION OF PRIVATE SCHOOLS AND COLLEGES
OBLIGATORY FOR THE SECRETARY OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION, AND FOR OTHER PURPOSES, March
10, 1917.
117
Act No. 2706, Sec. 2. For the purposes of this Act, a private school or college shall be any private
institution for teaching managed by private individuals or corporations, which is not subject to the authority
and regulations of the Bureau of Education, and which offers courses of primary, intermediate, or secondary
instruction, or superior courses in technical, professional, or special schools, for which diplomas are to be
granted or degrees conferred.
118
Id. at Sec. 6. The Secretary of Public Instruction shall from time to time prepare and publish in pamphlet
form the minimum standards required of primary, intermediate, and high schools and colleges granting the
degrees of bachelor of arts, bachelor of science, or any other academic degrees. He shall also from time to
time prepare and publish in pamphlet form the minimum standards required of law, medical, dental,
pharmaceutical, engineering, and agricultural schools or colleges and other special schools giving instruction
of a technical or professional character.
119
Cited in Philippine Association of Colleges and Universities v. Secretary of Education, supra note 77, at
812.
G.R. No. 230642 8/20/24, 6:48 PM
120
Id.
121
CONSTITUTION (1935), Art. XIII, Sec. 5, provides:
Sec. 5. All educational institutions shall be under the supervision of and subject to regulation by the
State. The Government shall establish and maintain a complete and adequate system of public
education, and shall provide at least free public primary instruction, and citizenship training to adult
citizens. All schools shall aim to develop moral character, personal discipline, civic conscience, and
vocational efficiency, and to teach the duties of citizenship. Optional religious instruction shall be
maintained in the public schools as now authorized by law. Universities established by the State shall
enjoy academic freedom. The State shall create scholarships in arts, science, and letters for specially
gifted citizens.
122
Enacted on June 8, 1940.
123
Approved on June 14, 1947. Repealed by Republic Act No. 8047 or the BOOK PUBLISHING INDUSTRY
DEVELOPMENT ACT.
124
Republic Act No. 139, Sec. 1. Sec. one of Act Numbered Twenty-nine hundred and fifty-seven, as
amended by Acts Numbered Thirty-one hundred and eighty-five, Thirty-four hundred and two, and Thirty-
seven hundred and seventy-two, is further amended to read as follows:
Sec. 1. A board is hereby created which shall be known as the Board on Textbooks and shall have
charge of the selection and approval of textbooks to be used in the public schools. The textbooks
selected and approved shall be used for a period of at least six years from the date of their adoption.
The textbooks to be used in the private schools recognized or authorized by the Government shall be
submitted to the Board which shall have the power to prohibit the use of any of said textbooks which it
may find to be against the law or to offend the dignity and honor of the Government and people of the
Philippines, or which it may find to be against the general policies of the Government, or which it may
deem pedagogically unsuitable.
Decisions of the Board on Textbooks shall be subject to the approval of the Secretary of Instruction
upon the recommendation of the National Council of Education.
125
Executive Order No. 94 (1947).
126
Magsalin, M. Jr. (2003), The State of Philippine Legal Education Revisited, Arellano Law and Policy
Review, 4(1), 38 56 (visited May 31, 2019).
127
Id. at 39.
128
Republic Act No. 1124, AN ACT CREATING A BOARD OF NATIONAL EDUCATION CHARGED WITH
THE DUTY OF FORMULATING GENERAL EDUCATION POLICIES AND DIRECTING THE EDUCATIONAL
INTERESTS OF THE NATION, June 16, 1954. Later on amended by Republic Act No. 4372 on June 19,
1965.
129
Presidential Decree No. 1 (1972).
130
Under Proclamation No. 1081 (1972).
131
Under Presidential Decree No. 1397 (1978).
132
CONSTITUTION (1973) Art. XV, Sec. 8(1), provides:
1. All educational institutions shall be under the supervision of, and subject to regulation by, the State.
The State shall establish and maintain a complete, adequate, and integrated system of education
relevant to goals of national development.
133
Approved on September 11, 1982.
G.R. No. 230642 8/20/24, 6:48 PM
134
Batas Pambansa Blg. 232, Part III, Chapter 3, Sec. 27, provides:
Sec. 27. Recognition of Schools. - The educational operations of schools shall be subject to their
prior authorization of the government, and shall be affected by recognition. In the case of
government operated schools, whether local, regional, or national, recognition of educational
programs and/or operations shall be deemed granted simultaneously with establishment.
In all other cases the rules and regulations governing recognition shall be prescribed and
enforced by the Ministry of Education, Culture and Sports defining therein who are qualified to
apply, providing for a permit system, stating the conditions for the grant of recognition and for its
cancellation and withdrawal, and providing for related matters.
135
Id. at Part IV, Chapter 1, Sec. 54. Declaration of Policy. - The administration of the education system and,
pursuant to the provisions of the Constitution, the supervision and regulation of educational institutions are
hereby vested in the Ministry of Education, Culture and Sports, without prejudice to the provisions of the
charter of any state college and university.
136
Id. at Chapter 2, Sec. 59. Declaration of Policy. - Higher education will be granted towards the provision of
better quality education, the development of middle and high-level manpower, and the intensification of
research and extension services. The main thrust of higher education is to achieve equity, efficiency, and high
quality in the institutions of higher learning both public and private, so that together they will provide a
complete set of program offerings that meet both national and regional development needs.
137
Id. at Sec. 65. Bureau of Higher Education. - The Bureau of Higher Education shall perform the following
functions:
1. Develop, formulate and evaluate programs, projects and educational standards for a higher
education;
2. Provide staff assistance to the Board of Higher Education in its policy formulation and advisory
functions;
3. Provide technical assistance to encourage institutional development programs and projects;
4. Compile, analyze and evaluate data on higher education; and
5. Perform other functions provided for by law.

138
The State of Philippine Legal Education Revisited, supra note 126.
139
Reorganization of the Ministry of Education, Culture and Sports, Prescribing its Powers and Functions and
for other purposes, Executive Order No. 117 (1987), Sec. 27, provides:
Sec. 27. Change of Nomenclatures. - In the event of the adoption of a new Constitution which
provides for a presidential form of government, the Ministry shall be called Department of
Education, Culture and Sports and the titles Minister, Deputy Minister, and Assistant Minister
shall be changed to Secretary, Undersecretary and Assistant Secretary, respectively.
140
Id. at Sec. 4. Mandate. - The Ministry shall be primarily responsible for the formulation, planning,
implementation and coordination of the policies, plans, programs and projects in the areas of formal and non-
formal education at all levels, supervise all education institutions, both public and private, and provide for the
establishment and maintenance of a complete, adequate and integrated system of education relevant to the
goals of national development.
141
Book IV, Title VI, Chapter 1, Sec. 1.
142
Id. at Chapter 4, Sec. 10.
143
1987 CONSTITUTION, Art. XIV, Sec. 4(1). The State recognizes the complementary roles of public and
private institutions in the educational system and shall exercise reasonable supervision and regulation of all
educational institutions.
G.R. No. 230642 8/20/24, 6:48 PM
144
Approved on March 30, 1989.
145
Art. III. Organization and Administration.
xxxx
Sec. 2. The administration of a law school shall be governed primarily by its own policies. The
provisions under this Article shall only be suppletory in character.
146
AN ACT CREATING THE COMMISSION ON HIGHER EDUCATION or THE HIGHER EDUCATION ACT
OF 1994.
147
Art. VIII, Sec. 13, provides:
Sec. 13. The Supreme Court shall have the power to promulgate rules concerning pleading,
practice, and procedure in all courts, and the admission to the practice of law. Said rules shall be
uniform for all courts of the same grade and shall not diminish, increase, or modify substantive
rights. The existing laws on pleading, practice, and procedure are hereby repealed as statutes,
and are declared Rules of Court, subject to the power of the Supreme Court to alter and modify
the same. The Congress shall have the power to repeal, alter, or supplement the rules
concerning pleading, practice, and procedure, and the admission to the practice of law in the
Philippines.
148
105 Phil. 173 (1959).
149
Id. at 176.
150
112 Phil. 884 (1961).
151
361 Phil. 73, 88 (1999), as cited in Estipona, Jr. v. Lobrigo, G.R. No. 226679, August 15, 2017, 837 SCRA
160.
152
Art. X, Sec. 5(5), provides:
Sec. 5. The Supreme Court shall have the following powers:
xxxx
(5) Promulgate rules concerning pleading, practice, and procedure in all courts, the admission to
the practice of law, and the integration of the Bar, which, however, may be repealed, altered, or
supplemented by the Batasang Pambansa. Such rules shall provide a simplified and inexpensive
procedure for the speedy disposition of cases, shall be uniform for all courts of the same grade,
and shall not diminish, increase, or modify substantive rights.
153
Echegaray v. Secretary of Justice, supra.
154
Baguio Market Vendors Multi-Purpose Cooperative (BAMARVEMPCO) v. Judge Cabato-Cortes, 627 Phil.
543, 548 (2010).
155
Id. at 549.
156
Philippine Lawyers Association v. Agrava, supra note 148, at 176.
157
In Re: Cunanan, 94 Phil. 534, 546 (1954).
158
People v. De Luna, 102 Phil. 968 (1958).
159
Query of Atty. Karen M. Silverio-Buffe, Former Clerk of Court, Branch 81, Romblon, Romblon, 613 Phil. 1,
23 (2009), citing Zaldivar v. Gonzales, 248 Phil. 542, 555 (1988).
160
In Re: Cunanan, supra, at 545.
G.R. No. 230642 8/20/24, 6:48 PM
161
Cayetano v. Monsod, 278 Phil. 235, 242-243 (1991).
162
57 Phil. 600, 605 (1932).
163
Id.
164
See Amicus Brief of Dean Sedfrey Candelaria, rollo (G.R. No. 230642), Vol. 4, pp. 1657-1677.
165
Republic Act No. 8557 or AN ACT ESTABLISHING THE PHILIPPINE JUDICIAL ACADEMY, DEFINING
ITS POWERS AND FUNCTIONS APPROPRIATING FUNDS THEREFOR, AND FOR OTHER PURPOSES.
166
Id. at Sec. 3. The PHILJA shall serve as a training school for justices, judges, court personnel, lawyers and
aspirants to judicial posts. For this purpose, it shall provide and implement a curriculum for judicial education
and shall conduct seminars, workshops and other training programs designed to upgrade their legal
knowledge, moral fitness, probity, efficiency, and capability. It shall perform such other functions and duties as
may be necessary in carrying out its mandate.
167
Id.
168
1987 CONSTITUTION, Art.VIII, Sec. 6.
169
As amended by Supreme Court Resolutions dated May 20, 1968 and February 13, 1992.
170
In Re: Parazo, 82 Phil. 230, 242 (1948).
171
Id.
172
RULES OF COURT, Rule 138, Sec. 9. Examination; subjects. - Applicants, not otherwise provided for in
sections 3 and 4 of this rule, shall be subjected to examinations in the following subjects: Civil Law; Labor and
Social Legislation; Mercantile Law; Criminal Law; Political Law (Constitutional Law, Public Corporations, and
Public Officers); International Law (Private and Public); Taxation; Remedial Law (Civil Procedure, Criminal
Procedure, and Evidence); Legal Ethics and Practical Exercises (in Pleading and Conveyancing).
xxxx
Sec. 11. Annual examination. - Examinations for admission to the bar of the Philippines shall
take place annually in the City of Manila. They shall be held in four days to be designated by the
chairman of the committee on bar examiners. The subjects shall be distributed as follows: First
day: Political and International Law (morning) and Labor and Social Legislation (afternoon);
Second day: Civil Law (morning) and Taxation (afternoon); Third day: Mercantile Law (morning)
and Criminal Law (afternoon); Fourth day: Remedial Law (morning) and Legal Ethics and
Practical Exercises (afternoon).
xxxx
Sec. 14. Passing average. - In order that a candidate may be deemed to have passed his
examinations successfully, he must have obtained a general average of 75 percent in all
subjects, without falling below 50 percent in any subject. In determining the average, the
subjects in the examination shall be given the following relative weights: Civil Law, 15 percent;
Labor and Social Legislation, 10 percent; Mercantile Law, 15 percent; Criminal Law, 10 percent;
Political and International Law, 15 percent; Taxation, 10 percent; Remedial Law, 20 percent;
Legal Ethics and Practical Exercises, 5 percent.
173
Sec. 17. Admission and oath of successful applicants. - An applicant who has passed the required
examination, or has been otherwise found to be entitled to admission to the bar, shall take and subscribe
before the Supreme Court the corresponding oath of office.
Sec. 18. Certificate. - The Supreme Court shall thereupon admit the applicant as a member of
the bar for all the courts of the Philippines, and shall direct an order to be entered to that effect
upon its records, and that a certificate of such record be given to him by the clerk of court, which
certificate shall be his authority to practice.
G.R. No. 230642 8/20/24, 6:48 PM
174
Sec. 19. Attorney's roll. - The clerk of the Supreme Court shall keep a roll of all attorneys admitted to
practice, which roll shall be signed by the person admitted when he receives his certificate.
175
Sec. 2. Requirements for all applicants for admission to the bar. - Every applicant for admission as a
member of the bar must be a citizen of the Philippines, at least twenty-one years of age, of good moral
character, and a resident of the Philippines; and must produce before the Supreme Court satisfactory
evidence of good moral character, and that no charges against him, involving moral turpitude, have been filed
or are pending in any court in the Philippines.
176
Re: Letter of Atty. Estelito P. Mendoza Proposing Reforms in the Bar Examinations through Amendments
to Rule 138 of the Rules of Court, March 9, 2010.
177
In Re: Need that Law Student Practicing Under Rule 138-A be Actually Supervised During Trial, Bar Matter
No. 730, June 13, 1997 (visited September 3, 2019).
178
Morfe v. Mutuc, 130 Phil. 415, 427 (1968).
179
22 U.S. 1 (1824) (visited May 31, 2019).
180
7 Cush. 53, 85 (1851) (visited May 31, 2019).
181
Morfe v. Mutuc, supra note 178, citing United States v. Toribio, 15 Phil. 85, 94 (1910).
182
Id., citing United States v. Gomez Jesus, 31 Phil. 218, 225 (1915).
183
Id., citing United States v. Pompeya, 31 Phil. 245, 254 (1915).
184
127 Phil. 306 (1967).
185
Philippine Association of Service Exporters, Inc. v. Drilon, 246 Phil. 393, 398 (1988).
186
Rubi v. Provincial Board of Mindoro, 39 Phil. 660, 708 (1919); Acebedo Optical Company, Inc. v. Court of
Appeals, 385 Phil. 956, 986 (2000).
187
JMM Promotion and Management, Inc. v. Court of Appeals, 329 Phil. 87, 93 (1996).
188
Ichong v. Hernandez, 101 Phil. 1155, 1163 (1957).
189
United States v. Gomez Jesus, supra.
190
Council of Teachers and Staff of Colleges and Universities of the Philippines v. Secretary of Education,
G.R. No. 216930, October 9, 2018, citing Wisconsin v. Yoder, 406 U.S. 205 (1972) (visited May 31, 2019).
191
Id.
192
Indiana Aerospace University v. Commission on Higher Education, 408 Phil. 483, 495, (2001).
193
supra.
194
Art. XIII, Sec. 5. All educational institutions shall be under the supervision of and subject to regulation by
the State.
195
Art. XV, Sec. 8(1). All educational institutions shall be under the supervision of, and subject to regulation
by, the State. The State shall establish and maintain a complete adequate, and integrated system of
education relevant to the goals of national development.
196
Philippine Association of Colleges and Universities (PACU) v. Secretary of Education, supra note 77, at
819.
197
Supra note 195.
G.R. No. 230642 8/20/24, 6:48 PM
198
Sec. 4.(1) The State recognizes the complementary roles of public and private institutions in the
educational system and shall exercise reasonable supervision and regulation of all educational institutions.
199
Sec. 12, Art. II of the 1987 Constitution articulates the State's policy relative to the rights of parents in the
rearing of their children:
Sec. 12. The State recognizes the sanctity of family life and shall protect and strengthen the family as a
basic autonomous social institution. It shall equally protect the life of the mother and the life of the
unborn from conception. The natural and primary right and duty of parents in the rearing of the youth
for civic efficiency and the development of moral character shall receive the support of the
Government. (Emphasis supplied)
200
Supra note 67.
201
See Pierce v. Society of Sisters (268 U.S. 510, 535 [1925]), where the U.S. Supreme Court recognized
that "[t]he fundamental theory of liberty upon which all governments in this Union repose excludes any
general power of the State to standardize its children by forcing them to accept instruction from public
teachers only." (visited May 30, 2019).
Nevertheless, a shift of responsibility from the parent to the State is observed in the light of the
compulsory education laws. (Brooke Wilkins [2005], Should Public Education be a Federal
Fundamental Right?, Brigham Young University Education and Law Journal, 20052, 261-290)
(visited May 30, 2019).
202
See Art. 13, Sec. 3 of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights which provides
that:
Sec. 3. The States Parties to the present Covenant undertake to have respect for the liberty of
parents and, when applicable, legal guardians to choose for their children schools, other
than,those established by the public authorities x x x. (visited May 30, 2019).
203
As a legal concept, supervision is usually understood in relation with the concept of control. Thus, in Bito-
onon v. Yap Fernandez (403 Phil. 693, 702-703 [2011]), the Court held that "[s]upervisory power, when
contrasted with control, is the power of mere oversight over an inferior body; it does not include any
restraining authority over such body. [Officer] in control [lays] down the rules in the doing of an act. If they are
not followed, it is discretionary on his part to order the act undone or re-done by his subordinate or he may
even decide to do it himself. Supervision does not cover such authority. Supervising officers merely see to it
that the rules are followed, but he himself does not lay down such rules, nor does he have the discretion to
modify or replace them. If the rules are not observed, he may order the work done or re-done to conform to
the prescribed rules. He cannot prescribe his own manner for the doing of the act."
204
supra note 190.
205
Bernas, Joaquin G. (1958), State "Supervision" and "Regulation" of Private Schools, Philippine Studies,
6(3) 295-314 (visited May 30, 2019).
206
Id. at 303.
207
Id.
208
The Metropolitan Manila Development Authority v. Viron Transportation Co., Inc., 557 Phil. 121, 140.
(2007).
209
568 Phil. 658, 702 (2008).
210
246 Phil. 393, 399 (1988).
211
Supra note 190.
G.R. No. 230642 8/20/24, 6:48 PM
212
Civil Liberties Union v. The Executive Secretary, 272 Phil. 147, 162 (1991).
213
Article XV, Sec. 8(2).
214
CONSTITUTION (1935), Art. 13, Sec. 5, provides:
Sec. 5. x x x "Universities established by the State shall enjoy academic freedom." x x x

215
Ateneo de Manila University v. Judge Capulong, 294 Phil. 654, 672 (1993).
216
Id. at 672-673.
217
As notoriously stated in Keyishian v. Board of Regents (385 U.S. 589, 603 [ 1967 ]), "academic freedom x
x x is x x x a special concern of the First Amendment, which does not tolerate laws that cast a pall of
orthodoxy over the classroom." (visited May 31, 2019).
218
Ateneo de Manila University v. Judge Capulong, supra note 215, at 674.
219
220 Phil. 379 (1985).
220
264 Phil. 98 (1990).
221
214 Phil. 319 (1984).
222
226 Phil. 596 (1986).
223
160-A Phil. 929, 943-944 (1975).
224
Id. at 944.
225
354 U.S. 234, 263 (1957) (visited May 31, 2019).
226
To illustrate, Art. XIV, Sec. 3(2) of the 1987 Constitution prescribes that all educational institutions "shall
inculcate patriotism and nationalism, foster love of humanity, respect for human rights, appreciation of the role
of national heroes in the historical development of the country, teach the rights and duties of citizenship,
strengthen ethical and spiritual values, develop moral character and personal discipline, encourage critical
and creative thinking, broaden scientific and technological knowledge, and promote vocational efficiency."
These are understood as mere guidelines for the State.
227
243 Phil. 993, 1006 (1988).
228
408 Phil. 132 (2001).
229
See concurring opinion of Justice Teehankee in Garcia v. The Faculty and Admission Committee, Loyola
School of Theology, supra note 223, at 949.
230
Calawag v. University of the Philippines Visayas, supra note 49, at 216.
231
Garcia v. The Faculty and Admission Committee, Loyola School of Theology, supra note 223, at 943.
232
Supra note 215, at 661.
233
Republic Act No. 9155 (2001) or the GOVERNANCE OF BASIC EDUCATION ACT OF 2001.
234
supra note 190.
235
1987 CONSTITUTION, Art. XIV, Sec. 2(1), (2), (3), (4) and (5).
236
IV RECORD, CONSTITUTIONAL COMMISSION 58 (August 29, 1986).
G.R. No. 230642 8/20/24, 6:48 PM
237
Id. at 53.
238
Art. 13(2). The States Parties to the present Covenant recognize that, with a view to achieving the full
realization of this right:
(a) Primary education shall be compulsory and available free to all;
(b) Secondary education in its different forms, including technical and vocational secondary education,
shall be made generally available and accessible to all by every appropriate means, and in particular
by the progressive introduction of free education;
(c) Higher education shall be made equally accessible to all, on the basis of capacity, by every
appropriate means, and in particular by the progressive introduction of free education;
(d) Fundamental education shall be encouraged or intensified as far as possible for those persons who
have not received or completed the whole period of their primary education; [and]
(e) The development of a system of schools at all levels shall be actively pursued, an adequate
fellowship system shall be established, and the material conditions of teaching staff shall be
continuously improved. Supra note 202.
239
Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, General Comment No. 13: The Right to Education
(Art. 13). (Twenty-first Session, December 8, 1999) (visited May 31, 2019).
240
Id.
241
Art. 26(1). Everyone has the right to education. Education shall be free, at least in the elementary and
fundamental stages. Elementary education shall be compulsory. Technical and professional education shall
be made generally available and higher education shall be equally accessible to all on the basis of merit.
242
International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights; supra note 202, at Art. 13(2)(c).
243
Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, General Comment No. 13: The Right to Education
(Art. 13), supra note 239.
244
Id.
245
246
247
Calawag v. University of the Philippines Visayas, supra note 49, at 217.
248
IV RECORD, CONSTITUTIONAL COMMISSION, supra note 236.
249
B.M. No. 979-B, supra note 2.
250
Rollo (G.R. No. 230642), Vol. 1, p. 17.
251
Id. at 100.
252
Id. at 101.
253
B.M. No. 979-B, supra note 2.
254
Land Bank of the Philippines v. AMS Farming Corporation, 590 Phil. 170, 203 (2008).
255
Mactan-Cebu International Airport Authority v. Urgello, 549 Phil. 302, 322 (2007).
256
I RECORD, SENATE 9th CONGRESS 2ND SESSION 458 (August 24, 1993).
G.R. No. 230642 8/20/24, 6:48 PM
Senator Tolentino: Thank you, Mr. President.
Now, here is one question on which I would like to be enlightened. The Council here may provide
for the minimum standards for law admission and minimum qualifications to faculty members. I
assume that this law admission means admission to the college of law of the student. x x x x
I assume that minimum standards for law admission here refers [sic] to the requirements that the
student must fulfill before being admitted to the law school. x x x
257
Section 15. Prerequisites to Admission to Law School. - Section 6, Rule 138 of the Rules of Court
prescribes: "No applicant for admission to the Bar Examination shall be admitted unless he presents a
certificate that he has satisfied the Secretary of Education that, before he began the study of law, he had
pursued and satisfactorily completed in an authorized and recognized university or college, requiring for
admission thereto the completion of a four-year high school course, the course of study prescribed therein for
a bachelor's degree in arts or sciences with any of the following subjects as major or field of concentration:
political science, logic, English, Spanish, history and economics." (Underscoring supplied)
258
I RECORD, SENATE 9th CONGRESS 2ND SESSION, supra note 256, at 456-457.
259
Id. at 711 (September 22, 1993).
260
Lawyers Against Monopoly and Poverty (LAMP) v. The Secretary of Budget and Management, 686 Phil.
357, 372-373 (2012).
261
Re: Proposed Reforms in the Bar Examinations.
262
263
Rollo (G.R. No. 230642 ), Vo1. 1, p. 305.
264
Id. at 305 and 1567-1568.
265
Id. at 1564.
266
Id. at 1569.
267
Id. at 1582.
268
Tablarin v. Gutierrez, supra note 48, at 782-784.
269
259 Phil. 1016, 1021-1022 (1989).
270
Garcia v. The Faculty Admission Committee, Loyola School of Theology, supra note 223, at 945.
271
See Commission on Higher Education Memorandum Order No. 6 (1996) (visited May 31, 2019).
272
Id.
273
See CHED Memorandum Order No. 03 (2003) (visited September 3, 2019).
274
The American Bar Association Standards and Rules of Procedure for Approval of Law Schools 2018 to
2019 provide:
Standard 503. ADMISSION TEST
A law school shall require each applicant for admission as a first-year J.D. degree student to take
a valid and reliable admission test to assist the school and the applicant in assessing the
applicant's capability of satisfactorily completing the school's program of legal education. In
making admissions decisions, a law school shall use the test results in a manner that is
consistent with the current guidelines regarding proper use of the test results provided by the
agency that developed the test.
G.R. No. 230642 8/20/24, 6:48 PM
Interpretation 503-1
A law school that uses an admission test other than the Law School Admission Test sponsored
by the Law School Admission Council shall demonstrate that such other test is a valid and
reliable test to assist the school in assessing an applicant's capability to satisfactorily complete
the school's program of legal education.
This Standard does not prescribe the particular weight that a law school should give to an
applicant's' admission test score in deciding whether to admit or deny admission to the applicant.
(a) It is not a violation of this Standard for a law school to admit no more than 10% of an
entering class without requiring the LSAT from:
(1) Students in an undergraduate program of the same institution as the J.D.

program; and/or
(2) Students seeking the J.D. degree in combination with a degree in a different
discipline.
(b) Applicants admitted under subsection (a) must meet the following conditions:
(1) Scored at or above the 85th percentile on the ACT or SAT for purposes of
subsection (a)(1), or for purposes of subsection (a)(2), scored at or above the 85th
percentile on the GRE or GMAT; and
(2) Ranked in the top 10% of their undergraduate class through six semesters of
academic work, or achieved a cumulative GPA of 3.5 or above through six
semesters of academic work.

275
16. Separability Clause - If any part or provision of this memorandum order is declared invalid or
unconstitutional, all other provisions shall remain valid and effective.
276
Tablarin v. Gutierrez, supra note 48, at 779.
277
Rollo (G.R. No. 230642), Vol. 1, pp. 119-120.
278
Id. at 123.
279
LEBMO No. 7-2016, provides:
xxxx
13. General Average - Beginning in Academic/School Year 2018-2019, the requirement of a general
average of not less than eighty percent (80%) or 2.5 for admission in the basic law course under
Section 23 of [LEBMO No. 1-2011 shall be withdrawn and removed.
280
Supra note 277, at 123 and 136-137.
281
702 Phil. 191, 201 (2013).
282
G.R. No. 211273, April 18, 2018.
283
Amicus Brief of Dean Sedfrey Candelaria, supra note 164, at 1674.
284
G.R. No. 230642 8/20/24, 6:48 PM
285
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G.R. No.

230642 8/20/24, 6:48 PM

Today is Tuesday, August 20, 2024

G.R. No. 230642, September 10, 2019,

[ G.R. No. 230642, September 10, 2019 ]

ATTYS. ANTHONY D. BENGZON, FERDINAND M. NEGRE, MICHAEL Z. UNTALAN; JONATHAN Q. PEREZ,

APRIL D. CABALLERO, JEREY C. CASTARDO, MC WELLROE P. BRINGAS, RHUFFY D. FEDERE, CONRAD

[G.R. No. 242954]

FRANCIS JOSE LEAN L. ABAYATA,GRETCHEN M. VASQUEZ, SHEENAH S. ILUSTRISMO, RALPH LOUIE

REYES, J. JR., J.:

SEC. 3. General and Specific Objective of Legal Education. -

(1) to prepare students for the practice of law;

(3) to train persons for leadership;

adhere to its ethical norms.

(d) to accredit law schools that meet the standards of accreditation;

SEC. 10. Effectivity of Withdrawal or Downgrading of Accreditation. - The withdrawal or downgrading of

Bar Matter No. 979-B

In particular, the CLEBM observed:

SEC. 3. General and Specific Objectives of Legal Education. x x x

SEC. 7. Power and functions. - x x x

(c) to accredit law schools that meet the standards of accreditation;

LEBMO No. 4-2016 Supplemental to [LEBMO] No. 3, Series of 2016

LEBMO No. 7-2016 Policies and Regulations for the Administration of

LEBMO No. 8-2016 Policies, Guidelines and Procedures Governing

LEBMO No. 10-2017 Guidelines on the Adoption of Academic/School

LEBMO No. 11-2017 Additional Transition Provisions to [LEBMO] No.

LEBMO No. 14-2018 Policy and Regulations in Offering Elective

LEBMC No. 1 New Regulatory Issuances

LEBMC No. 4 Reminder to Submit Duly Accomplished LSIR

LEBMC No. 5 Offering of the Refresher Course for AY 2017-

LEBMC No. 6 Applications for LEB Certification Numbers

LEBMC No. 9 Observance of Law Day and Philippine National

LEBMC No. 10 September 21, 2017 Suspension of Classes

LEBMC No. 15 Law Schools Authorized to Offer the Refresher

LEBMC No. 18 PHILSAT Eligibility Requirement for Freshmen in

LEBMC No. 20 Updated List of Law Schools Authorized to Offer

LEBMC No. 25 Competition Law

LEBMC No. 26 Scholarship Opportunity for Graduate Studies for

LEBMC No. 29 Detailed Guidelines for Conditional Enrollment

LEBMC No. 30 Law Schools Authorized to Offer Refresher

LEBMC No. 40 Reminders concerning Conditionally Enrolled

C. Resolutions and Other Issuances

Resolution No. 16 Reportorial Requirement for Law Schools with

Resolution No. 2011-21 A Resolution Providing for Supplementary Rules

Resolution No. 2013-01 Ethical Standards of Conduct for Law Professors

Order Annual Law Publication Requirements

The PhiLSAT under LEBMO No.

Synthesizing, the key provisions of LEBMO No. 7-2016 are as follows:

(4) The LEB may designate an independent third-party testing administrator;17

a. The student shall take the next scheduled PhiLSAT;

The fourth PhiLSAT then pushed through on September 23, 2018.

Respondents-in-intervention Attys. Anthony D. Bengzon (Bengzon), Ferdinand M. Negre (Negre), Michael Z.

Temporary Restraining Order

The Parties' Arguments

In G.R. No. 230642

In G.R. No. 242954

A. Remedies of certiorari and prohibition; and

II. Substantive Issues:

A. Jurisdiction over legal education;

B. Supervision and regulation of legal education as an exercise of police power;