Student's Name: Jyca Reign Lugtu Date: ____________

Instructor's Name: Prof. Junelle P. Silguera Score:____________

Course No. and Course Code: CN112/L-5099

CARBOHYDRATES
Activity No. 1

Introduction:

Carbohydrates are one of the fundamental macromolecules essential for life, playing
critical roles in energy storage, structural integrity, and cell signaling. They are classified
into three main categories: monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides, each
serving unique functions within biological systems. Understanding the structure and
metabolism of carbohydrates is crucial for comprehending how living organisms utilize
these molecules for energy and growth.

This dry lab activity is designed to facilitate active learning through written exercises that
explore the classification, structure, and function of carbohydrates. By engaging with the
material in a structured manner, you will enhance your understanding of these vital
biomolecules, even in the absence of a traditional laboratory setting.

Objective:

To enhance understanding of carbohydrates, their structures, functions, and classifications

through written analysis and problem-solving exercises.

Instructions:

1. Readings: Review the following topics in your textbook or assigned reading

materials:
o Structure and classification of carbohydrates (monosaccharides,
disaccharides, polysaccharides)
o Functions of carbohydrates in biological systems
o Glycosidic bonds and carbohydrate metabolism
2. Activities: Complete the following written exercises.

Carbohydrate Classification

Task: Classify the following carbohydrates into monosaccharides, disaccharides, and

polysaccharides. Provide a brief explanation for each classification.

1. Monosaccharides
  Glucose: Glucose is a simple sugar and the most common monosaccharide. It
consists of a single six-carbon chain (hexose) and is a primary energy source for
cells.
 Fructose: Fructose is also a monosaccharide classified as a hexose. It is found in
many fruits and is often referred to as fruit sugar. Like glucose, it consists of a single
sugar unit.
 Ribose: Ribose is a five-carbon sugar (pentose) that is crucial in the structure of RNA
(ribonucleic acid) and plays an important role in cellular metabolism.

2. Disaccharides
 Sucrose: Sucrose is a disaccharide formed by the combination of glucose and
fructose through an α-glycosidic bond. It is commonly known as table sugar and
serves as an energy source.
 Lactose: Lactose is another disaccharide composed of glucose and galactose. It is
found in milk and dairy products and requires the enzyme lactase for digestion.

3. Polysaccharides
 Cellulose: Cellulose is a polysaccharide made up of long chains of β-glucose units
linked by β-glycosidic bonds. It serves as a structural component in plant cell walls,
providing rigidity and strength.
 Glycogen: Glycogen is a highly branched polysaccharide that serves as the primary
storage form of glucose in animals. It consists of many glucose units linked by α-
glycosidic bonds, allowing for rapid mobilization of energy.
 Starch: Starch is a polysaccharide made up of amylose and amylopectin, both
composed of glucose units. It serves as the main storage form of carbohydrates in
plants and can be broken down into glucose when energy is needed.

Structural Analysis

Task: Draw the structures of the following carbohydrates and identify their functional
groups.

1. Glucose (α and β forms)

2. Sucrose
3. Amylose (part of starch)

Functions of Carbohydrates

Task: Write a short paragraph explaining the roles of carbohydrates in living organisms.
Address the following points:

 Energy source
 Structural components
 Cell recognition and signaling
 Carbohydrates are necessary in living organisms because they provide main energy,
structural components, and facilitate cell recognition and signaling. Carbohydrates,
particularly glucose, serve as a primary energy source for cellular operations and
metabolic activities. They are stored as glycogen in mammals and starch in plants,
allowing energy to be mobilized as needed. In terms of structure, polysaccharides such
as cellulose help to maintain the stiffness and integrity of plant cell walls, whereas
chitin does the same in fungi and arthropods. Furthermore, carbohydrates are needed
for cell recognition and communication; glycoproteins and glycolipids on cell surfaces
include carbohydrate chains that allow cells to communicate with one another,
recognize pathogens, and initiate immunological responses. Together, these roles
highlight the significance of carbohydrates in sustaining life and supporting biological
processes.

Glycosidic Bonds

Task: Define a glycosidic bond. Then, describe the formation and hydrolysis of a glycosidic
bond using a specific example (e.g., the formation of sucrose from glucose and fructose).

A glycosidic bond is a type of covalent bond that joins two monosaccharides

together, forming a disaccharide or polysaccharide. This bond is formed through a
dehydration reaction, where a hydroxyl group from one monosaccharide reacts with a
hydrogen atom from another, resulting in the release of a water molecule and the creation
of the glycosidic linkage.

To illustrate the formation of a glycosidic bond, let's consider the synthesis of sucrose,
which is composed of glucose and fructose. During the reaction, the hydroxyl group (-OH)
on the anomeric carbon of glucose (which is in its ring form) reacts with the hydroxyl
group of fructose. This reaction is a dehydration synthesis process: as these two
monosaccharides come together, they lose a water molecule (H₂O). Specifically, the -OH
from glucose and an -H from fructose combine to form water. The remaining oxygen atom
forms a covalent bond between the two sugars, resulting in an α-1,2-glycosidic bond.

The reverse process, known as hydrolysis, involves breaking this glycosidic bond to
release the individual monosaccharides. In hydrolysis, a water molecule is added back to
the disaccharide (sucrose), which breaks the glycosidic bond. An enzyme, such as sucrase,
typically catalyzes this reaction. The addition of water provides the necessary components
to regenerate the hydroxyl groups on both glucose and fructose, allowing them to revert to
their original monosaccharide forms. This process is crucial for digestion, as it enables
organisms to utilize carbohydrates for energy by breaking them down into simpler sugars
that can be easily absorbed and metabolized.

This transformation not only facilitates energy extraction from carbohydrates but also
highlights the efficiency of enzymatic processes in biological systems. By converting
complex sugars into simpler forms, organisms can quickly access the energy needed for
various metabolic functions.
Metabolism of Carbohydrates

Task: Answer the following questions related to carbohydrate metabolism:

1. Describe the process of glycolysis and its importance in cellular respiration.

Glycolysis is the first step in cellular respiration, occurring in the cytoplasm of the
cell. This process involves breaking down one molecule of glucose (a six-carbon sugar) into
two molecules of pyruvate (three-carbon compounds). Glycolysis consists of ten enzymatic
reactions and can be divided into two phases: the energy investment phase, where ATP is
consumed to phosphorylate glucose and its derivatives, and the energy payoff phase, where
ATP and NADH are produced. Importantly, glycolysis does not require oxygen, making it an
anaerobic process. The significance of glycolysis lies in its ability to provide a quick source
of energy and its role as a precursor for further metabolic pathways. The pyruvate
produced can enter aerobic respiration pathways (like the Krebs cycle) if oxygen is present
or undergo fermentation in anaerobic conditions, allowing cells to continue generating ATP
under various circumstances.

2. Explain the difference between aerobic and anaerobic respiration in terms of

carbohydrates utilization.

The primary difference between aerobic and anaerobic respiration revolves around
the presence or absence of oxygen during the process. Aerobic respiration occurs when
oxygen is available, allowing for complete oxidation of glucose. This process yields a
significant amount of energy, producing up to 38 ATP molecules per glucose molecule
through glycolysis, the Krebs cycle, and oxidative phosphorylation. In contrast, anaerobic
respiration takes place when oxygen is lacking. In this scenario, glucose is only partially
broken down through glycolysis, resulting in a much lower energy yield—typically just 2
ATP molecules per glucose molecule. The end products differ as well: aerobic respiration
produces carbon dioxide and water, while anaerobic respiration can produce lactic acid (in
animals) or ethanol and carbon dioxide (in yeast), depending on the organism and
conditions.

3. What are the fates of pyruvate produced in glycolysis?

The fate of pyruvate produced during glycolysis largely depends on whether oxygen
is present or not. In aerobic conditions, if oxygen is available, pyruvate enters the
mitochondria, where it undergoes oxidative decarboxylation to form acetyl-CoA. This
acetyl-CoA then enters the Krebs cycle (also known as the citric acid cycle), where it is
further oxidized to produce more NADH and FADH₂, which are used in the electron
transport chain to generate a substantial amount of ATP. In anaerobic conditions, when
oxygen is absent or limited, pyruvate undergoes fermentation. In muscle cells, this results
in the conversion of pyruvate to lactic acid through lactic acid fermentation. In yeast and
some bacteria, pyruvate is converted into ethanol and carbon dioxide through alcoholic
fermentation. Through the regeneration of NAD⁺ from NADH, both routes enable glycolysis
to continue generating ATP in the absence of oxygen. All things considered; these
possibilities guarantee that cells can modify their metabolism in response to external
circumstances in order to sustain energy generation.

Case Study Analysis

Task: Consider a hypothetical scenario where a person has a genetic condition that impairs
the digestion of certain carbohydrates (e.g., lactose intolerance). Write a brief analysis
discussing:

Trehalase deficiency - a genetic condition that impairs the digestion of trehalose, a

disaccharide composed of two glucose molecules linked by an α,α-1,1-glycosidic bond. The
enzyme responsible for breaking down trehalose is trehalase, and its deficiency leads to
trehalose intolerance. When individuals with this genetic condition consume foods
containing trehalose, such as mushrooms or certain processed foods, they are unable to
effectively digest this carbohydrate. This results in the accumulation of undigested
trehalose in the intestine, leading to osmotic diarrhea, abdominal pain, bloating, and
excessive gas production due to fermentation by gut bacteria.

The physiological effects of impaired digestion of trehalose can significantly impact the
quality of life for affected individuals. Symptoms such as diarrhea and abdominal
discomfort can lead to malabsorption of nutrients, resulting in nutritional deficiencies if
not managed properly. In severe cases, this condition may also contribute to dehydration
due to fluid loss from diarrhea and can affect overall metabolic health.

To manage trehalose intolerance, dietary recommendations would focus on eliminating

trehalose-containing foods from the diet. Individuals should avoid mushrooms, certain
processed foods that may contain trehalose as an additive, and any other sources where
trehalose might be present. Instead, they should emphasize a balanced diet rich in other
carbohydrates that do not trigger symptoms, such as glucose or sucrose-based foods.
Additionally, monitoring food labels for hidden sources of trehalose and consulting with a
nutritionist can help ensure proper nutritional intake while avoiding problematic
carbohydrates. This dietary management can help mitigate symptoms and improve the
overall well-being of individuals with this genetic condition.