CHAPTER 3 : INDUSTRIAL AND ORGANIZATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY

Ce texte est une compilation d’extraits de livres et d’articles dont vous trouverez les références à la fin de
ce texte.

Throughout this chapter, we will use the term I/O psychology as a synonym for Industrial and
Organizational psychology.
“The simplest definition of industrial and organizational psychology is the application of psychological
principles, theory, and research to the work setting. In everyday conversation, I/O psychologists are often
referred to as work psychologists (Landy & Conte, 2004). Therefore, I/O psychology is that specialty area
within the broad field of psychology that studies human behavior in work settings. As you might imagine,
the study of human behavior in work settings is a large undertaking. Most jobs are quite complicated,
requiring the use of a wide range of mental and motor skills. Work organizations are often large and
complex entities made up of hundreds or even thousands of workers who must interact and coordinate
activities to produce some product, service, or information. More and more often, workers are physically
distant from one another, working in different parts of the country or the world, coordinating their work
activities through online networks and other communication technologies.
Some I/O psychologists study the basic personnel functions within organizations, such as the way workers
are recruited and selected, how employees are trained and developed, and the measurement of employee
job performance called performance appraisal. Other I/O psychologists study the psychological
processes underlying work behavior, such as the motivation to work, and worker feelings of job
satisfaction1 (or quality of work life) and stress. Still other I/O psychologists focus on group processes
in the workplace, including the relationships between workplace supervisors and subordinates, and how
groups of workers coordinate to get the job done. Finally, some psychologists and other social scientists
study the broader picture, including the structure of work organizations and how the physical, social, and
psychological environments or culture affect worker behavior” (Riggio, 2018).
It is important to note that “industrial/organizational psychology” is the U.S. term and « occupational
psychology » in the United Kingdom (Riggio, op. cit.). In continental European countries, and more
specifically in France, this same area of specialization is referred to as “work and organizational » (W/O)
psychology” on one side and « human-factors » (or ergonomics) on the other. It should be taken into
account that this discipline had and has different names, depending on the authors and countries. For
example, the following names were used as synonyms: industrial psychology, occupational psychology,
personnel psychology, work psychology, organizational psychology, psychotechnics, employment
psychology, ergology, and even applied psychology.
Each of the major areas of I/O psychology will be discussed later, but to set the stage we begin with a look
at the historical development of this discipline.

I. BRIEF HISTORY OF I/O PSYCHOLOGY

“The formal study of psychology is relatively short, spanning a mere 125 years or so. The study of I/O
psychology is even shorter, originating with the work of Walter Dill Scott, Hugo Munsterberg, and
Frederick W. Taylor (Huffman, 2006). Although various experts disagree about the precise beginning of
I/O psychology, it is generally thought to have started in the early 1900s” (Aamodt, 2012).
“Walter Dill Scott was one of the first psychologists to apply psychology to advertising, management, and
personnel selection. In 1903, Scott published two books: The Theory of Advertising and Psychology of
Advertising. In 1910 Hugo Munsterberg wrote Psychology and Industrial Efficiency; this work was the
first to present a unified view of the psychological foundations of business practice. He was also influential
in emphasizing the need to validate tests in relation to job-oriented criteria. They are the first books to
describe the use of psychology in the business world.

1
Intrinsic job satisfaction is when you consider only the kind of work you do, the tasks that make up the job. Extrinsic
job satisfaction is when you consider work conditions, such as your pay, coworkers, and supervisor.
1
Interestingly, the term “industrial psychology” was seldom used prior to World War I. Instead, the common
terms for the field were “economic psychology,” “business psychology,” and “employment psychology”
(Koppes & Pickren, 2007).
“On December 20, 1901, Walter Dill Scott, a psychology professor at Northwestern University, addressed
a group of advertising professionals. In his talk, he proposed an interesting idea: using psychological
principles in the field of advertising. Instead of merely exhibiting a product and hoping that customers
would realize their need for it, he thought advertisers could aggressively influence customers by suggesting
they buy it or by arguing and debating the undeniable merits of the purchase. In other words, use persuasion
and argumentation to sell. Scott also proposed several other ideas, radical at the time, but taken for granted
today. He suggested imitating other companies’ successful products, advertising, and production policies;
encouraging competition among companies producing similar goods; building loyalty between producers
and suppliers; and creating specialized products for markets.

Walter Dill Scott Hugo Munsterberg Frederick W. Taylor Frank and Lillian Gilbreth
Like Scott, Hugo Munsterberg was an early psychologist interested in applying psychology to the
workplace. His book Psychology and Industrial Efficiency (1913) covered three topics:
(1) selecting workers, (2) designing work situations, and (3) using psychology in sales.
Munsterberg was most influential in the area of personnel selection and training, and his best-known
research was a study of streetcar operators, where he created laboratory simulation of an actual streetcar.
This research allowed Munsterberg to develop personnel selection criteria and training procedures that
eventually led to better street car operators (Huffman, op. cit.).
Frederick W. Taylor, the next major figure in I/O psychology, emphasized the value of designing the
work situation to increase worker output. He correctly surmised that if workers performed their jobs more
efficiently, the company would increase profits and workers’ wages would go up. In his book The
Principles of Scientific Management (1911), Taylor formulated four principles for increasing the
efficiency and profitability of any organization:
(1) scientifically design work methods for greater efficiency;
(2) select the best workers and train them in new methods;
(3) develop a cooperative spirit between managers and workers; and
(4) encourage cooperation between workers and management to improve the work environment” (Huffman,
op. cit.).
“Taylor (1911) believed that scientific principles could be applied to the study of work behavior to help
increase worker efficiency and productivity. He felt that there was “one best method” for performing a
particular job. By breaking the job down scientifically into measurable component movements and
recording the time needed to perform each movement, Taylor believed that he could develop the fastest,
most efficient way of performing any task. He was quite successful in applying his methods, which became
known as time-and-motion studies. These time-and-motion procedures often doubled, tripled, and even
quadrupled laborer output! Taylor’s system for applying scientific principles to increase work efficiency
and productivity eventually became known as scientific management. In addition to applying time-and-
motion procedures, Taylor incorporated into his system of scientific management other considerations, such
as selection of workers based on abilities and the use of proper tools.
Unfortunately, Taylor’s philosophy was quite narrow and limited” (Riggio, op. cit.). “The effects of
Taylorism on the worker were manifold : unemployment, exploitation, monotony, weakening of trade
unions, and ‘over speeding’. Taylor believed that scientific management would result in happier, more
productive workers. On the contrary, his approach was found to be inconsistent with human needs. Because
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of his methods, workers became machines, devalued and paid less for their efforts, becoming increasingly
alienated from their jobs. Marx’s conception of the alienation of the worker is thought to perfectly describe
Taylor’s scientific management. He states that alienation is caused by the work being “external to the
worker… he does not fulfill himself in his work but denies himself… does not develop freely his mental and
physical energies but is… mentally debased” (Beder, 2000).

Other figures of I/O

In addition to Scott Munsterberg and Taylor, pioneers in the field include James Mc Keen Cattell, Walter
Bingham, Marion Bills, Frank and Lillian Gilbreth (DiClemente & Hantula, 2000).
“James McKeen Cattell held a long position at Columbia University until he was fired for continuously
challenging and ridiculing his colleagues and the president of Columbia (Landy, 1997). He owned and
edited many psychological journals, in this way contributing to the growth of the field. His main
contribution to the field of I/O Psychology was, besides his openness about speaking of its’ potential, his
creation of the Psychological Corporation in 1921, still in existence today. His reputation and company
of functionalists, applied psychologists and statisticians helped him to establish the legitimacy of
psychology applied to industry with other nonapplied psychologists” (Kazi, 2012).
Cattell's research on individual differences played a significant role in introducing and emphasizing the
experimental technique and importance of methodology in experimentation in America. Cattell's design of
mental tests were influenced by Wundt's definition of psychology in regards to the achievements of
psychophysics and by Galton's view on the importance of the senses for judgement and intelligence.
“Walter Bingham’s contributions to the field are many and diverse. He started the Division of Applied
Psychology – the first academic program in industrial psychology (Krumm, 2001). He headed the Personal
Research Federation and directed The Psychological Corporation. He was instrumental in Scott’s and
Yerkes’ development of the mental testing program: he helped pioneer the use of job analysis while
working with the military in the development of selection tests. And, most importantly, he assumed a
caretaker and spokesperson role and worked, until his death, to achieve recognition and respectability for
I/O psychology. He publicly represented the field, in commissions and on radio, and made numerous
contributions to magazines, newspapers and other areas on its’ topics” (Kazi, op. cit.).
“Frank Gilbreth (engineer ) and Lillian Moller Gilbreth (psychologist and engineer): Two of the most
interesting figures in the early years of I/O psychology were the husband and wife team of Frank Gilbreth
and Lillian Moller Gilbreth. The Gilbreths were among the first, if not the first, scientists to improve
productivity and reduce fatigue by studying the motions used by workers. Frank began his career as a
contractor and became famous for developing improvements in bricklaying that reduced the number of
motions needed to lay a brick from 18 to 4 ½. Lillian, the much more educated of the two, received her
Ph.D. from Brown University in 1915—a rare achievement for a woman at that time” and wrote the book
« The Psychology of Management ».
As a couple, they had 12 children, and the efficiency methods they used to raise their children while having
busy careers were the inspiration for the book and the movie Cheaper by the Dozen (the 1950 version of
the movie). After Frank’s death in 1924 at the age of 55, Lillian continued her consulting with industry, as
the Great Depression forced companies to find ways to reduce costs and be more productive. In 1935, she
became a professor of management and engineering at Purdue University, the first woman to hold such a
position” (Aamodt, op. cit.).
“Almost never mentioned in I/O scholar books, Franziska Baumgarten (Ph.D., University of Berlin, 1917)
was a Polish-born applied psychologist. She researched gifted schoolchildren, individual differences, war,
refugees, and workers. Having been raised by a textile manufacturer in an industrial city, she respected
factory workers, and being sympathetic to their plight (e.g., low wages, long hours), she decided to study
under German-American I-O psychology pioneer Hugo Münsterberg; in a sense, Baumgarten was an early
proponent of prosocial I-O psychology. As an I-O psychologist, she was interested in the assessment of not
only ability and interests, but also other work-relevant characteristics, such as gratitude and dishonesty.
Baumgarten was the second woman to hold a faculty position in the History of Philosophy department at
the University of Berne, and only the third woman in the whole university. She experienced discrimination
(e.g., little to no research support) as a foreign, Jewish woman at the University of Berne” (Jimenez, 2018).

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Although Scott, Taylor, and Munsterberg all demonstrated the importance of applying psychology in the
workplace, for many people in industry it took World War I to give I/O psychology real respectability.
World War I and the 1920s
“At the outbreak of World War I, Robert Yerkes, was president of the American Psychological
Association. He headed the Committee for the Classification of Personnel in the Army, and with a group
of psychologists worked with the U.S. Army to create intelligence tests for the placement of Army recruits :
the Army Alpha and Beta tests” (Riggio, op. cit.). “The Alpha test was used for recruits who could read.
“Finding that approximately 30% of the World War I recruits were functionally illiterate, they later
developed the first nonverbal intelligence test, the Army Beta for recruits who could not read. The more
intelligent recruits were assigned to officer training, and the less intelligent to the infantry” (Aamodt, op.
cit.).
“Interestingly, John Broadus Watson, who is better known as a pioneer in behaviorism, served as a major
in the U.S. Army in World War I and developed perceptual and motor tests for potential pilots
(DiClemente & Hantula, op. cit.). “Walter Dill Scott, mentioned earlier for his advertising ideas, also
contributed to the effort to classify and place soldiers in jobs according to their abilities. He is credited with
developing job descriptions for over 500 military jobs” (Huffman, op. cit.).
“I/O psychologists, especially Henry Laurence Gantt, were responsible for increasing the efficiency with
which cargo ships were built, repaired, and loaded (Van De Water, 1997) He created the Gantt chart, a
graphical format that is used for the planning, scheduling, and controlling of work, including recording the
progress of a project and its stages. The chart has a modern variation, Program Evaluation and Review
Technique (PERT).
Though certainly not an I/O psychologist, inventor Thomas A. Edison understood the importance of
selecting the right employees. In 1920, Edison created a 150-item knowledge test that he administered to
over 900 applicants. The test and passing score were so difficult that only 5% of the applicants passed!
Even today, employee testing and selection is an important area of I/O psychology. Following World War
I, psychologists began to be involved in the screening and placement of personnel in industry” (Aamodt,
op. cit.).
“Throughout the 1920s, while the U.S. was experiencing tremendous industrial growth, industrial
psychology began to take hold: the first doctoral degree in industrial psychology was awarded2 in 1921,
and psychologists worked directly with industries as consultants and researchers (Katzell & Austin, 1992).
It was also in the 1920s that the first psychological consulting organizations began. Walter Dill Scott opened
a short-lived personnel consulting firm in 1919, and the Psychological Corporation was founded by James
McKeen Cattell in 1921( Vinchur & Koppes, 2011).
The Great Depression Years and World War II
“In the 1930s, I/O psychology greatly expanded its scope. Until then, it had been involved primarily in
personnel issues such as the selection and placement of employees. However, in the 1930s, when the
findings from the famous Hawthorne studies were published, psychologists became more involved in the
quality of the work environment, as well as the attitudes of employees. The Hawthorne studies, conducted
at the Hawthorne plant of the Western Electric Company in the Chicago area, demonstrated that employee
behavior was complex and that the interpersonal interactions between managers and employees played a
tremendous role in employee behavior. The Hawthorne studies were initially designed to investigate such
issues as the effects of lighting levels, work schedules, wages, temperature, and rest breaks on employee
performance” (Aamodt, op. cit.).
“Although researchers have noted a number of serious flaws in the methods3 Mayo used to conduct the
Hawthorne experiments, the general conclusions reached by Mayo and his colleagues resulted in the
development of the human relations movement, which recognized the importance of social factors and
something called “worker morale” in influencing work productivity. In fact, this movement stated that a
harmonious work environment, with good interpersonal relationships among coworkers, should be a

2
The first I/O PhD was awarded to Bruce V. Moore.
3
Relisez votre cours de Psychologie sociale pour revoir ces problèmes méthodologiques ou contactez-moi si vous
n’étiez pas en L1 à l’IED, je vous ferais parvenir cet extrait de cours.
4
productive work environment, particularly when the work itself is boring or monotonous. According to
Mayo, workers in repetitive or low-level positions—jobs that do not themselves provide satisfaction—will
turn to the social environment of the work setting for motivation” (Riggio, op. cit.).

Modern Times: Expanding the Role of I/O Psychology

“By the beginning of World War II, I/O psychology had begun to mature. Many companies now had
personnel offices that routinely tested and placed employees. They also implemented scientifically designed
worker-training programs to improve productivity. Researchers were beginning to conduct studies in
human factors psychology, as machines in the workplace became more complicated. Many of these
advances were applied to the war effort: the first contribution from I/O psychology was the development
of the Army General Classification Test (AGCT). The AGCT made it possible to classify new recruits into
a few broad categories based on their ability to learn the duties and responsibilities of a soldier.
Psychologists also helped develop situational stress tests to select and train candidates for military
intelligence units (spies). In addition, they developed tests for selecting aircraft pilots and training them
more rapidly and safely.
Human factors psychology also contributed greatly to the operational safety of airplanes by designing
better control panels. For example, at the beginning of the war many planes and pilots were lost because,
when preparing for landing, pilots tended to mistake the landing gear control for the wing flap control.
Consequently, pilots tried to land planes with the wheels up or with the wing flaps in the wrong position,
providing insufficient lift. The human factors solution to this problem was simple: design the controls to
correspond to their function. Consequently, they redesigned the landing gear controls to look and feel like
wheels, and they redesigned the wing flap controls to look and feel like a wing. The result: greatly reduced
landing errors! These World War II airplane design changes are still used on contemporary aircraft.
Early I/O psychology was, in effect, industrial psychology, focusing on worker efficiency and
productivity. During World War II, however, personnel psychology had emerged as a major subspecialty,
and many researchers began to shift their attention from the manufacturing floor to the executive
management offices. They thereby created organizational psychology and put the “O” in I/O psychology.
Organizational psychologists studied companies with the goal of improving administration and
productivity (Huffman, op. cit.). Organizational psychology delved into the social, emotional, and
motivational facets within workplace settings.
Note that “the distinction between industrial and organizational psychology these days is not a particularly
strong one. It is instead based on historical shifts in priorities among the founding and early members of
the professional organizations in the field. If we had to split them, we could say that people on the
industrial side tend to focus more on employee selection, training and development, performance
assessment and appraisal. This is explained by the historical association of industrial psychology with more
rigorous experimentation and statistics, largely because the focus on hiring or performance appraisal could
only be improved with those methods. People on the organizational side tend to focus more on motivation,
teamwork, and leadership. But even with that distinction, people on both sides tend to borrow liberally from
the other” (Landers, 2016)
“A woman who made remarkable contributions to I-O psychology at that time, is Marion Almira Bills.
Aside from her occupations as a professor, consultant, and researcher, Bills was also heavily involved in
organizations for Industrial/Organizational Psychology. For three consecutive years, she served as a
secretary at the American Association of Applied Psychology (AAAP) which was an association that broke
off from the American Psychological Association to represent applied psychology - the implementation of
psychology to solve real-world problems. In 1951, Bills became the first woman elected as the president
of the APA’s Division 14, Industrial and Business Psychology, now known as Society for Industrial
Psychology (SIOP). She was the founder of Connecticut Valley Association of Psychologists where she
supported the Connecticut Certified Psychologists Act and became the second president in 1945. She also
held the first meeting in her hotel for Psychologists Employed Full Time in Industry, an informal group to
discuss research in the workplace” (Wong, 2020).
“The civil rights movement of the late 1950s and early 1960s culminated in the Civil Rights Act of 1964”
(Huffman, op. cit.). “One portion of the sweeping Civil Rights Act of 1964, Title VII, banned

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discrimination in employment practices. Designed to protect underrepresented groups such as ethnic
minorities from being unfairly discriminated against in work-related decisions, this legislation forced
organizations to take a closer look at the ways people were selected for jobs” (Riggio, op.cit.). “Among
other things, it mandated the creation of employment tests, training programs, and recruitment
programs that were fair to all job applicants regardless of race, color, religion, gender and national origin.
Tests given to screen job applicants had to be valid predictors of job performance. (…) The Civil Rights
Act of 1964 also forced a radical change in corporate recruitment and hiring policies that resulted in opening
many previously unobtainable jobs to ethnic minority and women job applicants. Hence, I/O psychology
was now responsible not only to corporate management, but to the federal government as well” (Huffman,
op. cit.).
“A last figure of I/O psychology illustrates the effect of anti-discrimination laws4 appearing in the -60s:
Mary L. Tenopyr became Division 14’s second woman president in 1979—28 years after Marion Bills
was elected. She received her Ph.D., specializing in psychological measurement, from the University of
Southern California in 1966. Her decision to study I-O psychology was, in part, influenced by her personal
experiences with sex discrimination. In spite of the adversity she faced, she had an exceptionally successful
career. For example, during her 25 years at AT&T, she worked to ensure that the company’s employee
selection system was evidence-based and guided by research. Additionally, she was part of a team of I-O
psychologists whose efforts benefited society by influencing the development of the 1978 Uniform
Guidelines on Employee Selection Procedures5” (Jimenez, op. cit.)
Industrial/Organizational Psychology Today and in the Future
“Today, industrial/organizational psychology is one of the fastest-growing areas of psychology. I/O
psychologists are in the forefront of those professionals who are satisfying the huge demand for information
leading to greater understanding of the worker, the work environment, and work behavior. They are
involved in nearly every aspect of business and industry, and as we will see, the range of topics they research
and the varieties of tasks they perform are extensive. Perhaps the mission of the Society for Industrial and
Organizational Psychology (SIOP), the professional organization for I/O psychology, most clearly defines
this field (and reflects aspirations for the future): « To enhance human well-being and performance in
organizational and work settings by promoting the science, practice, and teaching of I-O Psychology ».
Although the efforts of I/O psychologists have helped improve behavior at work, other developments in the
working world and in the world at large have in turn influenced the field of I/O psychology. (…)

Several important trends present challenges to I/O psychology and represent cutting-edge areas of research
in the field. These include the changing nature of work and the rapidly expanding nature of jobs, partly
caused by a reduction in workforce due to organizational downsizing and outsourcing for efficiency; an
expanding focus on human resources; and increasing diversity in the workforce that presents both
challenges and opportunities, including the increasing globalization of business. Finally, I/O psychologists
are having a bigger impact on shaping policies and practices regarding the workplace and issues regarding
workers and the workforce” (Riggio, op. cit.).

Vous pouvez désormais vous entraîner à la compréhension de cette 1ère partie avec
l’exercice 1 « I/O History »

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“Though women have long been underrepresented in the I/O discipline, the National Center for Education
Statistics noted that over 65% of both master’s degrees and doctorates in I-O psychology conferred between 2015
and 2016 were awarded to women” (Jimenez, op. cit.).
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The Uniform Guidelines provide standards for the proper use of employment testing, including the definition of
discrimination in testing, appropriate means of validating selection procedures which may be discriminatory,
acceptable methods of establishing and implementing cutoff scores (or pass points) on selection procedures, and the
documentation of validity for selection procedures.
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II. MAJOR FIELDS OF I/O PSYCHOLOGY

(I/O) psychology studies how individual behavior affects and is affected by the physical environment and
the organizational culture of the workplace. “With the possible exception of sleeping, a person spends more
time at work than at any other single activity in life. Thus, finding ways to make our jobs safer and more
fulfilling is essential, and perhaps even urgent. (…)
I/O psychologists are frequently employed by business, industry, consulting firms, government
departments, and colleges and universities” (Huffman, op. cit.).
Their focus is in five major areas (See Figure 1) :; (1) personnel psychology; (2) Organizational
behavior ; (3) Organization Development ; (4) Vocational and Career Counseling and (5) human
factors psychology or ergonomics.

Figure 1 : Specialties within industrial/organizational psychology.

1. Personnel Psychology
“I/O psychologists and HRM (Human Resource Management) professionals involved in personnel
psychology study and practice in such areas as analyzing jobs, recruiting applicants, selecting employees,
determining salary levels, training employees, and evaluating employee performance. Professionals
working in these areas choose existing tests or create new ones that can be used to select and promote
employees. These tests are then constantly evaluated to ensure that they are both fair and valid. Personnel
psychologists also analyze jobs to obtain a complete picture of what each employee does, often assigning
monetary values to each position. After obtaining complete job descriptions, professionals in personnel
psychology construct performance-appraisal instruments to evaluate employee performance. Psychologists
in this area also examine various methods that can be used to train and develop employees. People within
this subfield usually work in a training department of an organization and are involved in such activities as
identifying the organization’s training needs, developing training programs, and evaluating training
success” (Aamodt, op. cit.). We will develop some of these functions later in the next chapters.

2. Organizational Behavior (abbreviated as OB)

Organizational behavior may be defined as “the study of individuals and groups in organizations”
(Schermerhorn et al., 2003). “Organizational Behavior is an applied behavioral science that is built on
contribution from a number of other behavioral discipline like psychology, sociology, social psychology,
anthropology and political science. The overall model of OB uses three theoretical framework that is
cognitive, behavioral and social learning. Organizational behavior applies the scientific method to
practical managerial problems” . For example, if an organization is facing problems of high employee
turnover (employees quitting the organization) or lack of team work among employees, an organizational
behavior scientist could be called in to study’s the company and give his/her recommendations for reducing
turnover or improving teamwork.
When applied to organizations and the people in them, the word behavior can refer to three different levels
– individual (micro), group (meso), and organizational (macro).
The study of OB thus involves looking at the attitudes, interpersonal relationships, global performance,
productivity, job satisfaction, and commitment of employees, as well as leader behavior, organizational
commitment, and even the relationship of the organization with its environment, culture and processes.
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This field of study investigates the impact that individuals, groups and structure have on behavior within
organizations, and to apply that knowledge towards improving the organization’s effectiveness (Robbins,
1991). In contrast to personnel psychology that focuses more on individual-level issues; organizational
behavior is more concerned with social and group influences” (India Gandhi National Open University,
2022).
3. Organization Development (abbreviated as OD)
“Organization development is a long-range, systematic effort, usually supported by to management, to
improve an organization’s problem-solving and renewal processes in an organization, with the assistance
of a change agent or catalyst and the use of the theory and technology of applied behavioral science
(French & Bell, 1984). Psychologists in this area are focused on understanding and managing organizational
change; the change may involve people, work procedures, or technology. A few examples of interventions
include Survey feedback6, team building7, sensitivity training (or t-groups)8, leadership development9,
Management by objectives (MBO)10, quality circle11, and Total Quality Management (TQM)12, to
name a few. (India Gandhi National Open University, op. cit.). (You will get an exercise later to clarify
these different techniques).
4. Vocational and Career Counseling
“A link between counseling and I/O psychology, career counseling is a branch that assists individuals in
making decisions about their lifelong roles in the world of work and in solving problems that arise in the
course of this choice process (India Gandhi National Open University, op. cit.).
“Frank Parsons is regarded as the founder of the vocational guidance movement. He developed the talent-
matching approach, which was later developed into the “Trait and Factor Theory of Occupational
Choice”. Parsons introduced the idea that the best career choices are those where there's a match between
the individual's traits (e.g., abilities, interests, personal characteristics) and the requirements and conditions
of the job. This concept still underpins many contemporary career counseling practices” (Testbook, 2023).

While a job is typically a specific position for earning money, a career is a long-term pursuit in a particular
field, and a calling (or vocation) is work that is deeply meaningful and aligns with one's values and purpose.
Wrzesniewski‘s et al (1997) research has also shown that “most workplaces are evenly divided—with about
one-third of workers falling into each of the 3 categories”.
“Through vocational counseling, individuals can determine the career path that is right for them, or may
even be able to identify a new career they had not previously considered. They can also develop a search
strategy to find a job once the best career path is determined. Outplacement refers to the services provided
by a company or third party to help an employee find new employment after leaving their job.
Career counselors may also administer personality, interest, or aptitude assessment tests to evaluate
individual career potential. They may also attempt to resolve conflicts between work and non-work interests
and prepare individuals for retirement” (India Gandhi National Open University, op. cit.).

5. Human Factors/Ergonomics
“Human factors psychology (or ergonomics, a term that is favored in Europe) is the third subject area within
industrial and organizational psychology. This field is concerned with the integration of the human-machine
interface in the workplace, through design, and specifically with researching and designing machines that
fit human requirements. The integration may be physical or cognitive, or a combination of both.

6
A technique of using data about organizational members’ feelings and concerns as the basis for planned change.
7
The development of teams of workers to focus on ways to improve group performance.
8
A process of increasing workers’ awareness of their own and other members’ behavior.
9
Involves identifying, nurturing, and empowering individuals to assume leadership roles and responsibilities within
the organization.
10
A goal-setting technique designed to increase worker commitment to the attainment of personal and organizational
goals. Management By Objectives (MBO) was first developed by Peter Drucker.
11
Groups of employees who meet regularly to discuss quality-related work problems.
12
A management approach to long-term success through customer satisfaction. In a TQM effort, all members of an
organization participate in improving processes, products, services, and the culture in which they work.
8
Anyone who needs to be convinced that the field is necessary need only try to operate an unfamiliar
television remote control or use a new piece of software for the first time. Whereas the two other areas of
I-O psychology focus on the interface between the worker and team, group, or organization, human factors
psychology focuses on the individual worker’s interaction with a machine, work station, information
displays, and the local environment, such as lighting. In the United States, human factors psychology has
origins in both psychology and engineering; this is reflected in the early contributions of Lillian Gilbreth
(psychologist and engineer) and her husband Frank Gilbreth (engineer)” (OSCRIceUniversity, 2014).

In the following paragraphs, we will now take a look at some personnel functions in organizations and more
specifically examine how workers’ job performance is evaluated.

III. SOME PERSONNEL FUNCTIONS

A. Importance of Job Analysis

“A thorough job analysis is the foundation for almost all human resources activities. It is difficult to imagine
how one could write a job description, select employees, evaluate performance, or conduct training
programs without knowing the tasks an employee performs, the conditions under which they are performed,
and the competencies needed to perform the tasks. A thorough job analysis provides such information”
(Aamodt, op. cit.).

“Job analysis is the systematic study of a job’s tasks, work activities, tools & technologies people doing
the job use, duties and responsibilities, and the knowledge, skills, and abilities needed to perform the job.
The job analysis, which is the important starting point for many personnel functions, yields several
products:
- a job description, which is a detailed accounting of job tasks, procedures, responsibilities, and output;
- a job specification, which consists of information about the physical, educational, and experiential
qualities required to perform the job; ²
- a job evaluation, which is an assessment of the relative value of jobs for determining compensation13;
and performance criteria, which serve as a basis for appraising successful job performance (See
Figure 2)” (Riggio, op. cit.).

Figure 2: Types of Compensation

13
Compensation is what employees earn in exchange for their contributions to any business. The difference between
base pay and compensation is that a total compensation package often includes an employee’s base pay, plus a wide
range of other monetary (bonuses, commissions, stock options, profit sharing) and nonmonetary rewards (work
flexibility, extra leave, experiential rewards, and additional time off): see https://learn.marsdd.com/article/employee-
compensation-salary-wages-incentives-and-commissions/.

9
Organizational Analysis
“During the course of their work, job analysts often become aware of certain problems within an
organization. For example, during a job analysis interview, an employee may indicate that she does not
know how she is evaluated or to whom she is supposed to report. The discovery of such lapses in
organizational communication can then be used to correct problems and help an organization function
better. For example, while conducting job analysis interviews of credit union positions, job analyst Deborah
Peggans discovered that none of the workers knew how their job performances were evaluated. This let the
organization know it had not done an adequate job of communicating performance standards to its
employees” (Aamodt, op. cit.).

Job analysis methods

“Job analysis methods include observation, use of existing data, interviews (either structured or
unstructured), and questionnaires.
One structured job analysis technique is the job element approach, a broad approach to job analysis that
focuses on the Knowledge, Skills, Abilities, and Other characteristics (KSAOs) required to perform a
particular job” (Riggio, op.cit.). “In this system, the job element method is used to match what applicants
can do against what the work calls for. The knowledge, skills, and abilities of applicants are compared
with the knowledge, skills, and abilities (called job elements) needed for success” (OPM, U.S. Office of
Personnel Management). Though it can be difficult to explain and communicate the job elements
methodology, it results in well-organized documentation of the job and the worker.
“The critical incidents technique of job analysis involves the collection of particularly successful or
unsuccessful instances of job performance. Through the collection of hundreds of these incidents, a detailed
profile of a job emerges.
Another structured job analysis technique, the Position Analysis Questionnaire (PAQ), uses a
questionnaire that analyzes jobs in terms of 194 job elements arranged into six categories: information
input14 (e.g., use of written materials), mental processes (e.g., problem solving), work output (e.g.,
assembling), relationships with other persons (e.g., instructing), job context (e.g., high temperature), and
other job characteristics (e.g., work schedule, etc.).
Functional job analysis (FJA) is a method that has been used to classify jobs in terms of the worker’s
interaction with data, people, and things. FJA originally used the Dictionary of Occupational Titles
(DOT), a reference book listing general job descriptions for thousands of jobs, but now relies on the U.S.
Labor Department’s O*NET database. FJA examines the sequence of tasks required to complete the job,
as well as the process by which the job is completed.
Research has determined that all these specific, standardized methods are effective. Job analysis yields a
job evaluation, or an assessment of the relative value of jobs used to determine appropriate compensation.
These evaluations usually examine jobs on dimensions that are called compensable factors, which are
given values that signify the relative worth of the job and translate into levels of compensation.
An important topic in the area of job evaluation concerns the “gender gap” in wages called gender pay
gap. Evidence indicates that women are paid far less than men for comparable work. This inequity has
given rise to the comparable worth movement, which argues for equal pay for equal work. This issue is
controversial because of the difficulty and costs of making compensation for comparable jobs equitable.
Research has also suggested that women and ethnic minorities are affected by a glass ceiling, or labyrinth,
which creates difficulties for members of minority groups in rising to the highest-level positions in
organizations” (Riggio, op. cit.).

Women in the Workplace study is the largest comprehensive study of the state of women in corporate
America (See Figure 3). “LeanIn.Org and McKinsey & Company have published this report annually since
2015 to give companies the information they need to advance women and improve gender diversity. Over
the past nine years, they have collected information from almost 900 organizations employing more than
23 million people. Over the last several years, there have been sizable gains in senior leadership for women.

14
what kind of information does the worker use in the job.
10
This is an important step in the right direction and shows what companies can accomplish when they focus
their efforts on a well-understood problem. However, with lagging progress in the middle of the pipeline—
and a persistent underrepresentation of women of color—true parity remains painfully out of reach” (See
https://leanin.org/women-in-the-workplace ).

Figure 3: Representation in the corporate15 pipeline by gender and race (2023)

Vous pouvez désormais vous entraîner à la compréhension de cette 2ème partie avec
l’exercice 2 « Major fields of I/O and Personnel Function No1 : Job analysis »

B. Employee recruitment, selection and placement

“Human Resource Planning (HRP) is the process of hiring and staffing an organization. It is also known
as workforce planning. It involves thinking forward to the positions that need to be filled, the talent needed
to fill them, and the process of how the organization will fill these positions” (Riggio, op. cit.). The process
of estimating the quantity and quality of people required to meet future needs of the organization is termed
demand forecasting. “There are four key steps to the HRP process. They include analyzing present labor
supply, forecasting labor demand, balancing projected labor demand with supply, and supporting
organizational goals. The process of matching individuals’ competencies with job requirements, so as to
achieve the best fit, is known as Job assignment” (Hayes, 2024).
“Employee recruitment, a subset of HRP, is the process of attracting potential workers to apply for jobs.
There are a variety of employee recruitment methods, such as advertisements (or indirect recruitment),
college recruitment programs, employment agencies, and employee referrals. An important element of the
recruitment process is presenting applicants with an accurate picture of the job through the use of realistic
job previews16 (RJPs), which help increase satisfaction and decrease turnover of new employees.
Employee screening is the process of reviewing information about job applicants to select individuals for
jobs; it will be covered in the following paragraph. Once the screening information has been obtained, a
selection decision must be made. All too often, subjective decision-making processes are used.
15
C-suite, or C-level, is widely used vernacular describing the upper echelons of a corporation’s senior executives
and managers. A senior VP, or SVP, is an executive-level professional who reports to the CEO, an executive vice
president or president of a company.
16
The presentation of both positive and negative information about the job and the organization to prospective
applicants.
11
Employee placement involves assigning selected employees to jobs to which they are best suited.
Regardless of the screening and selection procedures used, an overarching concern in all personnel
decisions is to protect against discrimination in employment.
The federal Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) has established guidelines to prevent
discrimination against ethnic minorities and other protected groups. To take preventive steps to avoid
employment discrimination, many organizations have adopted affirmative action plans to ensure that jobs
are made available to members of protected groups” (Riggio, op. cit.).

Let’s now come to an important function of personnel function : evaluating employee performance.

C. Methods for assessing and selecting employees

“The first step in screening is the evaluation of written materials such as applications and resumes.
Basic background information can be translated into numerical values to compare the qualifications of
applicants through the use of weighted application forms17 (See Figure 4) or biographical information
blanks (BIBs)18.

Figure 4 : An example of weighted application forms (Riggio, 2018)

17
Forms that assign different weights to the various pieces of information provided on a job application.
18
A type of assessment that uses biodata to help determine which of several candidates should be hired for a job. The
modern BIB is a self-report instrument that includes questions about past personal and work experiences, as well as
interests, opinions, values, and attitudes. Its items are all presented in the multiple-choice format.
12
Employee screening also involves methods such as reference checks and letters of recommendation.
However, the use of these methods is on the decline because they tend to be overly positive and are often
uninformative.
The second step is employee testing, which typically uses standardized instruments to measure
characteristics that are predictive of job performance. Any screening test or method must demonstrate that
it is a reliable and valid predictor of job performance.
Three methods for establishing reliability are test–retest reliability, parallel forms19, and internal (or
Inter-rater) consistency (see Figure 5 below).

Figure 5
The three forms of validity that are most important for the development and use of screening tests are
content validity, or whether the test content adequately samples the knowledge, skills, and abilities
required by the job; construct validity, which refers to whether a test measures what it is supposed to
measure; and criterion-related validity, or the relationship between screening test scores and some
criterion of job success.
Employee screening tests vary greatly both in their format and in the characteristics that they measure.
Categories of such tests include biodata instruments, cognitive ability tests, mechanical ability tests,
motor and sensory ability tests, job skills and knowledge tests, aptitude tests, personality tests, and
miscellaneous instruments such as integrity tests20. For the most part, the standardized tests are good
predictors of job performance. Often, they are used in combination, i.e. test batteries21 to help select the
best qualified candidates.
An important issue regarding the effectiveness of employee screening tests is validity generalization, or a
test’s ability to predict job performance in settings different from the one in which it was validated. Another
concern is test utility, an estimate of the dollars gained in increased productivity and efficiency because of
the use of screening tests. Faking is trying to beat an employment test by distorting responses.
Assessment centers22 use the test battery approach to offer a detailed, structured assessment of
applicants’ employment potential, most often for high-level managerial positions. Employment screening
for most jobs includes at least one hiring interview” (Riggio, op. cit.).

Hiring Interviews
“I/O psychologists have contributed greatly to our understanding of the effectiveness of interviews as a
hiring tool. Care must be taken to ensure the reliability and validity of judgments of applicants made in
hiring interviews. Part of the problem with the validity of interviews is that many interviews are conducted
haphazardly, with little structure to them (Wright, Lichtenfels, & Pursell, 1989).

19
A method of establishing the reliability of a measurement instrument by correlating scores on two different but
equivalent versions of the same instrument.
20
Integrity Tests measures of honest or dishonest attitudes and/or behaviors.
21
A combination of employment tests used to increase the ability to predict future job performance.
22
The concept of an assessment center was introduced in 1930 by the German Army.
13
Just like any other selection method, the interview is a measurement tool. Used correctly, the interview
should help supply information that cannot be obtained from applications, resumes, or tests and should
present the applicant with a realistic job preview. However, most interviews are not conducted with this in
mind. One of the greatest sources of problems with hiring interviews stems from interviewer biases. (…)
There are serious concerns about the accuracy of judgments made from hiring interviews. (…) Interviewers
may ask completely different questions of different applicants, which makes it very difficult to compare
responses.
The reliability of interviewer judgments is also problematic. Different interviewers may arrive at
completely different evaluations of the same applicant (Judge and Higgins, 2000; Aguinis et al., 2018).
Also, because of nervousness, fatigue, or some other reason, the same applicant might not perform as well
in one interview as in another, which further contributes to low reliability” (Riggio, op. cit.). The threat to
give a socially desirable answer is higher in a situation in which the outcome is important for the attendee
– for example in a job interview. Several studies found that 30% of people give socially desirable
answers23 in situations especially job interviews (Tracey, 2016).
“Interviewers may allow factors such as an applicant’s gender, race, physical disability, physical
attractiveness, appearance, or assertiveness to influence their judgments (Van Vianen & Van Schie, 1995;
Wright & Multon, 1995; Shannon & Stark, 2003; Latu, Schmid Mast, Stewart, 2015; Lippens, 2023 ). There
may also be a tendency for an interviewer to make a snap judgment, arriving at an overall evaluation of
the applicant in the first few moments of the interview (Swider, et al., 2016). The interviewer may then
spend the remainder of the time trying to confirm that first impression, selectively attending to only the
information that is consistent with the initial evaluation. Another potential source of bias is the contrast
effect (or Candidate-Order Error), which can occur after the interview of a particularly good or bad
applicant. All subsequent applicants may then be evaluated either very negatively or very positively in
contrast to this person.
In general, the hiring interview may fail to predict job success accurately because of a mismatch between
the selection instrument and the information it obtains and the requirements of most jobs (Hamdani, et al.,
2014). Receiving a positive evaluation in an interview is related to applicants’ abilities to present
themselves in a positive manner and to carry on a one-on-one conversation (Kacmar, et al., 1992; Huffcutt
& Van Iddekinge, 2011). In other words, evaluations of interviewees may be strongly affected by their level
of communication or social skills. Therefore, for some jobs, such as those that involve primarily technical
skills, performance in the interview is in no way related to performance on the job, because the types of
skills required to do well in the interview are not the same as those required in the job. Researchers have
also found a relationship between general cognitive ability and interview performance— suggesting that
more intellectually gifted persons receive more positive interview evaluations (Huffcutt, Roth, &
McDaniel, 1996).
Despite this relationship, research suggests that interview performance from a well conducted, structured
interview can predict job performance above and beyond the effects of cognitive ability (Cortina, et al.,
2000; Bergelson, Tracy and Takacs, 2022). There is some evidence that careful training of interviewers can
improve accuracy (Fowler, 2011; Powell & Bourdage, 2016)” (Riggio, op. cit.).

Vous pouvez désormais vous entraîner à la compréhension de cette 3ème partie avec
l’exercice 3 « Personnel Function No2 : Recruitment, Selection and Placement »

23
Demand characteristics are aspects of experiments that may give away the research objective to participants.
Social desirability bias (or cultural noise) occurs when participants automatically try to respond in ways that make
them seem likeable in a study (or an interview), even if it means misrepresenting how they truly feel.
14
D. Evaluating employee performance
Importance of Job performance and performance appraisals
“The evaluation of employees’ job performance is a vital personnel function and of critical importance to
the Organization. In work organizations, measurement of performance typically takes place in the context
of formalized performance appraisals24, which measure worker performance in comparison to certain
predetermined standards.
Performance appraisal is a component of performance management, “an ongoing, continuous process of
communicating and clarifying job responsibilities, priorities, performance expectations, and development
planning that optimize an individual's performance and aligns with organizational strategic goals”
(https://humanresources.ku.edu/performance-management) .
“Performance appraisals serve many purposes for the individual worker, for the worker’s supervisor, and
for the organization as a whole. For the worker, performance appraisals are linked to career advancement.
Performance appraisals function as the foundation for pay increases and promotions, provide feedback to
help improve performance and recognize weaknesses, and offer information about the attainment of work
goals” (Riggio, op. cit.). To be measured, these goals have to be SMART goals (for Specific, Measurable,
Attainable, Relevant, and Timely sensitive).
Work supervisors use performance appraisals to make personnel decisions such as promotions,
demotions, pay raises, and firings and to give workers constructive feedback to improve work
performance. Moreover, the formal performance appraisal procedure facilitates organizational
communication by helping to encourage interaction between workers and supervisors. In most
organizations, employee’s direct supervisor is primarily responsible for appraising an employee’s
performance. Research has shown that employees who receive regular performance appraisals that are
characterized as “helpful” to the performance of their job show stronger commitment to their jobs and
organizations (Kuvaas, 2011). For the organization, performance appraisals provide a means of assessing
the productivity of individuals and work units who can remove any performance deficiencies” (Riggio, op.
cit.). (See Figure 6).
“There are many ways to measure job performance. I/O psychologists typically refer to measures of job
performance as performance criteria25 (Austin &Villanova, 1992). Performance criteria are one of the
products that arise from a detailed job analysis, for once the specific elements of a job are known, it is
easier to develop the means to assess levels of successful or unsuccessful performance.
Performance appraisals serve many important purposes, including being the basis for personnel decisions
and a means of assessing performance. One way to categorize performance is in terms of objective and
subjective criteria. Objective performance criteria are more quantifiable measurements of performance,
such as the number of units produced or dollar sales. Subjective performance criteria typically involve
judgments or ratings of performance. (…)
Objective performance criteria offer two main advantages. First, because objective criteria typically
involve counts of output or the timing of tasks, they are less prone to bias and distortion than subjective
performance ratings. Second, objective criteria are usually more directly tied to “bottom-line” assessments
of an organization’s success, such as the number of products assembled or dollar sales figures. It is often
more difficult to determine the links between subjective criteria and bottom-line outcomes. (…).
Nevertheless, it is often difficult, if not impossible, to obtain objective performance criteria for certain jobs,
such as graphic artist, software developer, and executive vice president. Jobs such as these may best be
assessed through ratings or judgments.

24
The formalized means of assessing worker performance in comparison to certain established organizational
standards.
25
Performance Criteria measures used to determine successful and unsuccessful job performance.
15
Figure 6 : The Many Purposes of Performance Appraisals (Riggio, 2018)
Another drawback of objective assessments is that they may focus too much on specific, quantifiable
outcomes. Because many jobs are complex, looking at only one or two objective measures of performance
may not capture the total picture of performance. Some aspects of job performance such as work quality,
worker initiative, and work effort are difficult to assess objectively. In many cases, collecting objective
performance data is time consuming and costly.
By contrast, subjective performance criteria are usually easy and relatively inexpensive to obtain and thus
may be the preferred method of assessment for many organizations. Moreover, subjective performance
criteria can be used to assess variables that could not be measured objectively, such as employee motivation
or “team spirit”.
Concerns for a performance criterion include whether it is relevant to job success, called criterion
relevance; whether the criterion contains elements that detract from the “pure” assessment of performance,
termed criterion contamination; whether the degree to which a criterion falls short of perfect assessment
of job performance, called criterion deficiency (see Figure 7 below) ; and whether the criterion is usable,
called criterion usefulness. Criterion complexity refers to the multiple criterion measures necessary to
assess job performance adequately (quality versus quantity dimensions).

Figure 7
16
Research on ratings of job performance has examined who is making performance ratings :
self-appraisals are ratings or evaluations made by the workers themselves.
Peer appraisals involve coworkers rating each other’s performance. In some instances, subordinates may
rate the performance of their supervisors. Most common, of course, are supervisory ratings of subordinates’
performance. 360-degree feedback involves getting multiple performance evaluations from supervisors,
peers, subordinates, and customers” (Riggio, op. cit.).
There are a variety of methods for rating performance: a summary of these methods is available at the end
of this chapter (See Figure 10).
“Comparative methods of appraisal, such as ranking26, the paired comparison27 and forced distribution
techniques28, directly compare one worker’s performance with that of another worker.
Individual methods of appraisal do not make direct comparisons with other workers. As its name suggests,
the narrative performance appraisal (or essay method) is created when a manager writes a freeform
essay about an employee’s performance over a specific review period; this method is quite time consuming.
Individual methods also include checklists and forced-choice scales. They are easy-to-use methods of
appraisal that require the evaluator simply to check off statements characteristic or uncharacteristic of a
particular worker’s job performance. The most common method of individual performance appraisal
involves the use of graphic rating scales, whereby an appraiser uses a standardized rating instrument to
make a numerical and/or verbal rating of various dimensions of job performance.

Another individual specific type of individual rating technique is the behaviorally anchored rating scale
(BARS) : it is intended to bring the benefits of both qualitative and quantitative data to the appraisal
processs by comparing an individual's performance to specific examples of behaviour, which are then
categorised and assigned a numerical value used as the basis for rating performance (See Figure 8 below)”
(Riggio, op. cit.).

Figure 8 : Steps to develop BARS

“The first step is to create CIT (see Critical Incident definition above), which compares an individual's
performance to specific examples of behaviour tied to numerical ratings ranging from 1 to 5 (See Figure9).
The employer must then create performance dimensions with the help BARS method of performance
appraisal that must be double-checked. The critical incidents are then scaled, which leads to the
development of the final instrument” ( See https://openstax.org/books/organizational-behavior/pages/8-2-
techniques-of-performance-appraisal ).

26
Rankings requires supervisors to rank their direct reports from best to worst on specific performance dimensions or
to give an overall comparative ranking on job performance (Riggio, op. cit.).
27
Paired Comparison performance appraisal method in which the rater compares each worker with each other worker
in the group (Riggio, op. cit.).
28
Forced Distributions assigning workers to established categories of poor to good performance, with fixed limitations
on how many employees can be assigned to each category (Riggio, op. cit.).
17
Figure 9 : BARS example

The post-modern method of performance appraisal are Management by objectives (MBO)29 & Objectives
and key results (OKRs), the Behaviorally Anchored Rating Scale30 (BARS) & The behavioral observation
scale (BOS)31, the Human Resource Accounting (HRA) method, Assessment center method, and finally
360-degree or even 720-degree32 appraisal method. For more details, look at Figure 10 next page.
“A major problem in rating job performance is caused by systematic biases and errors. There are various
attribution errors which are particularly relevant to performance appraisals :
Response tendency errors, such as leniency33, severity34 or central tendency35 errors, lead to consistently
good, bad, or average ratings, respectively. Halo effects occur when appraisers make overall positive (or
negative) performance appraisals because of one known outstanding characteristic or action.
There are also errors caused by giving greater weight to more recent performance, known as recency
effects, and various attribution errors, including the actor–observer bias and the fundamental attribution
error. The latter may lead an appraiser to place greater emphasis on dispositional factors and lesser
emphasis on situational factors that may have affected performance” (Riggio, op. cit.).

You are now invited to read the text number 54 “Appraisal at the workplace; between
passion and revulsion” (Lionel Dagot) of your textbook “Anglais pour psychologues”
from Masse, L., Shankland, R., Pullin, W. and Hughes, E. (2022).

Après avoir lu ce texte ainsi que celui de Lionel Dagot, vous pouvez vous entraîner à la
compréhension de cette 4ème partie avec l’exercice 4 « Personnel Function No3 :
Evaluating Performance ».
29
Management by Objectives (MBO) developed by Peter F. Drucker is a performance appraisal approach that
preceded OKRs, yet the two are similar. As the name sounds, MBO like OKRs is also focused on objectives. But
whereas objectives are focused at the individual level for MBO, OKRs are designed to evaluate company and team
performance. The process involves managers and employees working together to create specific objectives related to
their performance in support of organizational goals. The use of SMART objectives help to ensure that metrics are
meaningful.
30
Despite the fact that the method is ancient, HR professionals and experts still use this strategy to measure
performance through behaviors.
31
A behavioral observation scale (BOS) measures behaviors that you want the employee to achieve. The scale portion
means it's not a yes/no situation but rates the employees on a scale. For instance, a five-point scale would ask the
manager to choose among the following for how often an employee exhibits each behavior.
32
A 720-degree appraisal is basically a 360-degree appraisal performed twice. A second 360 degree is performed at a
timely interval and compared against the results of the first 360-degree appraisal.
33
The tendency to give all workers very positive performance appraisals.
34
The tendency to give all workers very negative performance appraisals.
35
The tendency to give all workers the midpoint rating in performance appraisals.
18
Figure 10 : Methods for rating performance : pros and cons (Shaout & Yousif, 2014).

19
IV. WORKER STRESS AND NEGATIVE EMPLOYEE ATTITUDE AND BEHAVIORS

“In 2022, Deloitte partnered with independent research firm Workplace Intelligence to survey 2,100
employees and C-level executives36 across four countries: the United States, United Kingdom, Canada and
Australia. The survey results revealed eye-opening findings, including that nearly 70% of the C-suite are
seriously considering quitting for a job that better supports their well-being. In fact, they uncovered that
both employees and the C-suite are struggling to prioritize their well-being—and for most people, work is
to blame. However, executives are significantly overestimating how well their employees are doing and
how supported they feel by their leaders. And there are other disconnects as well, indicating that the C-suite
should be doing much more to understand the needs of their workers and demonstrate that they truly care
about their holistic well-being” (Fisher and Silverglate, 2022).

Figure 11 : Deloitte & al study 2023

“Although there is a great deal of disagreement over definitions of stress, worker stress can be defined as
physiological and/or psychological reactions to an event that is perceived to be threatening or taxing. Stress
is actually a perception, so there is tremendous individual variation in what one perceives to be stressful”
(Riggio, op. cit.). .
“The word “stress” first occurred in human and animal physiology in 1946. It was Hans Selye who
introduced the term “stress” to the general public and defined it as “the non-specific response of the body
to any demand for change”. The basic idea of Hans Selye in 1974 was that negative stress, that is, distress,
suggests the individual would experience negative emotions and physiologically measurable adverse
effects on physical levels, such as most of the psychosomatic phenomena, while positive stress or eustress
would stimulate the individual to feel happy or motivated” (Bienertova & Lenart, 2020).
Negative and unpleasant stress, or distress, can cause stress-related illness, and it can affect absenteeism,
turnover, and work performance.
For an individual to experience stress, he must first encounter a potential stressor. In general, stressors37
can be placed into one of three broad categories: acute, episodic and chronic (Walters, 2020).
Acute stressors involve brief focal events that sometimes continue to be experienced as overwhelming
well after the event has ended, such as falling on an icy sidewalk and breaking your leg (Cohen, et al.,
2007). Episodic stress (or episodic-acute stress) is used when an acute stress is experienced too frequently.
Although suffered more frequently than an acute stress, episodic stress is not continual and will stop from
time to time e.g. at the end of a project or during holiday periods. “Chronic stressors include events that
persist over an extended period of time, such as caring for a parent with dementia, long-term unemployment,
or imprisonment. Whether acute, episodic or chronic, potential stressors come in many shapes and sizes.

36
C-level executives, or “chief” executives, hold the highest strategic roles within a company. These roles include the
CEO (Chief Executive Officer), COO (Chief Operating Officer), CFO (Chief Financial Officer), and others. They are
responsible for overseeing major company decisions, operations, and overall direction.
37
An environmental event that is perceived by an individual to be threatening.
20
They can include major traumatic events, significant life changes, daily hassles, as well as other
situations in which a person is regularly exposed to threat, challenge, or danger” (Walters, op. cit.).
“Attempts to measure stress have included physiological measures38, self-report assessments39, the
measurement of stressful life events, and the match between worker characteristics and the demands of the
work situation, referred to as the person–environment fit approach (PE-F) (Riggio, op. cit.).
“In the 1960s, psychiatrists Thomas Holmes and Richard Rahe wanted to examine the link between life
stressors and physical illness, based on the hypothesis that life events requiring significant changes in a
person’s normal life routines are stressful, whether these events are desirable or undesirable. They
developed the Social Readjustment Rating Scale (SRRS), consisting of 43 life events that require varying
degrees of personal readjustment (See Figure 12). Many life events that most people would consider
pleasant (e.g., holidays, retirement, marriage) are among those listed on the SRRS. Holmes and Rahe also
proposed that life events can add up over time, and that experiencing a cluster of stressful events increases
one’s risk of developing physical illnesses”40 and may impair job performance (Walters, op. cit.).

2023 classification

1.Death of a spouse or life partner

2. Detention in jail or other
institution
3. Death of a close family member
4. Divorce
5. Marital separation
6. Pregnancy
7. Major personal injury or illness
8. Death of a close friend
9. Foreclosure/repossession on
mortgage or loan
10. Losing your job
11. Major change in the health or
behaviour of a family member
12. Major change in financial state
13. Gaining a new family member
14. Marriage
15. Retirement from work
16. Major business readjustment
17. Marital reconciliation
18. Major change in the number
of arguments with spouse-life
partner
Etc.

Figure 12: Holmes, T. H., & Rahe, R. H. (1967). The social readjustment rating scale. Journal of
Psychosomatic Research, 11, 213 - 218.

“Person–environment (P–E) fit refers to the match between a worker’s abilities, needs, and values and
organizational demands, rewards, and values” (Riggio, op. cit.). The person-environment fit theory resulted
from Kurt Lewin's equation stating that behavior is a function of a person and the environment, with both
entities bringing relevant attributes into the mix (Edwards, 2008). “P–E fit has been found to have a positive
correlation with organizational commitment and well-being and a negative correlation with turnover
(Verquer, et al., 2003; Hult, 2005; Yang, et al., 2008).
38
This includes blood pressure monitoring, electrocardiogram (EKG) for monitoring heart rate, or blood tests for
monitoring levels of certain hormones, such as the stress-linked hormone, cortisol, and cholesterol in the bloodstream.
39
Such as the Stress Diagnostic Survey (SDS; Ivancevich & Matteson, 1980), the Occupational Stress Indicator (OSI;
Cooper, Sloan, & Williams, 1988), and the Job Stress Survey (JSS; Spielberger & Reheiser, 1994).
40
The Holmes and Rahe stress scale measures the correlation between life events and stress. A high score on this scale
indicates a high likelihood of experiencing stress-related illnesses due to the cumulative impact of significant life
events. Note that this scale has been updated and improved by Wallace & al. in 2023. Let me know if you are interested
in the whole classification of events (from rank 19 to 43).
21
According to the P–E fit approach, a mismatch between the worker and the work organization/environment
is believed to be a primary cause of worker stress” (Riggio, op. cit.).
Sources of Worker Stress
Let’s first define briefly some important concepts in the field :
- Job stress generally refers to the demands at work that we experience as stressful.
- Job demand refers to the factors or elements in a job that require physical, cognitive, or emotional
effort from employees. It includes workload, emotional demands, and other depleting factors that can
impact an individual's psychological resourcefulness and work engagement.
“Job demands depend on individual workload needed to carry out that certain work as well as
demands and the time limitations related to it. Job control is related to work process control, which
means the ability of decision making and having the time to implement control measures over the work
to accomplish it” (Habibi, Poorabdian & Shakerian, 2015).
- “Job strain is defined as the situation where one experiences high job demands combined with low
control or decision latitude at work” (Riggio, op. cit.). We will develop the importance of job strain
later in this chapter.

Stressful Occupations and physical work conditions

“Certain occupations, such as air traffic controller and health care provider, are associated with high levels
of stress” (Riggio, op. cit.).
“Stressors can include situations in which one is frequently exposed to challenging and unpleasant events,
such as difficult, demanding, or unsafe working conditions. Although most jobs and occupations can at
times be demanding, some are clearly more stressful than others (See Figure 13).
For example, most people would likely agree that a firefighter’s work is inherently more stressful than that
of a florist. Equally likely, most would agree that jobs containing various unpleasant elements, such as
those requiring exposure to loud and distracting noise (heavy equipment operator) or extreme temperatures,
or poor lighting or ventilation, constant harassment and threats of physical violence (prison guard),
perpetual frustration (bus driver in a major city), or those mandating that an employee work alternating
day and night shifts (hotel desk clerk), are much more demanding—and thus, more stressful—than those
that do not contain such elements” (Walters, op. cit.). Therefore, physical conditions in the work
environment are another organizational source contributing to worker stress (Sander, Caza & Jordan, 2019).

Figure 13: Stressful occupations

“Although the specific stressors for these occupations are diverse, they seem to share two common
denominators: heavy workload (or work overload) and lack of control over certain aspects of a job.

22
Both of these factors contribute to job strain, a work situation that combines excessive job demands and
workload with little discretion in decision making or job control” (Walters, op. cit.).
Robert Karasek and Theorell (1979; 1990) developed and provided the “job strain” concept and model
called the Job Demands-Control (JD-C) model of stress. The most widely known proposition of the JD-
C model is that stress is highest when job demands are high and job control (termed “job decision latitude”
by Karasek) is low (Horan, Nakahara, SiStaso, & Jex, 2020).
Clearly, “many occupations involve at least a moderate amount of job strain in that they often involve heavy
workloads and little job control (e.g., inability to decide when to take breaks). Such jobs are often low-
status and include those of factory workers, postal clerks, supermarket cashiers, taxi drivers, and short-
order cooks” (Walters, op. cit.).
Worker stress can come from either organizational sources or individual sources, which are commonly
classified as situational or dispositional sources, respectively (Riggio, op. cit.):

A. Organizational Sources of Work Stress: Situational Stressors

“A great deal of worker stress is caused by stressors in the environment of the work organization. Some of
this organizational stress is caused by the work tasks themselves—the physical and psychological demands
of performing a job. Organizational stress may also be caused by work roles because work organizations
are complex social systems in which a worker must interact with many people. Therefore, the work
relationships of various kinds that must be created and maintained for a worker to perform the job
adequately can also lead to stress. These two types of situational stress — work task and work role
stressors — can often be alleviated by management actions” (Riggio, op. cit.).
a. Work Task Stressors
Work Overload and work underload
“Work overload can cause stress, but having too little to do — underutilization (or role underload) —
can also be stressful (Shultz a Olson, 2010; Tang & Vandenberghe, 2021; Cham, Andrei, griffin & Grech,
2021). A common work task source of stress is work overload, also known as role overload, which results
when the job requires excessive work speed, output, or concentration (Brown, Jones, & Leigh, 2005;
Bowling, Alarcon, Bragg, & Hartman, 2015).
More recently, attention has been given to technology-related work overload, such as the increased volume
of information, leading to things such as “e-mail overload” (Soucek & Moser, 2010; Stich, Tarafdar,
Stacey & Cooper, 2018; Lanctot & Duxbury, 2021).
Underutilization may also occur when workers feel that the job does not use their work-related knowledge,
skills, or abilities or when jobs are boring and monotonous (Melamed, Ben-Avi, Luz, & Green, 1995;
Weinberg, 2016). Some college graduates in low-level clerical or customer service positions may feel some
stress due to under-utilization of their knowledge and skills” (Riggio, op. cit.).
b. Work Role Stressors

To discover what “Work role stressors” mean, you are now invited to read the text number
57 “Role ambiguity, role conflict and organizational stress” (Didier Truchot) of your
textbook.

Let’s go on with identifying factors that contribute to stress…

c. Lack of Control
“Another important source of work stress results from workers sensing that they have little control over the
work environment and over their own work behavior. Stress resulting from this feeling of lack of control is
particularly common in lower-level jobs or in highly structured organizations. Jobs that are so
constrained and rule driven that employees are unable to have any sort of input in work decisions and

23
procedures are likely to be stress inducing, particularly for those workers who want to have some
responsibilities or those who want to plan their actions (called forethought).
Research indicates that providing workers with a sense of control over their work environment through
techniques such as giving them a voice in decision-making processes or allowing them to plan their own
work tasks, (called job enrichment) reduces work stress and fatigue and increases job satisfaction
(Sonnentag & Zijlstra, 2006; Kim & Kim, 2019; Saxena et al., 2020). On the other hand, some studies
suggest that a sense of a lack of control over one’s job may not be stressful for many workers (see Carayon,
1994; Carayon & Zijlstra, 1999). It may be the case that different types of workers are more or less
concerned with having a sense of control over their jobs (depending on the job characteristics model41 or
JCM) and individual differences in workers’ desire for autonomy)” (Riggio, op. cit.).
d. Interpersonal Stress
“One of the greatest sources of work stress results from difficulties in interpersonal relationships on the job.
Interpersonal stress stems from difficulties in developing and maintaining relationships with other people
in the work setting. Having a harsh, critical boss with a punitive management style would likely be stressful
for just about anyone. With the rise of virtual work, some workers feel a lack of social connections and
support and experience a stressful sense of social isolation (Avolio & Kahai, 2003; Wiesenfeld, Raghuram,
& Garud, 2001).
Interpersonal stress can also result when coworkers are placed in some sort of conflict situation. Another
form of interpersonal stress occurs frequently in Service organizations and involves the stress of providing
good customer service. When one is dealing with impatient and difficult customers, the pressure to maintain
one’s cool and offer service with a smile can be quite taxing and stressful.
Researchers have examined this emotional labor — the demands of regulating and controlling emotions
and emotional displays as part of a job requirement (Diefendorff & Gosserand, 2003; Hochschild, 1983).
The very common stress caused by emotional labor can cause workers to become dissatisfied and cynical
about their jobs, reduce job satisfaction, affect performance, and lead to frequent absenteeism and
turnover” (Riggio, op. cit.).
e. Harassment
“In 2022, The ILO-Lloyd’s Register foundation-Gallup survey has provided the first-ever global
assessment of such experiences, asking more than 74,000 workers in 121 countries and territories about
three forms of violence or harassment: physical, psychological and sexual. The 23% of employed adults
who said they had experienced at least one form of violence and harassment translates to nearly 750 million
workers worldwide:
• Psychological violence and harassment -- including insults, threats, bullying or intimidation --
was the most commonly reported form among men and women. Globally, 18% of employed people,
representing almost 590 million workers, said they had experienced it in their working lives.
• Almost one in 10 workers worldwide (9% or nearly 280 million) said they had experienced
physical violence and harassment, such as hitting, restraining or spitting.
• Women were more likely than men to report experiencing sexual violence and harassment, such
as unwanted sexual touching, comments, pictures, emails or requests. Overall, 6% of employed people
(more than 200 million) had experienced sexual violence and harassment, including 8% of women and
5% of men” (See Gallup Blog, 2022 by Steve Crabtree).
“All forms of harassment42, sexual harassment, harassment due to group membership (or mobbing)43, and
being singled out by an abusive supervisor or colleague, are all extremely stressful (Malamut & Offermann,
2001; Tepper et al., 2001; Raver & Nishii, 2010).

41
The Job Characteristics Model (JCM) is a work design theory that seeks to identify the key factors that make a job
motivating, satisfying, and engaging for employees. The model was developed by Richard Hackman and Greg
Oldham in 1976 and has since become a widely used framework for job analysis and job design research.
42
Bullying and harassment are often confused. By law (Equality Act 2010), bullying behavior can be harassment if
it relates to any of the following 'protected characteristics': age, disability, gender reassignment, race, religion or belief,
sex or sexual orientation.
43
A group of people engaged in different types of harassment and bullying behavior against a fellow co-worker.
24
Research has suggested that victims of workplace sexual harassment, as well as victims of more general
harassment at work, including bullying44 have increased odds of work-related illness, injury, or being
assaulted (Rospenda & al, 2005; Chenevert, Vignoli, Conway & Balducci, 2022). In addition, survivors of
sexual assault have an increased likelihood of developing symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder
(PTSD)” (Beck Hansen, Vang, Lichtenstein, & Pihl-Thingvad, 2022).
A study of over 6,000 telephone company employees across the U.S. showed that incidence of sexual
harassment increased stress and decreased job satisfaction, but the culture of the organization/unit in
terms of whether the culture fostered and appeared to tolerate harassment or discouraged it also played a
part in levels of employee stress (Mueller, et al., 2001; Law, et al., 2011).
“Many researchers consider actions by managers as directly related to the development of harassment”
(Faulx et al. 2009; Bourgeois, Ohana & Renault, 2016). According to the latters who studied organizational
factors of harassment in France, (2016), “it seems that two styles of management encourage harassment:
the authoritarian and the laissez-faire” (Poilpot-Rocaboy 2010).
f. Work organization
Work organization is also one of the most frequently studied causes of harassment (Salin and Hoel 2011).
Characteristics of workplaces in which harassment may occur include role conflicts and role ambiguity,
excessive workloads, lack of autonomy, and poor physical conditions. Two characteristics of work
organization are particularly relevant to harassment: role conflicts and role ambiguity (Baillien and De
Witte 2009).
More generally, Margaret Crouch (2009) “argues that the current discourse on sexual harassment must
move beyond its narrow focus on the workplace and academia and understand harassment more broadly so
as to include harassment in public spaces (city streets and public transportation). Crouch discusses how
this constraint operates in street harassment by leading many women to avoid traveling alone in public
places for fear of unwanted attention. Crouch also discusses how many legal responses to public harassment
do not empower women, but actually reinforce their subordination and unequal status by presupposing
traditional views of gender and gendered behavior. At work, material written on workplace and academic
sexual harassment mostly focuses on legal technicalities like employer liability but fail to develop
prevention strategies, education and sensitivity training or victim support” (Cahn, 2023).
g. Organizational Change
Organizational change (restructuring, mass redundancies, wage freezes, and wage cuts…) has been
proposed as a third factor explaining the presence of harassment in firms. When change limits the scope of
an employee’s work, they may feel they are being excluded from the organization. Changes to their duties
and responsibilities may be seen as deliberate efforts to humiliate them” (Bourgeois et al., op. cit.).
Thus, “a common organizational source of stress is change (Rafferty & Griffin, 2006). People tend to grow
accustomed to certain work procedures and certain work structures, and they resist change. Some common
change situations that lead to worker stress include company reorganizations, mergers of one company with
another or acquisitions of one organization by another, changes in work systems and work technology,
changes in company policy, and managerial or personnel changes (Judge, Thoresen, Pucik, & Welbourne,
1999; Wanberg & Banas, 2000). Coping with the loss of a job or potential job loss is another major stressor
(Moore, Grunberg, & Greenberg, 2006; Brand, 2015). (Riggio, op. cit.).

Après avoir lu ce texte ainsi que celui de Didier Truchot, vous pouvez vous entraîner à la
compréhension de cette 5ème partie avec l’exercice 5 « Worker Stress No1 ».

44
In the work context, bullying includes teasing or playing jokes ; leaving some workers out of work-related events ;
giving someone too much or too little work ; giving someone work above or below their skill level ; not giving
someone information that they need to do their job.
25
 B. Individual Sources of Work Stress: Dispositional Stressors

“Individual sources of work stress include the worker’s experience of traumatic life events; susceptibility
to stress such as the lack of hardiness, or resistance to stress-related illnesses; and certain personality
characteristics such as the Type A behavior pattern” (Riggio, op. cit.).

a. Type A behavior

“Researchers have uncovered the Type A behavior pattern, or Type A personality, which is characterized
by excessive drive and competitiveness, a sense of urgency and impatience, and underlying hostility
(Friedman & Rosenman, 1974; Rosenman, 1978). This behavior pattern is particularly significant because
there is evidence that persons who possess the Type A personality are slightly more prone to develop stress-
related coronary heart disease, including fatal heart attacks than persons who do not have the behavior
pattern, termed Type Bs45.
Other studies suggest that the more global construct of “negative affectivity,” or the expression of negative
emotions, such as anger, hostility, anxiety, impatience, and aggression, is what combines with a Type A
personality to increase stress-related health risks”46. (Riggio, op. cit.).

Nevertheless, “research in psychocardiology has gone beyond the traditional concept of type A behavior
pattern. The idea of a specific toxic component has been abandoned, in favor of a more holistic approach.
The deleterious effects that negative emotions, particularly depression, as well as personality and
socioeconomic status, may have on the functioning of various organs and psychosocial performance have
now been recognized (Trigo, Silva, & Rocha, 2005).

b. Susceptibility/Resistance to Stress

“Another dispositional source of stress may stem from the fact that some persons are simply more
susceptible to stress, whereas others have stress-resistant, hardy personalities. The concept of hardiness
(close to resilience) was outlined by psychologist Suzanne Kobasa (Maddi & Kobasa, 1984), who argued
that hardy personality types are resistant to the harmful effects of stress because of their style of dealing
with stressful events. Hardy individuals feel in control of their lives, have a sense of commitment to their
family, their work goals and values, and see unexpected change as a challenge.

c. Self-Efficacy

“Research has also identified another characteristic that seems to increase resistance to stress: self-efficacy.
Self-efficacy is defined as an individual’s beliefs in his or her abilities to engage in courses of action that
will lead to desired outcomes (Bandura, 1997). In other words, self-efficacy is related to one’s sense of
competence and effectiveness.

Self-efficacy is a very important concept that not only relates to one’s ability to cope with stressful situations
(i.e., the possession of coping self-efficacy), but it is also an important factor relating to a worker’s ability
to perform his or her tasks (job-related self-efficacy), to lead a work team and promote change (leadership
self-efficacy), and to deal effectively with relationships at work (relationship self-efficacy). There is
evidence that a sense of self-efficacy can have positive effects in reducing stress in the workplace (Jex &
Bliese, 1999; Rennesund & Saksvik, 2010)” (Riggio, op. cit.).

All characteristics of Jobs that Cause Worker Stress are summarized in the following chart (See Figure 14) :

45
People with a Type B personality are often described as easygoing, relaxed, and highly flexible. There are now 4
types, namely A, B, C, D (See Kanten & Gümüştekin, 2017)
46
Recent research has now come to much more personality types (for example the big five) but anyway, remember
that they’re very interesting to talk about and they have been an object of public fascination for ages. But with modern,
more robust research methods, most of these older typological claims are turning out to be spurious.
26
Figure 14 : Characteristics of Jobs that Cause Worker Stress

C. Effects of Worker Stress

“Much of the growing interest in worker stress (it is one of the most studied areas of I/O psychology) is due
to the very powerful impact on employee health. (…) Some common stress-related illnesses are ulcers,
colitis, high blood pressure, respiratory illnesses, and migraine headaches” (Riggio, op. cit.).
“Job strain can have adverse consequences on both physical and mental health; it has been shown to be
associated with increased risk of hypertension (Schnall & Landsbergis, 1994), heart attacks (Theorell et
al., 1998), recurrence of heart disease after a first heart attack (Aboa-Éboulé et al., 2007), significant weight
loss or gain (Kivimäki et al., 2006), and major depressive disorder (Stansfeld, Shipley, Head, & Fuhrer,
2012). (…)
A longitudinal study of over 10,000 British civil servants reported that workers under 50 years old who
earlier had reported high job strain were 68% more likely to later develop heart disease than were those
workers under 50 years old who reported little job strain (Chandola et al., 2008)” (Walters, op. cit.).
“Stress may also contribute to alcoholism and drug abuse in workers and may influence accident rates on
the job (Frone, 2008; Wolf, S., 1986). Emotional exhaustion, detachment from coworkers, negative
self-evaluations, and lowered self-esteem are also associated with worker stress (Cordes & Dougherty,
1993).

As you might imagine, stress can have an effect on important work outcomes. Stress is believed to cause
decreased work performance and increased absenteeism and turnover. However, the relationships between
work stress and these key bottom-line variables are quite complex. For example, it has been suggested that
the relationship between stress and performance may often take the form of an inverted U, rather than
being direct and linear : in other words, very low levels of stress (or no stress) and very high levels of stress
are associated with poor work performance, whereas low to moderate levels of stress seem to be related to
better performance (Cohen, 1980; Muse, Harris, & Field, 2003)” (Riggio, op. cit.).

A main effect : Job Burnout

You are now invited to read the text number 56 “Organizational stress and burnout”
(Didier Truchot) of your textbook.

While you’re studying at the IED, you might also work to earn your life. We often fail to notice
the stress that leads to burnout because recognizing burnout when it occurs is not always so easy.
If you want to be on the lookout for the signs and symptoms that may indicate its presence, you
might take the following test: pour passer ce test, allez dans le dossier « Documents
complémentaires ». Vous y trouverez un fichier intitulé « Burnout_Test ».

Après avoir lu ce texte ainsi que le 2ème texte de Didier Truchot, vous pouvez vous entraîner
à la compréhension de cette 6ème partie avec l’exercice 6 « Worker Stress No2 ».

27
 Bibliographie

Ce texte est une compilation d’extraits de livres et d’articles provenant des sources suivantes :

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chez Wadsworth, Cengage Learning (696 pages).
3. Psychology in action -Chapter 17 – by Karen Huffman (2006) paru chez John Wiley and Sons (611
pages)

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psychology/
Landers, R.N. (2016). The Difference Between Industrial and Organizational Psychology: Neoacademic:
https://neoacademic.com/2016/09/14/the-difference-between-industrial-and-organizational-psychology/

Wong, A. (2020). Marion Bills, in i-feminist: http://ifeminist.org/bills.html. For more information on

women in I/O psychology, see also: Koppes, L. L. (1997). American female pioneers of industrial and
organizational psychology during the early years. Journal of Applied Psychology, 82(4), 500–515.
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Tracey, T. J. G. (2016). A note on sociallu desirable responding. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 63 (2),
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Walters, S. (2020). Psychology, 1st Canadian Edition. Chapter 12: Happiness and stress, 12.4. Stressors.
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Sander, E.J., Caza, A., & Jordan, P.J. (2019). The physical work environment and its relationship to stress.
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violence-harassment.aspx and see also HR acuity : https://www.hracuity.com/workplace-harassment-and-
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