1263784

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PSSXXX10.1177/09567976241263784HuangPsychological Science

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Research Article PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE
Psychological Science

Does Valuing Happiness Lead 2024, Vol. 35(10) 1155­–1163

© The Author(s) 2024
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DOI: 10.1177/09567976241263784
https://doi.org/10.1177/09567976241263784
www.psychologicalscience.org/PS

Kuan-Ju Huang
Graduate School of Human and Environmental Studies, Kyoto University

Abstract
Happiness has become one of the most important life goals worldwide. However, does valuing happiness lead to
better well-being? This study investigates the effect of valuing happiness on well-being using a population-based
longitudinal survey of Dutch adults (N = 8,331) from 2019 to 2023. Random-intercept cross-lagged panel models
indicated that those who valued happiness generally exhibited higher well-being as manifested by life satisfaction,
more positive affect, and less negative affect. However, increases in valuing happiness did not result in changes in life
satisfaction 1 year later and had mixed emotional consequences (i.e., increasing both positive and negative affect).
Additional analyses using fixed-effects models indicated that valuing happiness had contemporaneous positive effects
on well-being. These findings indicate that endorsing happiness goals may have immediate psychological benefits but
may not necessarily translate into long-term positive outcomes.

Keywords
valuing happiness, happiness goals, happiness, well-being, life satisfaction, open data, open materials, preregistered

Received 12/13/23; Revision accepted 4/25/24

Introduction on the relationship between valuing happiness and

well-being are intriguing but are limited by their cross-
In the past few decades, happiness has received sub- sectional design and relatively small sample sizes. This
stantial academic and public attention and has become study investigated the effect of valuing happiness on
one of the most important life goals worldwide (Diener, well-being (operationalized by life satisfaction, positive
2000; Diener et al., 2018; Oishi et al., 2020). Although affect, and negative affect) using a large longitudinal
happiness is a crucial element of human well-being population-based survey.
(Diener, 2000; Lyubomirsky, King, & Diener, 2005), it Studies have revealed that participants who score
is unclear whether valuing happiness has psychological higher on valuing happiness show lower well-being
benefits. (Catalino et al., 2014; Humphrey et al., 2022; Mauss
We might intuitively expect that endorsing the goal et al., 2011), higher loneliness (Mauss et al., 2012), and
of being happy would make people strive toward and more depressive symptoms (Catalino et al., 2014; Fergus
eventually achieve the goal of living a happy life, but & Bardeen, 2016; Ford et al., 2014; Mahmoodi Kahriz
some researchers have noted that it may have counter- et al., 2020; Mauss et al., 2011). In experimental settings,
productive effects on well-being (Gruber et al., 2011; leading people to value happiness resulted in lower
Mauss et al., 2011). Valuing happiness can backfire happiness in situations that should give rise to positive
because people may be more affected by negative emotions (i.e., watching a happy film clip; Mauss et al.,
affective outcomes if they have not reached their ideal
state of happiness (Gruber et al., 2011; Mauss et al.,
Corresponding Author:
2011), or because people do not always know what Kuan-Ju Huang, Kyoto University, Graduate School of Human and
strategies will help them achieve their happiness goals Environmental Studies
(Ford et al., 2015; Rohrer et al., 2018). Previous studies Email: [email protected]
1156 Huang

2011). Valuing happiness may increase the pressure to

avoid negative emotions (Humphrey et al., 2022) and Statement of Relevance
make people feel that they have failed to seize oppor-
tunities to be happy in more positive contexts (Mauss Wanting to be happy does not always have a ben-
et al., 2011, 2012). However, not all studies have dem- eficial effect on well-being. Valuing happiness can
onstrated the detrimental effects of valuing happiness be self-defeating because it may increase pressure
(Bastian et al., 2014; Catalino et al., 2014; Catalino & and disappointment owing to heightened expecta-
Tov, 2022). For example, Bastian et al. (2014) found tions of happiness. In this research, we examined
that people living in countries that valued positive emo- the effect of valuing happiness on well-being
tions reported higher levels of life satisfaction. Catalino using a survey of 8,331 Dutch individuals from
et al. (2014) observed that people can successfully pur- 2019 to 2023. We found that valuing happiness
sue happiness by prioritizing positive emotional experi- may yield immediate psychological benefits with-
ences in everyday decision-making, or prioritizing out necessarily translating into long-term positive
positivity. Prioritizing positivity is correlated with higher outcomes. Increases in valuing happiness did not
life satisfaction, more positive affect, and less negative result in changes in life satisfaction 1 year later
affect (Catalino et al., 2014; Catalino & Tov, 2022). and resulted in mixed emotional consequences,
These findings indicate that happiness can be success- including both heightened positive and negative
fully pursued when the correct approaches are adopted affect. These findings highlight the bittersweet
(Gruber et al., 2011; Zerwas & Ford, 2021). nature of the pursuit of happiness.
More recently, valuing happiness has been concep-
tualized as two intercorrelated constructs: aspiring to
feel happiness and being concerned about happiness coupled with concern for and monitoring of happiness
(Zerwas & Ford, 2021; see also Krasko et al., 2020). The goals.
former directly influences how strongly one desires Personality traits may moderate the effects of valuing
happiness, and whether it leads to better or worse well- happiness on well-being. First, personality may influence
being depends on how happiness is pursued. The latter how happiness is pursued. Rohrer et al. (2018) found
influences how we monitor progress in the pursuit of that seeking happiness in a socially engaging manner
happiness goals and is likely to lead to greater pressure results in more positive outcomes. It is possible that
and disappointment, which tends to result in lower people with high agreeableness or extroversion would
well-being. Supporting this idea, Luhmann et al. (2016) be more likely to rely on social activities when attempt-
found that the measure of valuing happiness used in ing to feel happier, which may, in turn, predict higher
previous studies (Mauss et al., 2011) included three levels of well-being. Personality traits may also influence
factors. Only the factor related to concerns about hap- how people regulate their emotions when pursuing hap-
piness (e.g., “I am concerned about my happiness even piness (Hughes et al., 2020). For example, when pursu-
when I feel happy” and “If I don’t feel happy, maybe ing happiness goals, people with high neuroticism may
there is something wrong with me”) was correlated with show greater concern and be more affected by negative
lower well-being, whereas the other factors had null or evaluative processes; they tend to use maladaptive
weak positive effects on well-being (Luhmann et al., emotion-regulation strategies and are more likely to
2016). Similarly, Krasko et al. (2020) showed that goals ruminate about stressors (Hughes et al., 2020). Thus,
to feeling happy were correlated with well-being, valuing happiness may be more self-defeating for those
approach motivation, and adaptive emotional-regula- with high neuroticism than for those with low neuroti-
tion strategies; however, happiness concerns were cism. Given these possibilities, this study explored
correlated with lower well-being, avoidance motivation, whether personality moderates the effects of valuing
and maladaptive emotional-regulation strategies. happiness on well-being.
Notably, happiness concerns, but not aspiring to feel This study investigated the effect of valuing happiness
happiness, showed moderate-to-high correlations with on well-being using a population-based longitudinal sur-
neuroticism (r = .54–.73; Krasko et al., 2020). It is pos- vey of Dutch individuals (N = 8,331) from 2019 to 2023.
sible that items regarding happiness concerns capture To our knowledge, no studies have examined the long-
a combination of valuing happiness and neuroticism term causal relationships between well-being and valu-
instead of a subtype of valuing happiness (see Rohrer, ing happiness in adult samples (for longitudinal studies
2023, for an empirical demonstration of this idea). in adolescents, see Datu et al., 2021; Datu & King, 2016).
Either way, valuing happiness itself may not necessarily Longitudinal data are useful for making causal inferences
be counterproductive, but it can be harmful when by separating between- and within-individual effects. We
Psychological Science 35(10) 1157

used random-intercept cross-lagged panel models (RI- at baseline = 49.26 years, SDage = 19.11 years). Among
CLPMs) to estimate the effects of interest. RI-CLPMs the participants, 5,072 (61%) had no college degree,
separate between-individual confounding from within- 3,259 (39%) had a college degree, and 30 (0.4%) did
individual concurrent and lagged effects, allowing us not provide information on educational attainment. All
to identify the lagged reciprocal effects between well- available participants were included in the analysis.
being and valuing happiness (Hamaker et al., 2015;
Rohrer & Murayama, 2023). The coefficients in RI-CLPMs
Measures
can inform us about cross-lagged causal effects under
several assumptions, including the absence of heteroge- Valuing happiness. We assessed valuing happiness
neous slopes of time-invariant confounders. Moreover, using the item, “Which values act as a guiding principle
the existence of contemporaneous effects (i.e., valuing in your life and which values are less important to you?”
happiness affects current well-being) may bias the esti- “Happiness” was ranked on a 7-point scale ranging from
mates of cross-lagged effects in the RI-CLPMs. In addition, 1, extremely unimportant, to 7, extremely important. This
we estimated fixed-effects models to examine the within- item assesses how individuals value happiness in their
individual contemporaneous effects of valuing happiness current lives. The correlations between valuing happiness
on well-being (Rohrer & Murayama, 2023; McNeish & in different assessment years were moderate (r = .48–.55).
Kelley, 2019). This can inform us whether valuing hap- The distributions of valuing happiness across the assess-
piness has any immediate effect on well-being that might ment years are shown in Supplemental Figure S1 in the
not be detectable in the 1-year gap in the current design. Supplemental Material available online. We preregistered
Owing to the mixed findings in the literature, we to include another measure of valuing happiness by ipsa-
intentionally left our hypotheses open in the preregis- tizing the valuing-happiness item across other values
tration. Data supporting the findings of this study are included in the survey (i.e., within-individual standardiza-
available upon application (https://www.lissdata.nl/). tion). We intended to use this measure to represent the
We report in the study all data-exclusion criteria and relative importance of happiness compared to other val-
all factors in determining our sample size. Preregistra- ues and to control for potential response bias as respon-
tion and analytical R syntax are available via the Open dents were asked to report a set of values. However, we
Science Framework page (https://osf.io/apnje/). Analy- later found that valuing happiness can inherently corre-
ses that were not included in the preregistered plan late with other values (e.g., true friendship, sense of
were labeled as exploratory. accomplishment, mature love, and family security). Ipsa-
tization may obscure true variations of valuing happiness
and make the results less interpretable. The results using
Method ipsatized scores were thus omitted from the manuscript
but can be found in Supplemental Table S1.
Participants
We analyzed data from the Longitudinal Internet Studies Well-being. We assessed life satisfaction using the five-
for the Social Sciences (LISS) panel, a population-based item Satisfaction With Life Scale (Diener et al., 1985).
longitudinal panel in the Netherlands (Scherpenzeel & Sample items include, “I am satisfied with my life” and “If
Das, 2010). Since 2008, LISS panel participants have I could live my life over, I would change almost nothing.”
completed annual surveys on topics such as personality, The items were rated on a 7-point scale (1 = strongly
social interactions, and health. Data collection for the disagree, 7 = strongly agree) and exhibited good internal
LISS panel received approval from both internal and reliability (Cronbach’s α = .90–.91). For exploratory pur-
external ethics committees. More information on the poses, we also included positive and negative affect as
LISS panel is available at https://www.lissdata.nl/. We measures of well-being. We used the Positive and Nega-
used five waves of data collected in May 2019, May tive Affect Schedule (Watson et al., 1988), which includes
2020, May 2021, May 2022, and May 2023 for the Per- 10 items assessing positive affect (e.g., “interested,”
sonality modules. We chose these waves because they “excited,” and “proud”) and 10 items assessing negative
were the most recent ones in which all participants had affect (e.g., “distressed,” “upset,” “nervous”). The items
completed measures of valuing happiness and well- were rated on a 7-point scale (1 = not at all, 7 = extremely).
being. After excluding six participants (0.7%) who did Both positive and negative affect exhibited good internal
not complete any items on valuing happiness and life reliability (Cronbach’s α: positive affect = .88–.89, nega-
satisfaction in all waves, the final sample was 8,331 tive affect = .93–.94). The items for each scale were aver-
(46% men, 54% women, and 0.1% other genders; Mage aged to create composite scores.
1158 Huang

Table 1. Sample Sizes, Means, and Standard Deviations for Study Variables Across Assessment Years

Valuing happiness Life satisfaction Positive affect Negative affect

Year n M SD n M SD n M SD n M SD
2019 5,026 6.15 0.98 5,070 5.05 1.17 5,021 4.42 1.04 5,021 2.13 1.11
2020 5,877 6.14 1.01 5,914 5.09 1.14 5,865 4.47 1.00 5,865 2.24 1.12
2021 5,321 6.07 1.03 5,358 5.04 1.14 5,312 4.42 1.02 5,312 2.18 1.11
2022 5,797 6.10 1.01 5,831 5.12 1.13 5,790 4.46 1.01 5,790 2.18 1.10
2023 5,181 6.07 1.02 5,224 5.08 1.11 5,172 4.44 1.02 5,172 2.19 1.14

Big Five personality markers. We assessed personal- root-mean-square residual (SRMR). RMSEA ≤ .06, SRMR
ity using the 50-item International Personality Item Pool ≤ .08, and CFI ≥ .95 indicated good fit (Hu & Bentler,
Big-Five Factor Markers (Goldberg, 1992). The scale 1999). Fixed-effects models were estimated using ordi-
included five domains of personality: openness to experi- nary least squares (OLS) regressions, including a dummy
ence (Cronbach’s α = .76–.77), conscientiousness (Cron- variable for each person. This method is equivalent to
bach’s α = .78–.79), extraversion (Cronbach’s α = .88–.89), OLS regressions using within-individual-centered scores
agreeableness (Cronbach’s α = .82–.84), and neuroticism for all variables (McNeish & Kelley, 2019).
(Cronbach’s α = .90). The scores in each domain were We explored the moderation effects using a set of
averaged for each wave. Because scores from different multi-group RI-CLPMs with time-invariant grouping
waves were highly correlated (r > .76), scores from each variables that included gender (male vs. female), age
wave were averaged to create five personality scores for group (young vs. middle age vs. old), openness to
each individual. For moderation analyses, participants experience (lowest third vs. middle third vs. upper
were categorized into lowest-third, middle-third, and third), conscientiousness (lowest third vs. middle third
upper-third groups on the basis of the scores of all par- vs. upper third), extraversion (lowest third vs. middle
ticipants in each personality domain. third vs. upper third), agreeableness (lowest third vs.
middle third vs. upper third), and neuroticism (lowest
third vs. middle third vs. upper third). For age groups,
Statistical analyses we considered < 40 years to be young, 40 to 59 years
All analyses were conducted using R statistical software to be middle-aged, and 60 years and above to be old.
(Version 4.1.1; R Core Team, 2021). We estimated RI- We compared multi-group RI-CLPMs without constraints
CLPMs using the lavaan package (Version 0.6-15; between groups against models that constrained the
Rosseel, 2012). RI-CLPMs are extensions of the tradi- cross-lagged paths to be equal across groups. If the
tional cross-lagged panel model that allow us to decom- unconstrained model did not outperform the con-
pose (a) trait-like between-individual correlations strained model, we concluded that the parameter was
between two variables (i.e., random-intercept correla- invariant across groups (i.e., that there was no evidence
tion) and (b) within-individual concurrent associations of a moderation effect). Differences between the mod-
and cross-lagged effects between the variables (Hamaker els were determined using the Akaike information cri-
et al., 2015; Mulder & Hamaker, 2021). A significant terion (AIC), the Bayesian information criterion (BIC),
random-intercept correlation indicated that individuals and chi-square difference tests. An AIC greater than 6
who tend to score higher on one variable also tend to and a BIC greater than 6 indicate meaningful differ-
score higher on the other variable. A significant within- ences in model fit between the models (Raftery, 1995).
individual cross-lagged effect indicated that, considering Full-information maximum likelihood estimation was
individuals’ trait-like levels of the variables, an increase used to account for missing data.
in one variable can predict an increase in the other
variable in the following assessment. We used the
Results
observed variables for all variables in the RI-CLPMs. We
constrained the parameters of the autoregressive paths, Table 1 shows the sample sizes, means, and standard
cross-lagged paths, and variances and covariances deviations of the study variables for each assessment
of the within-individual-centered variables to be invari- wave. In the baseline wave in 2019, valuing happiness
ant across assessment waves. Model fits were deter- was correlated with higher life satisfaction (r = .15),
mined using root-mean-square error of approximation more positive affect (r = .20), and less negative affect
(RMSEA), comparative fit index (CFI), and standardized (r = −.16).
Psychological Science 35(10) 1159

Table 2. Results of Random-Intercept Cross-Lagged Panel Models

Estimate 95% CI p
Life satisfaction
Valuing happiness → Life satisfaction .012 [−.007, .031] .210
Life satisfaction → Valuing happiness .007 [−.015, .029] .522
Within-individual concurrent correlation .074 [.056, .093] < .001
Random intercept correlation .238 [.210, .266] < .001
Positive affect
Valuing happiness → Positive affect .039 [.019, .058] < .001
Positive affect → Valuing happiness .025 [.006, .044] .012
Within-individual concurrent correlation .125 [.107, .143] < .001
Random-intercept correlation .305 [.278, .333] < .001
Negative affect
Valuing happiness → Negative affect .023 [.003, .043] .022
Negative affect → Valuing happiness −.011 [−.031, .009] .296
Within-individual concurrent correlation −.051 [−.070, −.033] < .001
Random-intercept correlation −.214 [−.244, −.185] < .001

Note: All coefficients were standardized. Significant coefficients were marked in bold. CI = confidence
interval.

Preregistered analyses from valuing happiness to negative affect (β = 0.02).

Including time-invariant covariates (i.e., gender, age
The RI-CLPM for valuing happiness and life satisfaction group, and education attainment) did not change the
fitted well (RMSEA = .021, CFI = .997, SRMR = .019). association between valuing happiness and the well-
Table 2 presents the standardized coefficients of the being measures (see Supplemental Table S2).
random-intercept correlations and within-individual We estimated fixed-effects models to examine within-
paths. We found significant random-intercept correla- individual contemporaneous effects of valuing happi-
tion (r = .24) and within-individual concurrent correla- ness on well-being. Results indicated that valuing
tion (r = .07) but no cross-lagged effects. We also ran happiness was associated with higher life satisfaction
the same RI-CLPM while including gender (male vs. (β = 0.05, 95% CI = [.04, .06], p < .001), more positive
female), age group (young vs. middle vs. old), and affect (β = 0.09, 95% CI = [.08, .10], p < .001), and less
education attainment (college vs. no college) as time- negative affect (β = −0.05, 95% CI = [−.06, −.04], p <
invariant predictors on observed scores of life satisfac- .001). We also explored whether gender, age group,
tion in every wave. As expected, including these and the Big Five personality traits could moderate
covariates did not change the association between valu- within-individual cross-lagged effects using multigroup
ing happiness and life satisfaction (see Supplemental RI-CLPMs. We found little evidence of the moderation
Table S2). effects of cross-lagged effects (ΔAICs ≤ 7 and ΔBICs <
0; detailed results of model comparison can be found
Exploratory analyses in Supplemental Table S3). Freely estimated lagged
effects of valuing happiness on well-being measures in
We fitted RI-CLPMs linking valuing happiness and two different groups are shown in Figure 1.
other indices of well-being: positive and negative affect
(see Table 2). Both models for positive affect (RMSEA =
.017, CFI = .997, SRMR = .018) and negative affect
(RMSEA = .018, CFI = .997, SRMR = .018) fitted well. For
Discussion
the positive-affect model, we found significant random- This study investigated the effect of valuing happiness
intercept correlation (r = .31), a within-individual concur- on well-being across five annual assessments using a
rent correlation (r = .13), a lagged effect from valuing population-based sample. We found that individuals
happiness to positive affect (β = 0.04), and a lagged who habitually valued happy experiences showed
effect from positive affect to valuing happiness (β = higher well-being throughout their lives (i.e., random-
0.03). For the negative-affect model, we found significant intercept correlations). Although previous studies have
random-intercept correlation (r = −.21), a within-individual shown negative cross-sectional relationships between
concurrent correlation (r = −.05), and a lagged effect well-being and valuing happiness (e.g., Catalino et al.,
1160 Huang

2014; Mauss et al., 2011), as noted by Luhmann et al. and valuing happiness are largely due to the inclusion
(2016), the negative correlations found in the literature of happiness concerns in their measure (Zerwas &
seemed to be limited to items that capture one’s Ford, 2021).
concern for happiness; however, this component was We found no evidence of a lagged effect of valuing
not included in the current measure. Our findings happiness on life satisfaction regardless of gender, age,
echo the idea that previous cross-sectional findings or personality traits. One explanation for this finding
showing a negative association between well-being is that when people attempt to pursue happiness

a 0.2
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Gender Age Group Openness Conscientiousness Extraversion Agreeableness Neuroticism

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Valuing Happiness → Positive Affect

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Fig. 1. (continued on next page)

Psychological Science 35(10) 1161

c
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Valuing Happiness → Negative Affect

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Gender Age Group Openness Conscientiousness Extraversion Agreeableness Neuroticism

Fig. 1. Lagged effects from valuing happiness to well-being, moderated by gender, age group, and Big Five personality traits. Lagged
effects from valuing happiness to life satisfaction are shown in (a); lagged effects from valuing happiness to positive affect are shown
in (b); and lagged effects from valuing happiness to negative affect are shown in (c), with standardized coefficients and 95% confidence
intervals (i.e., error bars). We found little evidence of the moderation effects.

beyond their usual levels, they may not always resort valuing happiness on life satisfaction. In addition, we
to the correct way to achieve happiness. For example, found a positive lagged association of positive affect
studies have revealed that pursuing happiness by on valuing happiness. Being happy may make people
engaging in happiness-enhancing activities (e.g., social want happiness more; conversely, being unhappy may
activities) or by changing emotion-regulation strategies cause people to devalue happiness.
may be more effective than directly focusing on hap- The time lag in the current study was relatively long
piness goals (Gruber et al., 2011; Lyubomirsky, Sheldon, (i.e., 1 year), potentially missing short-term effects (e.g.,
& Schkade, 2005; Rohrer et al., 2018). It is possible that days, weeks, or months) within the current design. Posi-
increases in valuing happiness can make people focus tive concurrent effects in fixed-effects models support
too much on happiness goals but ignore activities that the possibility of short-lived causal effects of valuing
can actually lead to better happiness. Further studies happiness on well-being. It is possible that valuing
are warranted to examine the intriguing dynamics happiness can enhance well-being immediately (for
between valuing happiness and the ways people pursue example, when people prioritize activities that can
happiness. Furthermore, we found ambivalent cross- boost happiness; Catalino et al., 2014), but this effect
lagged affective effects of pursuing happiness, as shown may become more mixed over time. This finding con-
by an increase in both positive and negative affect. Our trasts with experimental findings in a laboratory setting
findings are consistent with the idea that valuing hap- showing that leading people to value happiness resulted
piness follows a dual path in its influence on emotional in increased disappointment and decreased happiness
well-being (Mauss et al., 2011; Zerwas & Ford, 2021). (Mauss et al., 2011). This divergent pattern may be due
Valuing happiness can lead us closer to the goal of to differences between experimentally induced and
being happy, but it can also result in negative emotions naturally occurring valuing of happiness. To manipulate
such as disappointment and discontentment when we valuing happiness, Mauss et al. (2011, 2012) asked par-
evaluate and monitor happiness goals (Mauss et al., ticipants to read an essay that listed the various benefits
2011; Zerwas & Ford, 2021). The bittersweetness of of achieving the greatest amount of happiness. Such
valuing happiness not only demonstrates the paradoxi- manipulation may be more likely to trigger an evalua-
cal nature of pursuing happiness as a goal but can also tion of happiness goals and make salient the negative
help explain why we found a null lagged effect of consequences of not reaching the ideal level of
1162 Huang

­ appiness, compared to happiness goals set by indi-

h Computational Reproducibility Badge. This article has
viduals in everyday settings. Although this study pro- received the badges for Open Data, Open Materials, and
vides evidence of the immediate positive effects of Preregistration. More information about the Open Practices
valuing happiness, it is important to keep in mind badges can be found at http://www.psychologicalscience
.org/publications/badges
empirical findings suggesting that directing someone
to want more happiness may have the opposite effect.
The current study used a representative sample of
Dutch individuals, so our results may not be generaliz-
able to other populations. Ford et al. (2015) found that ORCID iD
valuing happiness was negatively associated with well- Kuan-Ju Huang https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7448-4421
being in the United States but positively associated with
well-being in East Asia. Future studies can benefit from Acknowledgment
exploring whether culture moderates the effects of In this article, we make use of data from the Longitudinal
valuing happiness on well-being. Internet Studies for the Social Sciences (LISS) panel adminis-
tered by Centerdata (Tilburg University, The Netherlands).
We thank Centerdata for the access to the LISS panel.
Conclusion
This study provides new insights into the long-term Supplemental Material
impact of valuing happiness on well-being by examining Additional supporting information can be found at http://
potential causal patterns. Whereas people who value hap- journals.sagepub.com/doi/suppl/10.1177/09567976241263784
piness tend to exhibit higher well-being, endorsing hap-
piness goals may yield immediate psychological benefits References
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mixed emotional consequences, including both height- Catalino, L. I., Algoe, S. B., & Fredrickson, B. L. (2014).
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Transparency https://doi.org/10.1037/emo0001070
Action Editor: Yoel Inbar Datu, J. A. D., Bernardo, A. B., & Valdez, J. P. M. (2021).
Editor: Patricia J. Bauer The emotional rewards of valuing happiness: A longitu-
Author Contributions dinal study among Filipino adolescents. Child Indicators
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Declaration of Conflicting Interests three-wave longitudinal study. Personality and Individual
The author(s) declared that there were no conflicts of Differences, 96, 111–114. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid
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Funding piness and a proposal for a national index. American
This research received no specific grant from any funding Psychologist, 55(1), 34–43. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-
agency. 066X.55.1.34
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