Respiration Physiology .

Respiratory Physiology
isaac nuako
Schematic View of Respiration
External Respiration
Internal Respiration
Respiration can be divided into four
major functional events
• Pulmonary Ventilation: Movement of air into and out of
lungs
• Gas exchange between air in lungs and blood
• Transport of gases - O2 & CO2 in the blood
• Internal respiration: Gas exchange between the blood and
tissues
Functions of Respiratory System
• Exchange of gases between atmosphere and the blood.
• Homeostatic regulation of body pH.
• Protection from inhaled pathogens and irritating substances.
• Vocalization
• It enhances venous return ( Respiratory pump).
• The nose as a part of respiratory system, serves as the organ of smell.
• Pulmonary capillary endothelial cells contain ACE.
• Lungs act as reservoir of blood.
• Pulmonary vessels can trap fat cells, small clots and detached cancer cells and thus.
prevent their entry into systemic circulation.
Pulmonary Ventilation
Lung Volumes
• Tidal volume (TV) – air that moves into and out of the lungs with each
normal breath (approximately 500 ml).
• Inspiratory reserve volume (IRV) – air that can be inspired forcibly beyond
the tidal volume (2100–3200 ml). Used during exercise/exertion.
• Expiratory reserve volume (ERV) – Maximal volume that can be expired

after the expiration of a tidal volume/normal breath (1000 –1200 ml).
• Residual volume (RV) – air left in the lungs after maximal/strenuous

expiration (1200 ml).
Lung Capacities
• Inspiratory capacity (IC) – total amount of air that can be inspired after a
tidal expiration (IRV + TV).
• Functional Residual Capacity (FRC) – amount of air remaining in the lungs

after a tidal expiration (RV+ ERV)
• Vital capacity (VC) – Volume of maximal inspiration and expiration. (TV +

IRV + ERV = IC + ERV = 4800 ml)
• Total lung capacity (TLC) – sum of all the four lung volumes (IRV+ TV + ERV
+ RV = IC + FRC) (approximately 6000 ml in males, females = 4200 ml)
Dead Space
• Anatomical dead space – volume of the conducting respiratory
passages (150 ml)
• Alveolar dead space – alveoli that cease to act in gas exchange due
to collapse or obstruction
• Total dead space – sum of alveolar and anatomical dead spaces =

Td = DA + Da
Respiratory Volumes & Capacities
Pulmonary Function Tests
• Spirometer – an instrument consisting of a
hollow bell inverted over water, used to evaluate
respiratory function.
• Spirometry can distinguish between:

– Obstructive pulmonary disease – increased airway
resistance – asthma, bronchitis, emphysema,
Bronchiectasis
– Restrictive disorders – reduction in total lung capacity

from structural or functional lung changes –
pneumothorax respiratory distress syndrome- ARDS
and infants RDS and cystic fibrosis
An Alveolus
• Has an extensive network of capillaries
• Is surrounded by elastic fibers.
Alveolar Epithelium
• Consists of simple squamous epithelium
• Consists of thin, delicate Type I cells
• Patrolled by alveolar macrophages, also called dust cells
• Contains septal cells (Type II cells) that produce
Surfactant- an oily secretion:
– Contains phospholipids & proteins (lipoproteins)
– Coats alveolar surfaces & reduces surface tension
Surface Tension
• The force of attraction between liquid molecules.
• Surfactant (a phospholipoprotein) reduces the surface tension in the
alveoli.
– It interferes with the attraction between fluid molecules
• Decreasing surface tension reduces the amount of energy required to

expand the lungs.
Alveolar Structure
Alveolar Ventilation
• Alveolar ventilation rate (AVR) – measures the flow of fresh gases
into and out of the alveoli during a particular time.
AVR = frequency X (TV – dead space)

(ml/min) (breaths/min) (ml/breath)
• Slow, deep breathing increases AVR and rapid, shallow breathing

decreases AVR.
GAS LAWS
• Boyle’s Law - Volume and pressure are inversely related at constant
temperature. ↑ volume = ↓ pressure - V= 1/P
• Charles's Law - The volume of a fixed mass of gas is directly proportional to the
absolute temp. at constant pressure. V α T at const. P
• Avagadro's Law - At the same temperature and pressure equal volumes of all
gasses contain the same number of molecules. V = n
• Ideal Gas Law – PV = nRT
• Henry’s Law - Concentration of dissolved gas = Partial pressure x Solubility

coefficient. Sc O2= 0.024 CO2 = 0.57
• Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressures-Total pressure exerted by a mixture
of gases is the sum of the pressures exerted independently by each
gas in the mixture. The partial pressure of each gas is directly
proportional to its percentage in the mixture. Pair = PN2 + PO2 + PCO2 +
PH2O
• Graham’s Law - the rate of diffusion of a gas is 1/ to the square root of its
molecular weight.
Composition of Air
• Air = 21% O2, 78% N2 and 0.04% CO2
• Alveolar air = 14% O2, 78% N2 and 5.2% CO2
• Expired air = 16% O2, 78% N2 and 4.5% CO2
Composition of Alveolar Gas
• The atmosphere is mostly oxygen and nitrogen, while alveoli contain
more carbon dioxide and water vapour
• These differences result from:
– Gas exchanges in the lungs – oxygen diffuses from the alveoli and carbon
dioxide diffuses into the alveoli
– Humidification of air by conducting passages.
– The mixing of alveolar gas that occurs with each breath

Transport of Gases in the Blood: O2
• 98.5% of O2 is transported in combination with
Haemoglobin (Hb) molecules
– 1.5% of O2 is dissolved and transported in the plasma
• Hb
- A protein found in RBCs
– O2 binds loosely to Hb due to its molecular structure
• Hb consists of 4 polypeptide chains
– Consists of 4 globin molecules, each of which is bound to
a Haeme group.
– The Haeme group contains an Fe molecule, which is the
site of O2 binding.
• Each Hb molecule is able to carry 4 molecules of O2
Lungs
HHb + O2 HbO2 + H+
Tissues
The Haemoglobin-Oxygen Dissociation Curve
• Describes the relationship

between the arterial PO2 &
Hb saturation
• The Hb- O2 Dissociation

Curve plots the percent
saturation of Hb as a
function of the PO2
Hb-Oxygen Dissociation Curve…
Hb Saturation
Haemoglobin-Oxygen Dissociation Curve…
Hb Unloading of O2
• Factors that increase O2 unloading from Haemoglobin
at the tissues:
– Increased body temperature
• Decreases Hb affinity for O2
– Decreased blood pH (the Bohr effect)
• H+ ions bind to Hb
– Increased arterial PCO2 (the Carbamino effect)
Hb-Oxygen Dissociation Curve…
• These factors are all present during exercise and enable Hb to

release more O2 to meet the metabolic demands of working
tissues.
– ↑ body temperature = ↓ Hb affinity for O2
– ↑ H+ ions (↓ pH) = ↓ Hb affinity for O2
– ↑ arterial PCO2 = ↓ Hb affinity for O2

Transport of Gases in the Blood: CO2
CO2 may be transported in the blood by…
• Dissolving in the plasma ~ 5 - 6%
• Dissolving as bicarbonate ~ 85 – 90%
• Binding to Hb (carbaminoHaemoglobin) ~ 5%
Control of Respiration:
Medullary Respiratory Centers
• The dorsal respiratory group (DRG), or inspiratory center:
– Is located near the root of nerve IX
– Appears to be the pacesetting respiratory center
– Excites the inspiratory muscles and sets eupnoea (12-18 breaths/minute)
• The ventral respiratory group (VRG) is involved in forced inspiration

and expiration
Control of Respiration
Respiratory Centers
Depth and Rate of Breathing
• Inspiratory depth is determined by how actively the respiratory
center stimulates the respiratory muscles.
• Rate of respiration is determined by how long the inspiratory center

is active.
• Respiratory centers in the pons and medulla are sensitive to both

excitatory and inhibitory stimuli.
Abnormalities of Acid-Base Balance
• pH disturbances result due to inadequate or improper functioning of
respiratory mechanics.
• Respiratory acidosis
– The most common type of acid-base imbalance
– Accumulation of CO2 as the result of shallow breathing, pneumonia,
emphysema, or obstructive respiratory diseases
• Respiratory alkalosis
– Develops during hyperventilation
– Excessive loss of CO2
– Treatment includes re-breathing air to increase arterial CO2
Smokers Lowered Respiratory Efficiency
Smoker is easily “winded” with moderate exercise

– nicotine constricts terminal bronchioles
– carbon monoxide in smoke binds to Haemoglobin
– irritants in smoke cause excess mucus secretion
– irritants inhibit movements of cilia
– in time destroys elastic fibers in lungs & leads to emphysema
• trapping of air in alveoli & reduced gas exchange
Every thirteen seconds someone dies from a smoking-related

disease.
Ventilation-Perfusion Relationship (V/Q)
• V/Q ratio is the ratio of alveolar

ventilation (V) to pulmonary (West zones)
blood flow (Q).
• (under normal conditions =0.8)
• Ideally (best) V/Q = 1 (V = Q)
• V/Q ratio across lungs = 0.6 – 3
• V/Q highest at apex and lowest at

base.
Gen 2:7 And the LORD God formed man of the dust
of the ground, and breathed into his nostrils
the breath of life; and man became a living
soul.

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Respiratory Physiology

• Expiratory reserve volume (ERV) – Maximal volume that can be expired

• Residual volume (RV) – air left in the lungs after maximal/strenuous

• Functional Residual Capacity (FRC) – amount of air remaining in the lungs

• Vital capacity (VC) – Volume of maximal inspiration and expiration. (TV +

• Total dead space – sum of alveolar and anatomical dead spaces =

• Spirometry can distinguish between:

– Restrictive disorders – reduction in total lung capacity

• Decreasing surface tension reduces the amount of energy required to

AVR = frequency X (TV – dead space)

• Slow, deep breathing increases AVR and rapid, shallow breathing

• Ideal Gas Law – PV = nRT

• Henry’s Law - Concentration of dissolved gas = Partial pressure x Solubility

– Humidification of air by conducting passages.

– The mixing of alveolar gas that occurs with each breath

• Describes the relationship

• The Hb- O2 Dissociation

• These factors are all present during exercise and enable Hb to

– ↑ body temperature = ↓ Hb affinity for O2

– ↑ H+ ions (↓ pH) = ↓ Hb affinity for O2

– ↑ arterial PCO2 = ↓ Hb affinity for O2

• The ventral respiratory group (VRG) is involved in forced inspiration

• Rate of respiration is determined by how long the inspiratory center

• Respiratory centers in the pons and medulla are sensitive to both

Smoker is easily “winded” with moderate exercise

Every thirteen seconds someone dies from a smoking-related

• V/Q ratio is the ratio of alveolar

• (under normal conditions =0.8)

• Ideally (best) V/Q = 1 (V = Q)

• V/Q ratio across lungs = 0.6 – 3

• V/Q highest at apex and lowest at

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