SIGNALS AND NOISE

Communications system sinusoid

✗ (t) =
Asin ( Zitft + to )

values we can use

for modulation / Keying

Nyquist Sampling Theorem

extracts f- s 2 Zfm → to avoid

aliasing
transforms energy modulator
%" "
multiplexer bounded unbounded Functions
to electrical
demod singularity
encrypt .
wired -
wireless /
demon
waveguide Impulse /
radio
unit Dirac Delta Function
•

decrypt

signals

contains information about nature of phenomenon unit step / Heaviside Function

Analog signal
continuous in both time and amplitude

only signal that can travel through free space as EM Waves via wave

propagation
electrical properties used are
voltage frequency
, ,
current ,
charge
Digital signal
discrete in both time and amplitude

sampling +
quantizing ( disaetize in time + in
amplitude ) unit
Ramp / Ray
luke function

-
bit
Binary digit =

Time
shifting
how the
Fidelity -

qualitatively describes signal is replicated

classifications of signals

continuous -
time and Discrete -
Time

-
.
.

a)
-

81^+3 ] + 38 In +2 ] + 28 Intl ] + 38 In ] -28 [ n I] + 8 [n 2 ] + 2g [ n z]

domain
- -

cont in
-

and
range
b) 2u(t ) - 2 ult 1)-

c)
-

rlt ) 1- Zuct ) + rft 2) -

 SIGNALS AND NOISE
Real and complex Causal , Anti causal
-

,
Non causal -

Past
future ,

present { present
past & future

Deterministic and Random / Stochastic

Time Reversal Time

Scaling

Even and Odd

Even : ✗ C- t ) = ✗ (t ) or ✗ [ -
n ] =
✗ [n ]

Odd : ✗ C- t ) = -
✗ (t ) or ✗ [ -
n ] = -
✗ [n ]
^ a ✗ (-1-+1)
shift ( + +1 ,
✗
first Flip
~
~ c )

C. v v

system

physical device that performs an

operation on a
given signal

periodic and Aperiodic

Linear time-Invariant Systems

Linear Systems

Homogeneous : f- ( Kx ) = kfcx )

continuous functions periodic but Additive : f- ( × Xz ) f- ( × ) + f- (x2 )

trigonometric + =
All are , ,

all trigonometric discrete functions are aperiodic Test if additive 4×1-2

homogeneous : y
.

or =

and Power
Energy f- ( x ) (

X.tn/z)t2--4X,t2t4Xzt24KXt2--?k
H : =
4×+2 A! 4

?
(4×+2) 4×1 t 4×21-2 = 4×11-4×2 +4

not not additive

homogeneous
o< Eco Time Invariance
OL PL N
p=o
E = @

shift in input corresponds to a shift in output

9
if 2,

then
✗ ( tt )
power !
s =

yctts)

Determine if power
energy or .

✗ (f) = e-
"
tact) ,
a > 0 ✗ In ] =
u[n ]
° '
9999
"t ' I ✗ In ] / : 121-22+3 't
f (e- ) dt =
0 → finite 0

0 = to

Power
'

i.
Energy . .

h is the one

/ being shifted

f. flt )g(t -

I )dI
 SIGNALS AND NOISE
External Noise

{ 3 2,1 }
, { 3 1,2 }
,

q q

K) { 2,3 }
Flip : hl 1.
-
=

4
✗(K) = 93 , 1,2 }
q

Align for shifting :

✗ : 93 , 1,2 ) 93 , 1,2 } 93 , 1,2 )
q q q
h :{ 112,3 } { 2,3 } 2,3 } Internal Noise
1. { i.
T T T

9 61-3=9
Multiply : 31-21-6=11
Add 9 d
d d

y[ u ] y[ I ] y 12 ]
?

vn
{ 311,2 } Pn
{ 3 , 1,2 }
=
ER

q 9 " "

pinakataba
{ }
n

{ 1,2 3 } 1,2 , 3 " "

Bernardo
,

T T 4nA Kathryn

1+4=5 2
BW noise =
BW
d d } dB
-

3]
y[ y[ 2)

yin ] =
{ 9. 9.11.5.2 }
q

e-
charge of

Ndf
N ✗
¥

" "

pink noise
hln ) =
{ 3 -2,2 } ,
→ hl -
)
n =
{ 2
,
-2,3 }
q p
( )
✗ n = { 2,2 , 2 , 2,2 }
1 vn : 4K ( 300 )(4MHz )( 1000)

Un
8.14µV
:

✗ :
{ 2,2 , 2 , 2,2 }
q
h : >
{ 2 -2,3 }
1-
,
then
align p
move BN =
412C

Bn =
125 Hz
y[ n ] :
{ 6,2 , 6,6 6,0 4 } , ,

Noise

Noise and calculations

unwanted signal Analysis
Distortion : deviation by imperfect response
:
Interference addition of extraneous
signals
of Noise
General
category

signal-to-Noise Ratio CSNR)

SNR =
signal power
noise
power
Noise Factor & Noise
Figure

harmonic
external internal
F =
%i Te
intermodulation noise noise f- = It

distortion distortion
from outside the within the
system % %
If ,3f , 4f Zf , Ifz ,
2fz±f ,
system 290K

atmospheric noise
NF =
1010g (F)
less severe above Losses in Antenna system sky noise attenuation in dB
←
30MHz t
(L 1) 290 Tsky
%)
1-
-
-

Ta =

L
Ts = Tm
(1 - to Tant =

k
b 6
✓ mean absorption temp .

CONST [ 25 ]
effective noise
temp of.

antenna + fieldline
 SIGNALS AND NOISE
Noise
Measuring
dB rn C =D Bmt 90

dB =
dBm + 30

TLP = dBrnC -
dB rn CO

transmission level point

Excess Noise Ratio

TH Tc
ENR 1010g
-

Tc
 RADIO WAVE PROPAGATION
Wave Propagation Em Wave Quantities

t disturbance is in motion t movement through a medium Wavefront

set of where the has the

points wave same
phase
1 I 1
Source Medium Detector

Classification of waves

-
Transverse disturbance is 1 to direction
leg light radio )
I
-
,

Longitudinal disturbance is 11 to direction

( e. g. sound ) Power Density
-

Mechanical requires a medium PT

{
-

P, =

Electromagnetic -
does not need a medium 411-122 , spherical →
isotropic
antenna

( density )
Heavier atoms is
bigger → sound travels slower wave Impedance
sounds travel faster ratio between
through solids than
gases
.

electric and
magnetic field intensities on a

L since elastic
they are more certain medium "
133 ] [ 1m ]
µ i
µoµr
Zo =

E
Eo Er
'

132]
[ Hm ]

For free : Zo 1201T r =

377 A
space
=

Electromagnetic Wave
TR ,
T V

I =
YI
if free space
I use c in
•

f =

7
d R , TI

Electromagnetic spectrum
E EHF 30 to 300

V Voice 300 to 3000

VLF
V
3 to 30 kHz Surface AM Electric Field strength
L LF 30 to 300 kHz
30ps
E =

M MF 300 to 3000 kHz R

-11 HF 3 to 30 MHz FM Curr E over the Rockets

Sky Nagscore ng 30 points si -

V VHF 30 to 300 MHz

Effect of Environment of EM Waves

U UHF 300 to 3000 MHz

Absorption
s SHF 3 to 30 GHz Wave
Space µ EM waves are transferred to atoms and molecules of space
E EHF 30 to 300 GHz Interference
1 Infrared 300 to 3000GHz b two waves collide / combine
visible spectrum light ROYGBV may be constructive or destructive
,

If
Sunspot Cycles

Every very very loving

mother has very ugly 27 -

day or 11 -

year ( latest
at 2019 )

son except I
Optical Properties
Reflection
Polarization -

bouncing of waves

based on E- field Refraction -

bending of waves when

passing through mediums HLA LHT

Vertical
Linear
Horizontal
-

frequency remains constant !

circular
Diffraction -

tendency to bend around slits

Elliptical
Random
 RADIO WAVE PROPAGATION
Wave
Propagation Methods Sky

ionosphere then back to refraction

Ground Wave to
ground via

travels curvature of earth

h uses HF
too high f- →
prone to
absorption
along range
is lost to absorption
some
energy

eventually disappears due to tilting

space wave

travels in the troposphere

depends on Los conditions

Radio Horizon Ionization

dmi =
2hft.tt 2h
ft, r
occurs when high energy ultraviolet
light waves from the sun enter the

ionosphere →
strike a atom literally knock an electron free
gas
→
dkm =
17hm.tt 17hm ,
r

survival :

CONV 03 or 04 : in ← ft

07 or 08 : mi km

tropospheric scattering

D- Layer

lowest ,
least important for HF propagation ,
least ionized

reflects LF and MF ( absorbs radio waves due to ionization )

Ducting -
when radiowave
signals follow the curvature of the earth E- Layer / Kennelly -
Heaviside Layer
here
aids in MF
propagation auroral activity
-
occurs
,

temperature
f. inversion
reflects some HF waves
,
150 MHz above is unaffected
Es -

Layer (sporadic E-
layer )

very high ionization density

appears sporadically , persists during the

night
satellites
Propagation by F1
Layer
for combines with Fa
used more absorption ,
at
night
LOS !
1=2
Layer
most important for HF
 RADIO WAVE PROPAGATION
Fading
variations in
signal strength by atmospheric conditions

virtual
Height
apparent height of incident reflected back to
wave
ground
d
hu .
-

Hanoi

Skip Distance

distance between Tx and the point where the

sky wave first returns

to the earth

skip Zone

zone of silence

too far from and skip distance

ground wave

Maximum Usable
Frequency
MUF =
fc Sec Qi MUF =
fc iff a = 90°

1
critical

frequency
f-c = 9
Nmax
Max # of free e- per m3

Optimum Working Frequency

OWF =
0.85 MUF

always use this when MUF is not explicitly asked

Er
Resulting Field
Strength ,

4
depends on
freq ,
direct field strength Ed ,

difference between direct

geometrical path
and reflected paths 8

2 Ed sin it 8
Er =

hard
8 = 2 hat

than
* Raindrops cause
greater attenuation
by scattering by absorption
above 100 MHz
at frequencies
*
Ionospheric reflection is more
likely to occur at
long wavelengths .

*
Radiation is less affected by reflections from aircraft flying over

transmission path when vertical polarization is used .

 ANALOG MODUL ATION
Recall :

Types of wave
Propagation s

Surface →
LF ,
vertical
9
Ground
Terrestrial ( Los ) @ < 1)
.

gpdace undermodulation

Trans ionospheric ( sat Comm )

Sky ionospheric
-

crossover
6 distortion /
D ,
E ,
F (F & , Fz ) Kendall
effect
to E-
sporadic ( Kennelly -
Heaviside
layer )
Perfect modulation ( m =D over modulation (m > 1)
'
t d wall
freq ,
-

penetrating power
t ionosphere AM
penetrating power Frequency Spectrum
Modulation BW
1 I f- spy =
fc ± fun

•
alters characteristic of carrier according to message 's instantaneous
A. BW f- usps f- LSB
-
- -

• • •
value-Based f, f- m Froot fctfm
)
-

Vlt) ( wtt 0
=

Vp sin to

1
¥M
I

AM PM
side
frequency Amplitude
why do we need to modulate ?
Mvc
VSB =

V2 =

2
reach farther distances

4 practical size of antenna conventional AM system ( DSBFC )

length
✗ ✗ a
f- double side band -

full carrier

fc >> f- m →
smaller antenna Pt =
Pct PSB t PSB
"

frequency selection / can choose to Pc = Vrms

'

=
( " / 2) =
Vi
R R 212
How does modulation work ? vet ☐V

( 21T£ t )
' '
carrier: Clt ) V. f. ± Of
sin Vm (MK) MZ VCZ
:

pm =
= =
= MZP,
0-1=00 QR 212 2,2
Message
: mlt ) Vmsin (2ñfmt )
-
.

"

types of Modulation
PSB
VSBZ ( mvyz ) M
"

Pc
=
= =

Linear amplitude ZR 2,2 4

continuous
frequency
Angular
phase
: .
P
,
= Pet MF Pc If Pc +

"

( It
m
/ Pt ±
Pc
Discrete -

pulse amplitude / position width / code 2

Amplitude Modulation For SSBFC : For SSBRC (90% suppression )

Pt Pc P, 0.1 Pc Psp
1-
pspg
= = 1-

since 90% reduction

For SSBSC ( suppressed carrier) :

Pt =
PSB

For DSBSC i

P, =
ZPSB

transmit current / Voltage ( DSBFC )

Pt = Pct PSB t PSB

vid Vi
2R
=

Irt %¥+Y¥
ZVSBZ
-
Vmax =
Vct Vm VT =
Ve t

✓ min Vc Vm "

24m¥) 'VE
=

Vit
-

Vt = = Vi + m

2
m=
Vmax -

Vmin
=
Vm_ and v, = Vmax 1- Vmin
Vmax + Vmin Vc 2

( / depth
Vt = Vc It
m£ or It = Ic It
m£
modulating index

For several modulating signals ,

m= m,
-
+ Mit . . . + mi
 ANALOG MODUL ATION
Percentage Power
Saving
just sideband

Psuppressed → which elements were removed / redacted ? Pt =

Psis ( SSBSC )
PS =

Pc ( It %) →
Pct 2PsB =
Pt P suppressed % + PSB Pc +
¥ Pc 0.86=86 %
PS = =
=
=

International Telecommunication Union ( ITU )

Designations p, f , +
mg , Pc ( It %-) p,
g , + my ,
Modulation
Frequency

Van ( t) =
Vows ( 21T ( fct kfvmcos Zitfmt ) t )
all
4
frequency modulation sensitivity [ ¥ ]
reduced from VCO

half sideband
-
8 =
kfvm =
Of man, =
✗ fun where ④ =
sin
- '

( Str )
just sideband

of
=
m
fm

m : Sf
fm
fmax =
15kHz , max

Peak Envelope Power

Average Power

'
PEP = Vrms pave = PEP PEP
to
R 4 3
Carrier
swing =
28g
=
6fm
PEP =
Vs Imax

amplifier 's > 0.5 : wideband FM ( for broadcasting )

m
voltage supply
m < 0.5 :
Narrowband FM ( for two radios )
way
-

FM Bandwidth

0.42+0.92 1 1
Theoretically infinite
m = I
gf gf
m
= 0.98
due to harmonics

Vpp
=
178 ✓ Vrms :
Fez fm fm fm fm fun tn In fm →
guard
Carson 's
band
rule
for

Up =
89 V

(§§¥ Carson 's Rule

PEP =

BW = 2 ( 8ft f- m ) →

approx . 98% of BW is usable

PEP =
52.81 W L CS Zsf add Zfm band
guard
=
, we as
,

FM Transmitter
Layout
Pt =
Pet PSB t PSB
IZÉR IT Pc
2

= R + 241-4212 8
PSB =

I¥R =
¥121 Xm¥zIiR + = 0.9382
150 )
Phase Modulation

4
-1,2 : Ii + m
'
Ii ✓ pm ( t) = V, cos ( rhitfct +
kpvmcos Zitfmt )
I
PSB = 11W
4
phase modulation sensitivity [Fd ]
It Ic I ME from PLL
-

+
-

00mm, =
Mp =
kpvm
2.4=2 I + MI Indirect
Angular Modulation

m =
0.938

Phase mud freq mod

Ii R = 4.82 ( 40 ) =
921.6 W
12=40 A a) Pc :

m= 0.9 b) Pt =
Pc ( It %-)
W
Ic =
4.8 A =
1294.85 Vlt ) =
Up sin (a)
dd¥
RMS
assume

c) p
,
=p , + 2ps , facet = W and W =

PSB : 186.63W
 ANALOG MODUL ATION
Indirect FM PM
Using RF > > IF

f- (t ) = fc t kf Vm cos 21T-1Mt (w =2ñf ) a

0 (f) = 2# ffctldt LO

kfvm
= 21T
[fat ±
Zitfm
sin 2-itfmt
] Image Frequency
=
21T fat +
kfvm sin Zitfmt fun =
fs t Zf , ,=
fm
Image Frequency Rejection Ratio
Lomax

IFRR =
It
QZPZ ( should be high )
Indirect PM fun
f so
FM
using p
=
-

(t)
kpvm fs
: fun Zitfctt cos Zitfmt

f- (t )
) Bandwidth Improvement
2¥ (
=
1-
ziff , ± # kpfmvmsin Zitfmt
BW = BWRF
improvement
BWIF
=
fc I kpfmvm sin Zitfmt

Of man
,
Noise
Figure Improvement
Summary BW
NF improvement =

1010g improvement

Factor
Coupling
Direct 1
Kc =
( critical )
Indirect
QpQc

Receiver ( Optimum )
Kopf = 1.5 Kc

selects AM
signal and extracts
original message usually used for IF transformers to obtain steep

tuner detector skirt and flat passband

+ + amplifier
Parameters BW =

koptfo
Sensitivity Desirable SIN =
1000

Liability to receive & amplify weak

signal For 100% AF half the input power
modulation , modulating power is

selectivity Pm =
Pi
2
ability to select one
signal and reject others nearby
stability For AM receiver ,

ability to be fixed or tuned to a desired

freq Frequency tuning range =
capacitance tuning range
suppression dB>

¥ fc 20
fs IF
¥ ¥
+
10
Q
}
max
Q= 455 KHZ for AM
=
= = = ,

BW 44 g. min + ,p

I
SSB
generation superheterodyne Receiver
fp =

21T LC filter method to eliminate

1 of 2 sidebands
f- RF IF, + 11=2
IF , =
ftp.
superheterodyne Receiver
injected
of
improves rejection / sidebands
( image freq L : 0.5 MHz
1. 0MHz 1.0 MHz Hi 2.5 MHz
tho f- net f- IF
=
11=2
0.5

Fitter MHZ
Cn set like this
MHz 0.5 MHz
2. 0 MHz 2.0 L :
to cancel out
G H: 3.5 MHz

image
freq Induced Voltage
1.5MHz

Yi = K ( 21T f) BAI

Mixer IF Amplifier
Amplifier
'

ARMI DAS Antenna RF + + +

. +
carrier
freq . for channel 1: 540kHz

Detector + Audio Amplifier + Speaker

Low -
side and
High
-
side Injections

flow to fi
}
=
receiver 's intermediate freq
-

fi =

f- won =
fo 1- fi 455kHz for AM receivers

6 10.7MHz for FM receivers

image
frequencies
 TRANSMISSION LINES
Parallel Wire Lines Coaxial Cables Unshielded Twisted Pairs

for LAN , ethernet connections , telephone

lines

flexibility and reliability in

high speed
current to noise and EMI
equal anti parallel prone
-

opposite phase T # of twists ,

T data rate

Unbalanced Transmission Lines

forms an electric field between

lines →

voltage ! Rigid coaxial Line

changing current forms magnetic .

for FM and AM

field .
minimizes radiation losses
/
usually
Unbalanced be kept
air
expensive and must
dry
.

L Flexible Coaxial Line

one is at
ground
Signal Noise
Input ideal for high speed data and video
~
-

source
:
~ applications

high BW transmission high flexibility

-

, ,

Balanced grounding
high transfer rates

neither conductor at ground bulky expensive must be grounded

-

, ,

Input
semi-Rigid Coaxial Line
~ ~ +

source if ~ @ high freq

-

superior screening
.

" "

noise in
-

not flexible ,
hard line
phase !

Balanced Transmission Lines

Two Wire Line

Open
-

lines,
power lines rural telephone
.

"
,

you
telegraph lines ,
ideal for
high energy Form able cable

simple construction can be stripped and formed

' -

pickup w/o special tools

-

high loss + noise by hand

Two wire Ribbon (twin head )

for TV sets Balan

lower losses than coaxial L converts balanced to unbalanced &

•

, vice versa

prone to physical damage Losses

-

Copper Loss

Shielded Pair RR loss heat

energy dissipated as
-
.

braided shield lessens crosstalk skin effect tendency to flow mostly surface
- '

on
-

cord of
.

power washing machine / due to H field caused by

refrigerator eddy current →

Lenz 's law

.
cancels EMI to maintain fast energy
connected to 1-
f-
¥
✗ a
ground potential
transfer Reff

more expensive
-

Dielectric Loss

heating effect on the dielectric material

polyethylene is often used

 TRANSMISSION LINES
Induction Loss L L
Zo =
→ 52 :
: 202.8 nH

when EM field about a conductor cuts through any nearby

C 75
pflm m

For 5 meters : L 1.014 µH

metallic object
:

Radiation Loss
276 12mm
297.85
log r
=
Zo =

1 , mm
some
magnetic lines of force about a conductor do not return
air
Transmission Line Constants
138
L, distributed constants →
per
unit length zo :
er
109¥
(G)
138
=
log = 43.42N
2.3
MH n
Leakage
g current

1-
¥
no
pF VF = =

2. 1

Up = C ( UF ) =
207.02×106 m/s

of wires dielectric
depend on size , spacing .
a
'

target
→
time domain
-
reflectometer 701250ns
Characteristic Impedance ttota , = 250ns
VF = YP =

3×108

Rt 217ft D= 35m VF =
0.93
z =

Gt 2ñfC dtotal = 70m 30cm

1 I

At low
freq
: 2- =
R

G
VF =
0.97 = Y f :
¥ I
60cm
• •

0.97C
Vp
§
= 0 -97C f =
485MHz
high freq
At : 2- =
=

Go em

Wire Line of Transmission Line

Two -

Length
L >
¥ :
electrically long

L< ¥ :
electrically short →

preferred so that
impedances become

276 PVC : Er smaller

of
"
= 3.2
two wire Zo
log
"
→ ✗ 2 =

Polyethylene : Er = 2.27
Er Maximum Power Transfer

Coaxial Line 2- source =

Zo = R load

mismatched impedance causes reflected waves

P incident =
Road t Preheated
If from
138 d, ground :
minimize !
Zo
log
=

er dz Zo =
13810941
Ter d standing wave
-

reflected + incident

constant L
Propagation ,
ideally no
standing wave

measure of change in amplitude and

phase Open Ended
-
Line

8 =
(Rtjwl)( Gtjwc) = ✗ +
jB
.
Phase Constant
~
Reflected voltage wave is in
phase ( maximum 5. W .
)
I 21T )
phase ( minimum
5. W
p=w LC = Reflected current wave is out of
'

Attenuation constant 7
R
✗ =
Neper /
[ length ]
[ rad /
length ] Short -

Ended Line
zzo

Refraction
~
Reflected current wave is in
phase ( maximum 5. W .
)
)
due to difference speed within mediums Reflected is out of phase ( minimum 5. W .

in voltage wave

C terminated ( short ) terminated ( Open I

n =

Vm LL ¥ Inductive Capacitive

Note :
frequency is kept constant between mediums L= ¥ Parallel Resonant Series Resonant

"
Factor L > capacitive Inductive
velocity -4

VF = Up =
I
→ Up =
C Recall :
c- Er Er
← Series Resonance
speed of 1 I 2- is capacitive 2- is inductive
I
light L Vp
→ VF =
: fr
i 7
Analogous
=
c Lc →
, Lc 4
z
n

L
propagation velocity Remember : Open → Series

I > f-
fr
 TRANSMISSION LINES
Reflection coefficient ZL = 300 r f- = 50MHz

Zs 751 VF = 0.85
V reflected Zi -
Zo SWR -
1
=

I 0
ideally
=
= =
→

Vincident Zit Zo SWR + 1

L =
¥ VF =
¥ →
Up = VFC

¥ ¥
'
Return Loss I f- =
→ D= =

0.85C
RL
2010g / It
= -

I =
=
1.275m
4150MHz)
'

Wave Ratio
standing Zo =
Zits

Vteflected 75.300=1501
=

VSWR Vinoident +
I
= →
ideally
V incident ✓reflected
150A
-

: use a 1.275 -
m wire

ISWR =
I incident + I reflected Microstrip Transmission Line

7- incident - I reflected
87 5.98h
Zo =
In

I + I Ert 1.41 0.8W tt

RL
SWR = =
ZI or →
numerator
1- q R, z,
is
greater
stripline
5W

(
Pine =
Road = ? 6° 4d
zo =
In

Zo = 75W Er 0.6MW
(0.8++4)
-1=0.75 balance
Longitudinal
Pine Pret Road
( open circuit longitudinal voltage
= +
LB =

2010g
metallic
I =
Pref
O.gg =
Pref
Pref =
2.8125
voltage
→ →

Pine g-
cable
categories
P load = Pine -
Pref

=
5 -
2.8125

2.1875 W
=

SWR It I
=
= 4.4672
1- I

I =
Z, -
Zo
= 0.6342
2- it Zo

21T
B =
f : 10MHz
✗

Up 2.5×108
= mls

f- = ¥ → ✗ =
¥
p
=
2¥ = 0.2513rad / m = 14.4° / m

I
✗ =
22-0
0 .
121
=
100
Coaxial Cables

✗ : 1.21×10-3 Neper / m

1 Np =
8.686 dB

✗ =
0.0105dB / m

Impedance Matching
use impedance transformer
when Zo =/ Zi or Zs =/ Zo :

Add wire of
length L =
¥ and Zo
'
: Zo -2, or ZsZo

stub
Matching
 TRANSMISSION LINES
Coaxial Cables

Designations
1268 / U
RG 8AM
specification
universal
A. Bor C indicates
number
gov assigned approval
,
- ,

modification or revision
government
radio
frequency

coaxial connectors
 ANTENNA SYSTEMS
Antenna Antenna Characteristics

conductor or
system of conductors that radiates or receives .
Radiation Pattern .

Resistance

energy in the form of EM waves .

Beam width .
Gain

resonant transmission lines ! → no load , or short -

Bandwidth Front -
to -
Back Ratio
open
.

1
-

Polarization
f, =

endpoints
21T LC 6 Radiation Pattern →
in power
^
^

^^ ^^ ^^ ^^
^ distribution of radiated energy
^^ ^^ ^^ ^^

~
> ~
bidirectional ,
unidirectional
/
,

omnidirectional
supplies are

called feed
points

current decreases as it reaches the end of the line : Bidirectional

di
Half -
Wave Dipole Antenna
✗
d①_
dt dt

Nodes -
min pt minimum malaki
É
Loops -

max pt
nodes
loops
Gain : 2.14 dB

magnetic ←
Max at
distribution
Beam width : 78°
field end (
:
voltage É
hoop)
( creates

Usually horizontally polarized

>
~ ←
at
- - -

Max
- - - -

distribution
- -

: current
feed point Ñ

E- It
=
Folded Half Wave
Dipoles ✗
-

h half -

wavelength antenna ( Hertz ) Poynting Vector

Electric
Length of Antenna
1^6 ,
t.IO

✗ =

f- ( based on
wavelength )

Actual / Physical Length of Antenna omnidirectional

Lpnys =
0.95 Lelec ideal antenna , radiator ,
point source
→
isotropic

To consider End -
Effect

added
capacitance ( added charges) at the ends
,

it
making electrically longer
types of Loading
to make antennas spherical ( free space )
appear longer amorphous ( bounded)
Coil takes shape of
inductance in series
-

Loading →

container
-

Top loading →

capacitance in parallel →
increases effective height turnstile Antenna

Fields 4
cross ¥ antennas ,
for omnidirectional VHF comms

Near / Inductive Field

temporarily stores power

.
Far field

not perfect
throughout
a
extends ✓
sphere
space

Attenuation
fading due to distance
→

Principle of Reciprocity Marconi Antenna ( quarter wavelength)

characteristics whether used transmitter receiver
vertically polarized
same as or

L the antenna
,
grounding produces
an
image antenna →
Iz
 ANTENNA SYSTEMS
Radials he =
¥ tan 1¥
3×10%0×106 1T (¥8)
+an
improves ground conductivity
=

21T ☒

he =
1.98 m

Bandwidth

of freq it can radiate / intercept

range

BW =
fr
Q

unidirectional T area use LC traps ,

T # of driven elements →
T BW
,

Yagi Uda Antenna

array
-

Antenna Array
0.95¥ → use
physical length by
/
default !

n elements :
O l driven
1 reflector
{ directors
f.
n -2

parasitic

L
. 00 →

a.
Rhombic Antenna

L
, non -
resonant ( has a load )
, vertically polarized increasing elements increases
lobes ( usually 4 elements)
minor up to

Log -
Periodic
Dipole Antenna ( LPDA)
/

¥
y ,
T =

l,
=

¥ = . . .

/
( design factor ( usually 0.7 to 0.98 )

C C
f- µ =
fi =

" ✗
Beam width short
long

4 measured between half power -

points ( -3dB) on main lobe LPDA Yagi

-
Uda

/
for multi band
Beamwidth between Nulls Hf receiver
vertical feed point @,
horizontal , feedpoint @
dis cone : UHF
end center (driven )
helical : VHF
best -
excited : horn
( n driven 0 parasitic ) ( 1 driven ,
n -
l
parasitic)
,

Log Yagi
-
: n -
2 driven ,
2
parasitic
polarization

① nun =
210

Antenna Effective
Height
of above
height of center of radiation a
transmitting antenna

electric ground
/ o

usually 111 antenna polarizations must match ( transmitting & receiving)

tzto % h
~
+
he =
¥ tan ✗
the %)
of h he
'

grountd lamtupi tan pihlam

 ANTENNA SYSTEMS
diameter # of tums
Helical circularly polarized y
^
Antenna →

( 1¥ )
→ pitch
6=15 ( distance bet .
EIRP =
PTGT =
Pdb + 6dB
turns )
16000)
52
1010g t 10
=

of =

satellite tracking @ VHF (faraday effect) ( )( ¥ )"

EIRP :
47.78 dB ,

6:15 years old ni Pi hilahin ERP =

47.78 2.14 = 45.64 dB
palang isip
-

nasa na na
,

pababa si Lambda
, dalawangdalaga ( Girls) ,

nasaan si 7
, sa baba 12rad 72
n =
=
=
90%
Rt 72+8
10:52 years old na sila mahila ni Pi si Lambda
pababa
nang

pero dedz na Sila noon (8) ,

nasaan si Lambda ? nasa G =
MD
baba root 16=0.90
ng

Default : s =
¥ D: 17.77

D= ¥ '
effective length
Assume n =
1 so 6 =D → 7dB =
1010g (6) → 6=5.01

Aeff =D Aiso

( §÷ )
3×108 - Z

④ =
gy ✗ =
750×106
S =
10×10 =
5.01 f
2

12.7×10-2
( ÷d ) 1¥ µ = to
D=

① :
32.97° Aeff =
0.897 m2
main lobe
Front - to Back
-
Ratio

PB / ¥
Antenna Gain
Apps =
1010g PI
direction to that of PB 9 9
comparison of output power in a
isotropic
minor
side
lobe lobe
antenna

Isotropic : Gain of 1 reflectors

Epp : based on
isotropic
increase
using
ERP : based on half -
wave
dBi =D Bat 2.14dB
dipole
Wrt half -
wave dipole antenna

(t)
"

!
"
dB Ayyy → mataas Kaya rhyming !
" """ ""

?
Efficiency d, lambdee,
pi
G =
ND Ganda squaredee
6 >
directivity Antenna with Parabolic Reflectors
power
gain

Antenna Directive Gain

, ,

my,gyy 0.5£ ME
( default :
0.7

n -0.55 )
.

( ¥)
P Aeff
'

D= =
Aeff =
DA ;so ⑦ =
70
Pref Aiso
d 2

t Aiso
✗
Methods of
power 4,7 Feeding
= :

density
fed
center
Cassegrain
-

d l
Antenna Resistance transline waveguide
Radiation Resistance ( 12rad )
L resistance that dissipates
.
equivalent same power

ohmic Resistance ( Rd )
elements
due to various
conducting
Efficiency in terms of Resistance

n =
Prad =
Rrad_
Pt Rt 4rad 1^6 -
satcomm
,

Rt = Rrad 1- RD
 ANTENNA SYSTEMS
Gain and Aperture
"
physical of antenna

¥09 )
g)
2 area

6 n
(11-1%5) 6031.42
=
= 0.55 :

41T Ae
G =
where Ae =p A
2
✗
10 70
( Ig ) 2. I ⑦ nuns 2$ 4.2° aperture efficiency
=
=
= → =

Yagi -
Uda

Horn Antenna Reflector : 0.57

Driven : 0.4757 0
Director : 0.457 I # of parasitic elements
both 0.1257 =
I
gain

4 conical the Beam width given gain

rectangular use same

formula for 6 and to as

parabolic 203
¢ =
[ degrees ]

P#
G. dB
E is 5th letter 10
567 10
5. . .
6 . . .

elevated
/

. . .
7 . . . H

I same as
from
higa parabolic

The positions of X and d are always

interchanged between 6 and 10

Pattern Antenna
Symmetrical
203
¢ =

6dB/20
yo

Induced Voltage from hoop Antenna

V = K ( 2nF ) BAN [ V]
d

factor

AM carrier frequencies
540 to 1600 kHz at 10 kHz intervals ( 106 possible bands)

(e. g. channel 1 -1540 kHz 2 → 550kHz . . . )

,

* Dipole

Fully illuminated passive repeater * simple horizontal antenna is bidirectional .

58.77
10 =

Induced Open -
circuit
voltage

V =
E left where E = 3017Gt
and left = I
o
IT

g
for half-wave

Assume Gt 1.64 dipole

0.38
=
m
 MICROWAVE COMMUNICATIONS
Microwave Communications Terrestrial Satellite / Trans ionospheric

1GHz to 100GHz

to line of
sight ( LOS )
space wave
propagation point point
- -

,
,

E EHF 30 to 300

V Voice 300 to 3000

VLF
V
3 to 30 kHz Surface AM
L LF 30 to 300 kHz
Terrestrial Microwave Communication

M 300 to kHz Terminal

MF 3000 where
signal starts or ends
-

-11 HF 3 to 30 MHz sky FM Repeater -

passive ! retransmitted
(shortwaves )
V VHF 30 to 300 MHz active !
reconfigured +
amplified
U UHF 300 to 3000 MHz The K Curve
-

s SHF 3 to 30GHz Wave refraction

Space µ considers
atmospheric
E EHF 30 to 300 GHz substandard :
K < 4g -
bent away
standard : K :
413 -

straight
( default )
1 Infrared 300 to 3000GHz
Superstandard ik >
4g towards
-

Standard
mother has ugly infinity :

Every very very loving very

son except I

Bands spirals
Frequency

Band Freq 1GHz)

L l -
2 ( long) ro

)
re =

Ns
powers of
2 0.005577 → Surface
S 2- 4 (short) I -

0.04665 e refractivity ( 300)

4-8 ( compromise -1
l
C

✗ 8- 12 ( Cross) +4 V0 1

re t rf- y
re =
k = ""
Ns
(12/18)
=
0005577
"

I -0.04665 e
( birthday Ku
ro
-18 ) 12 Kurtz under o.o AGGG e
solve for K
if Ns is not
K 18 -
27 (Kurtz) K na ! (di na minor ) for K when Ns 300 and 6370
solving
=
ro 300 !
=

Ka 27 -

40 (Kurtz above ) Kasalanan na yields k= 1.33

U 40 60 ( Ultra ) Earth curvature

Bulge and
-

✓ 80 obstacle to earth 's curvature

60 distance is raised
higher owing
-

an

W 80 -
100 ( wideband) Wala na :( ←--p-f--f€←€gtFg curvature-
dmi =
2h
Ft
+
Zhft

Advantages 41g ( if Ns is not

given )

can carry large quantities of information TBW ,

I ✗ BW
dkm =
17hm t
17hm
small antennas

minimal crosstalk between voice channels f-_=_

increased and less maintenance Fresnel Zone
reliability

Disadvantages where
signal might end
up
in , elliptical !

requires no obstacle "

Clearance Zone
Clearance

L h clearance
high cost
0.612,1
=
.

1st Fresnel
susceptible to rain snow
, 2- one

complicated electronics
circuitry ,
at T
freq :
"
-
wires : ummm
malaki d ni Miles kesa

Kay Kim :

in
resistor : MTF need for ✗ 103 72.1>17.3
no
✓
inductor :
MTF
m

-11 -

capacitor : melt
consider -1
usually n
-

we

even Fresnel zones ( n= 2,4 .

. . .
) causes

destructive interference
 MICROWAVE COMMUNICATIONS
Antenna Gain

"

(1T¥)
2h ft
2ha
(J)
t
dmi =
6 =
n 10=70
2130) 2150)

(
=
t = 17.75mi

0.55
aperture efficiency
: use or 0.6

Free Loss
Space
"
Fc
(41T¥ ) ( 4T¥)
= 0.6 F

0.6/17.3 fGHzd
,

Fc = nd.dz
FSL =
FSLDB :
2010g
D= 45km

32-4
,
45km
, FSLDB : +
2010g Dkm +
2010g fmµz

* 1 A =

0.647.3 (1)( 151130 )

( 1111451
) carrier
FSLDB
-
to -
Noise
= 96.6

Ratio
+
2010g Dmi 1-
2010g f- GHz

I 1 I

d
%d Fc = 9.9m c-
No
=
EIRPDBW -

Fsldpgt ¥d☐ ,,
-

lologk
-
( other losses )
Boltzmann 's
0.5dB polarization loss
→

terminal/ constant [
25 ]
0.5dB each → loss
Other losses pointing , satellite
1dB for elevation less than 100
angle gaseous absorption
less than 8°
y losses (usually ignored
0.5dB for elevation angle
below 10GHz )
Fade
Margin
w/o obstruction :

N
hobs the = hant →
hant = he design allowance

multipath reliability/ (o.gg )

I
.. .

1 effect T availability
he = nd.dz
72.1

,
25mi
µ ,
25mi
,
fd

)
26

0.6/72.1
i.
Assumption : 50mi ,
obstacle halfway (1) ( 25 )
"
i. 4 f
= ÷4G ÷2E default
i. 26

,
8150)
Forest
=
54.075ft sa ,
30 illegal loggers ang
my dumating , may
10
loggers pa
hz :
he + hobs = 54.075+45 {}-11 53 ④
Kasama si Gab ( mataasfngutak) ,

Roll 1L umalisagad , pumitas ng rosas .

ha =
99.075ft t
pamasahe ay 70
99,075 -
54.075
✗ 100%
: % Oh =
54.075

=
83.2% Thermal Noise Threshold

Link P, KTBF Use 1- =

1-room 290K
Analysis
= =

% dB =
RSLDBM -
PNCDBM)
dB
dB dB Sensitivity or Comin

System Gain / Total Net Loss

dB
dB Gs : E {
gain
-

loss
( loss )

(
"

( 1T¥) )
°
(2)
1010g ¥0T
"
minimum carrier
G =
M = 0.55 = 8685.25
dBm →
☒w gym
46GHz

6dB =
101096 =
39.39dB

FM 3010g Dkm -11010g ( 6ABfoµz) 1010911 R) 70

= -
-
-

3010940 1010g (6-4-0.511.8) 1010g (1-0.9999)-70

=
+ -

FM= 31.41dB

-
( 54km , or
just
✗

50km
I assume

bit Eb
signal per energy , -

Ptapmt Losses
1010g ( bitrate) dBm ] RSL Gain
RSL [ DBW = -

Eb : - or

=
30 dBm t 2120dB ) 1.9dB -1dB 10dB
Improvement threshold
-

FM
-

411-(54×103) (2.5×109)
2010g ( FSL
→
10dB
Pfm 1010g BW NFDB
-

=
-204 DBW + + t 3×108
this term yields the
removing RSL :
-77 dBm
thermal noise threshold
 MICROWAVE COMMUNICATIONS
Éff£qg÷
values in free space !

Fading

Diversity
countermeasure to
fading to increase reliability

Frequency Diversity

#-)
?

only Vo has 1- being multiplied

"
potential
"
breakdown
* 0.27 to 0.57 for b
governed by
→

"

range of operating frequencies

"

* a determines
f, f,
* Vg Vp = CZ
f, fz

Space Diversity
1
default for
s

satellite communications

freq diversity
9

satellite Tx and Rx are near

9 very
spacing so f- up =/ t down
Ed
FM ✗
Availability Satellite Orbits

E-EAB.sn
3¥h
¥Hz =
=
3 ✗
✗ 8477 → K =
¥
30

Sm :
25.43m

Waveguide
hollow metal tube

less
copper loss ,
no skin effect

to Calamba
Ortigas : 50 km

Manila to Baguio : 300 km

of resonant cavity
Physical size and shape affects
primary frequency
a
* .

^^

Dominant Mode

produces lowest cutoff freq

^
^ A A
^^ ^

?
TE a TE "

( rectangular) ( circular)
 FIBER OPTIC COMMUNICATIONS
Optical Communications Submarine Fiber Optic Link

signal is carried by light through fibers of

glass or plastic
world 's distance
more than 85% of long comms

Fiber Optic Cable

very thin strands of highly transparent glass

bundled together

via total internal reflection ( discovered by Tyndall )

telephone (187-6) '

cellphone (197-6)
Bell + Watson Martin Cooper

Photo phone Total Internal Reflection

>

Laser ( 1960 ) reflection + refraction

he light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation he 0; > Ctc ( i. e. Or > 90° )

to
compare to spontaneous emission n
core
> n
cladding
like in LEDs ( through of Light Along
propagation a Fiber

recombination evident GaAs ) Meridional

, in
Rays
Long Range communication standard :
pass through axis ( dotted line )

1964 Charles Kao : of loss per km

by 10 or 20 dB
light ( no TIR)

be achieved in
can
pure glass
TIR
couple fibers
Fiber
Optic Data Link ~ together

- converts electrical -
mechanical .
converts optical signal
signal to optical fusion back to electrical
Recall : hair = I -0003
signal
.

signal light detectors

1.33
.

nwater =
-

light source ( LED , ( Avalanche photodiode ,

laser diode )
PIN diodes)
1.5
-
modulation .
demodulation Nglast =

Acceptance angle / Half acceptance angle

Advantages
oh not to be confused with
acceptance cone
angle /
whole acceptance angle 20

like a
6 funnel unbounded → loss !
>

,,
>

¥
u bound
20
K ray

Disadvantages
light w/ in

ONA
couple

ni ni
-
-
-

Basic structure NA = Sino =

n cos Oc
,

b. numerical
aperture

ideally large ( more light passes through )

skew
Rays
increases NA

h
may be single-mode ( < 10µm ) or multi mode -

'

62.51125 fiber optic

"

A cable
l diameter
cladding
core diameter in
am
in
um
 FIBER OPTIC COMMUNICATIONS

> or 2.4 for

dmax

( %)
"

n, 1.5 b) to sin
al
=
=

High BW

FID = 0.0005
Qc : 88.19°

sin 0 n cos Qc
c)
=

FID = hi -
Nz ,

hi
( c)
"
0 =
sin n, cos ② Fiber Optic Configurations
nz : 1.49925 ① =
2.72° Single Mode step Index ( good for comms ✓ )

NA sin

ONA
d) =

= 0.0474

Multi mode
step Index (✗ due to modal dispersion )

n, =
1.62 20 =
10° not at the
same time

a) Sino = n , cos Qc b) Oc = sin

"

( %) Multi mode Graded Index ✓

sin ( 5° ) = 1.62 Cosa 86.92° =

sin
"

( ¥2)
⑤a = 86.92° Nz =
1.6177

c) hi -
V2
Fly =

h,

4 time
FID =
0.00142 they still arrive at the same

of Fiber Cables Single Mode Graded Index

Types

According to Material Used he does not really exist

f-
¥ I
=
→ ✗ :

According to index
profile 2.4 =
ltdmax NA

→ limit for Vnumber

( < mode )
dmax =
2.1827µm 10µm since single

to # of modes
According
2

(
Hd NA
modes : 0.5

'
NA =
n
,
- n,
2
=
0.2257

light )
2
short-haul : 650hm ( visible IT d (0-2257)
372 = 0.5

850 1300hm , 1500 ( near IR ) 1300hm

Long-haul
: nm nm
,

"
(NA)
④ dare ) d 50µm
=

Modes = 0.5
✗

4 normalized
frequency fu
or V number
 FIBER OPTIC COMMUNICATIONS

)
2

(
modes
it (25µm ) ( 0.135 )
=
0.5

0.835µm

modes : 80.62 > 81 modes

single Mode Multimode

'

rmax
= 0.3837
NA
M= 0.5
(
Hd ( NA )
✗
)
f- Nor VNumber
dmax =
2rma×

2.4 =
far to get dmax
 TELEPHONY
Telephony switch Hook

4 transmission of sound distance DPST switch actuated

at
very long by

sound i
transducer ,
transducer > sound telephone set
electricity
with
← button we play
how to transmit human voice ?
Bell experimented with telegrams ,

b 1875 : Watson helped with the

telephone

>

Elisha (open) ( short )

Gray
Father of
synthesizers ✓

telephone patent (
"

of
"
robbed
✓

plunger
Thomas Edison
R is infinite
suggested using carbon
granules Loop current is zero

Antonio Meucci

years ago from telephone ) telegraph

L 1871 ( 5
,
: sound

US
Congress credited Meucci with invention of telephone

set
telephone
/
( central /
End /
Local
exchange
(twisted office )
pair )
His .
must be
open if ringing

Handset (Transmitter) vibrating diaphragm

voice
] ✓

Ac voice signal produced is a 1 to 2 Vrms

Use 48 V.
Handset ( Receiver )

small permanent magnet with a coil resting in a

permanent
magnet ( EM ! )

ls voice i 0.5 to 1 Vrms

Ringer
RL ( 48)
bell or electronic oscillator
,
EM coils
operate the hammer in Ioff =
Voff
,
0.1

Roff 220 r

48 V I { Roff = 220 r

I off =
21.82 mA
-

As an aside :

Ron = as

due to : Von
negative voltage =
Vco ,
☐c
•
less prone to corrosion
-
to avoid electric shocks Ion =
0
 TELEPHONY

✗ DC →
f- = 0

in the
Dialing switching central office

> remember if
not
given !
Central Office

connects telephones to each other

Dual Tone Multi ( DTMF )

frequency
-

✗ 1.105 ✗ 1.105+1

rn
1209 1336 1477

697 I 2 3
✗
(
1.105
770 4 5 6

✗ 1.105

+ I
( 852 7 8 9
✗ 1. 10£94 , * 0 # :
Hierarchy
Regional Office
sectional Office

Primary Office
Toll Office
End / Central Office
Stations

Public Switch Telephone Network ( PSTN )

Transmission Medium

Pulse :

tb :
( 41-21-2 1-91-31-4 1- 2) (0.1 ) t 6 ( 0.35) .

Dial -

up ( call + internet )

tb =
4.7s .

Digital Subscriber Line ( DSL)

( call + internet )

tb : 7- (0.3 ) t 610.25 ) =
3.6s

Basic Call
Progress

800 service >

paid by callee ( toll free ) ( e. g.
-

1-800 -

. .
.
)
900 service caller
paid by
'

Leased line
 TELEPHONY

call centum second

Impairments
>

A :
Ctn = 237 call .
2.5min .
1hr

60min .
1hr

A = 9.88 call .hr/hr

via -
Net Loss

loss introduced to avoid and echo

singing
threshold is 2.5dB
A =
7200 c. CS 1 Erlang = zoo E
-

hr 36 Ccs 1hr

Is where it =
I = time
delay in ms

Via Net Loss Factor rate 0.8 calls / subscriber

calling
- =

2000 lines
0.2
VNLF =

✓
tu =
5min =
Io hr

A :
0.812000 ) ( %)
A =
133.33 E

VNL 0 It t 0.4 % Overflow /

Blocking ( % OF)
=
.

=
0.21500) 1- 0.4 =
100.4 dB (unless 2.5dB
is in the choices )
2
quarters of a second i 0.5s

Traffic Intensity

Grade of service

1 I

•
Lost →
no line is established
"

Dropped biglang
"
.
→ nawala

•
Blocked →
no line is available

" "
I ] 1 hour
lang

6
Grade of service =
=
0.0167
354 -16
 TELEPHONY
Bagg
:

Mobile Communications

of voice and data devices

transmission using specific
cellular Network •

Landscape of 56

the PH
cellular
telephony in

Reuse Factor k
Frequency ,

K = god '

q
=
co -
channel interference reduction factor
itches
g

Motorola Dynatac 300011 I Concepts:

around $ 3000
'
1 — carrier that handles intra-LATA services: LEC (local exchange
1 carrier)
— two types: incumbent LEC and competitive LEC
— carrier that handles inter-LATA services: IXC (international
exchange carrier), interacts via switching offices
— receive channels are 30 kHz apart
Nokia 3310
— in-band signaling -> used for both signaling and voice
communication
— POTS: first used to transmit voice using analog signals (plain
old telephone service)
— cellular sites assuming hexagons: use “narito ang tango ng
1 tagapagtanggol” where n = 6
1
— signaling system seven - protocol used in signaling network
I
—receive channel = transmit channel + 45 kHz
— if communication is done via a geostationary satellite, it might
lead to a slight delay and possible echo in a telephone convo
•
— two types of analog services: switched and leased

:
— in an HFC network:
downstream data: QAM
upstream data: QPSK

BE
 DIGITAL COMMUNICATIONS
Digital Modulation

a.k.a .

digital radio / DAC

digital info

BW
log ( It %) 6×106 2 (1×106) logz M
✓
I =
,
=

analog carrier a
Rx
=
(1×106) log (11-63) ,
M = 8 levels >
4 levels ( 27

Digital transmission I 6 I 4 Mbps

Mbps
= =

upper

a.k.a .
DAC
Digital Modulation
Q: why convert ?

"

Rx
>
digital info >

A : for noise

immunity !

Information capacity

(F)
"

depends on BW , level of
signals ( M =
2 ) , quality of the channel

measured in bits

Ralph Hartley : I ✗
(BW ) ( t )

Nyquist Bit Rate (for noiseless channel )

Law
a.k.a .
Shannon -

Hartley Bit Rate

,
fb

I = 2 ( BW ) log ,
M rate of change of a
binary information
signal [ bits per second ]

Shannon capacity (for a

noisy channel ) Band Rate

Shannon Limit 4 second

a.k.a .

output is counted
, symbols per
I =
( BW ) log , ( It
%) Also
, SNRDB : 6. 02h
I
+ 1.76
baud = fb BW = fb
n
n
# of bits
not applicable
for FSK

I =
213W
1092M =
213000) 10924

I = 12
kbps
fb
baud =
1000 =

fb = 4000 bps

265000 =
2120000) 1092M
"
M =
98.7 = 2

6.625 bits >

n 7 bits n 8 bits

80n
= =
n =

1000 =

M = 27 M = 28=256 levels

M 128 levels Amplitude shift keying ( ASK )

=

log ( § )
I =
BW It
, : I = 0

Bwlogz (11-0)
to

Frequency shift keying

2of

I = BW
log (,
I 1- F) =

300010g (11-3162) ,

M: 2
I =
34.88 kbps fmark f-
space
Af At n : 1
or
or

f- m f- s
fs fcfm
 DIGITAL COMMUNICATIONS
Continuous -
Phase FSK ( CP -
FSK )

t.fm and fs are deviated from f. by an exact multiple of ftyz to

f-
avoid discontinuities ( i. e. Of is a
multiple of %)

shift
Phase
keying ( PSK )

constellation
Diagram

BPSK
ASK : M : 2 n = 1
,

QPSK
BW :
¥ = 10kHz

baud =
¥ :
10000 bands

4- QAM 16 QAM
-

8- PSK uses control channel (for magnitude)

uses 2 to 4 level converter 24 =

Ifm -
fs / →
of =
1 kHz

C: 0 : 0.541 ✓
BW = 2 (of 1- f- b) = 2
(10001-2000) = 6kHz
yago
u
1- i 1.307 V baud =
¥ ¥ = = 2000 baud

22.5° Q and I
' '

,
O .
-

1 : t

houses inverter M n BW = ¥
Without inverter i PSK becomes QAM ! QPSK 4 2 6 kHz

8- PSK 8 3 4 kHz

8- QAM 8 3 4 kHz

16 -
PSK 16 4 3 kHz
←
here !
☒

16 16 4 3 kHz
-

0AM

much easier to determine

symbol since they are far apart By = n =

3

Bandwidth Efficiency
L a.k.a bandwidth
, .
efficiency / spectral efficiency
transmission bit rate
Bn ,
=
fb
= n BW = fb_
minimum BW
tbh h

except for FSK !

tb
i

10kHz =

Fb = 40 kbps
 DIGITAL COMMUNICATIONS
Digital transmission signal to Quantization Noise Ratio CSQR)

Pulse Code Modulation

Encoding

* PCM Line Speed

Pulse Modulation Techniques

most
>
used

types of sampling
"

a. fs =
Lfa b. DR =

2010g (2 -
1)
"

8kHz 46 2010g ( 2 1)
= = -

n : 7.65 bits > 8 bits ( magnitude bits )

n =
9 bits ( w/ sign bit )
produced by sample
and hold circuit c-
Vmax "
d. Qec 0.005 V
¥
=
DR = = 2 -
1 ,
max =

res
Quantization

2.55
2£ -

l
e. Coding efficiency
=

res
7.65 1- I
n :
✗ 100%
g Quantization error / 8+1
res = 0.01 ✓
noise

96.11%
Qeanax , tz(resolution) n =

"
1)
80
2010g ( 2 13.3 I
: -
+
=
n ✗ 100%
14+1
bits
13.3 magnitude
=
n = 14

Dynamic Range n = 15 bits ( wt sign bit) n =

95.25%

→ 7- magnitude
bits

Vm Qe ¥
> for big n
DR =
= 2h -
, , ,
man
=

res
=
0.005 ✓
n is
magnitude bits only ftl for
sign bit )
1.27
coding efficiency = 27 - l

res

res = 0.01 V

line speed =
fs ✗ n =
(8000×8)=64 kbps
 DIGITAL COMMUNICATIONS
Parallel Transmission Serial Transmission

LSB first !

µ
-
Law
Compounding

(
Vin
In It µ
Vout =
Vmax Vmax

In ( Itu)
Use = 255
µ .

Signal
-
to -

Quantization Noise Ratio -

3h2 VH V,
÷[
D= -

fut 1)12
"
In 2

SNR for PCM

3- M2
SNR =

of satellite
velocity
"
4×10
V =

d + 6370

L distance above earth 's

surface in km

cell sites Needed

A
N =

2
3. 464 p
 DATA COMMUNICATIONS
Data Communications Data Terminal Equipment
electrically communicating binary information between 2 points source or sink (e. g. computers multiplexers )
,

transmission path / Channel / Medium

can be bounded or unbounded

Data Communications Equipment

establish maintain and terminate
, ,
a data transmission

standards connection
-→

Modem

converts serial digital data to signal suitable for transmission or

vice versa

Data Network Topology

physical configuration of devices

physical connections ( 142 connected )

standards organizations b. kinds Physical -
are

Logical w/
regards to signal flow ( 1 2)
-
>

Bus topology
is connected to
everything
single long cable bus

if there is a fault in the

Data Wmms criteria bus , everything is affected

performance -

greater throughput Ring Topology

Reliability h bucket token

or
passing
security b.
signals are transmitted in a
rotating
Advantages fashion
-

easier to multiplex ( binary and in packets) 4 tokens

signal right to transmit
-

easier to integrate into a

switching system For bus and
ring
:

easy to interface
w/ other digital equipment ✓ simple and inexpensive
noise ✗ Not fault tolerant
immunity
•

. better performance monitorability star topology

4 features central controller /
easy
to encode decode ,
encrypt and scramble a
-

, ,

concentrator / hub
Disadvantages
bandwidth
-

large
with
i

need for synchronization ,

add 't equipment ,
not compatible
Fault tolerance
existing system ✓

/ Failure of hub failure of whole system

=
•
need for ADC DAC ✗

•
restrictions in wired topology tree topology

Essential Data Comins System Components variation of star topology

Mesh
Topology
Data Terminal Data Communication

Equipment Equipment redundant connections

 DATA COMMUNICATIONS
Network configuration synchronous / Statical TDM

i. Point -
to -

point -
a node is connected to another individually leg .
PM) ls divided into frames where each Channel has a fixed # of timeslots

2.
Multipoint
-

several nodes share a comms link ( e.g. Gc )

Data Transmission

>
usually for
short distances

Asynchronous / statistical TDM

open system Interconnect ( OSI ) Layer

created by ISO
, provides common base for systems interconnection

seven OSI
Layers

APSTNDP
message
switching ampotasobrang

}
*
tanga naman
demonyo pistil
user

support + translation { compression ang pulis sa

*

dialog control today nadapa

DDDPSFB
synchronization
duh duh duh

pasa football

link process to process

- -

more overhead : SYN SOH Header Stx (Data ) ETX Bcc between delivery
two

: 1 direction

|
simplex
full-duplex : simultaneous
"
datagram
"" " d" "" "
•
"
°
""
""
"
"" " data
%¥¥
"
""
"" " "

support
to
w/o
layers
is errors

Multiplexing
transmission of info over the

same transmission medium *

not included in
internet model

Application Layer

Frequency Division
Multiplexing
he
splits available bandwidth

Presentation Layer
Time Division
Multiplexing
assigns each user a time slot
 DATA COMMUNICATIONS
Session Layer

Transport Layer
051 vs TCP/IP

Identifier :
Port number

Identifier:
address
SYN ACK
Logical
SYNACK
be
might
y
these
separated (like
Network Layer in Forouzan )

IEEE standards

802 .IQ
router , navigator MD identifies VLANS by
802.3af inserting 32 bit
-

field
Power over
Ethernet

802 . 3am
106 Base T -

802 Hao .

greatest possible
throughput

version # 1- I

# of bits = 2 Network Breadth

Hence for 1M¥ → 32 bits 4 WAN , LAN

,
MAN

Data Link Layer

Physical Layer
 DATA COMMUNICATIONS
Internet List of various Network Devices

computer network that connects thousands of networks

global
together

→ in Physical
layer

three phases :
setup data transfer
, ,

connection teardown

goes through
all same

path

resources need to be
reserved
during setup
phase

in data link
→ and network

layers

no resource reservation !

Digital Hierarchy

can choose path they want ( datagram approach )

Transactional )
Message Switching ( in application layer
→

data is routed in its entirety from source to destination

switch :
For three stage
-

(¥ )
"

cross points = 2kW +

Clos Criterion

n
=
¥ Upstream : QPSK : 12 Mbps
K > 2h -
1
Downstream : 64 -
QAM : 30 Mbps
cross points ? 4N ( 2N -

1)
 DATA COMMUNICATIONS
NAT enables computers on a
private IPv4 network to access the internet
*

IP address
using a
registered .

NDP uses ICMPv6 to locate routers DNS servers and other

* messages , ,

nodes on an IPv6 network .

* 802.11 WiFi Standards

Freq Band (61-12) Bit Rate

802.11 2.4 11 Mbps

"

802.11 a ang "

5 54 Mbps
bilis
"

802.1lb Mbps
"

bag at 2.4 11

"

Mbps
"
54
802.11g ylang 2.4

" "
802.11h nice g. 4 -5 600 Mbps
" "

802.11 ac easy connection s 6.93 Gbps

" "

802.11 ax extra strong 2.4 s -

9.666ps

* Address Flags
00 -
station to station (no distribution system )

01 -
frame coming from one access
point a station
SLP : section < Line < path

11 frame coming from to another access

one access
point point
-

with 051
Layers
SONET
Layers compared

Network Circuit Network

Datagram Virtual

each packet is treated

independently
-

table is based
routing on destination
routing table is based VCI
-

on
.

* address

at each
•
destination address changes
taxonomy of SONET networks switch

needs setup and teardown

phase
-

packets may
follow diff .
path .

all packets follow the same path

Virtual Tributary Types

Processing gain

Gp = Spread BW
Bit rate
STATION ASSEMBLY, PRACTICE, & SAFETY
Layout of HF station Narrowest to widest bandwidth: CW, RTTY, SSB voice, FM voice
Chirp - small change in transmitter’s frequency everytime it is keyed
- can be avoided by keeping power supply voltages very steady
Morse code is usually transmitted by radio as an interrupted carrier.
Bandwidth of an SSB amateur signal - between 2 and 3 kHz
Bandwidth of a FM amateur signal - between 10 and 20 kHz
Capture effect - only the loudest signal is demodulated among two or
more stations
Digital Modes
- “connected” - transmitting station is sending data to only one
receiving station; it replies that data is received correctly
Layout of FM Transmitter - “monitoring” - a receiving station is displaying messages that may
not be sent to it, and is not replying to any message
- digipeater - packet-radio station that retransmits oinly data that is
marked to be retransmitted
MSMOFPA 1200 baud - most common data rate used for VHF packet comms
Layout of FM Receiver
* 6- meter Yagi 60m from Tx → RG -
213 provides least loss

PL -259 RG 213
* joins
-

* Type
-
N connector has lowest loss at UHF
ARM_FIL DAS
transceiver to antenna
* SMA connector joins handheld
CW transmitter
Layout of

MDPA
W

MK

Layout of SSB / CW Receivers

ARM_ FIRAS .
replaces suppressed
carrier for detection
←

SSB transmitters
Layout of

Layout of Digital Systems

Layout of Regulated Power Supplies

Layout of
Yagi -
Uda Antennas
 REFRESHER
✗

he I tan
1T¥
:

21T

3×108
=

211-(10×106)
tan
F¥
f = ¥ =
2727 MHz > ✓ 3- 30 kHz → Surface wave
he = 1.98 m

H 3- 30 MHz →
sky wave

S 3- 30
GHz →
Space wave

# of turns

( 1T¥ )2(i¥JsP""9
'
gg
6=15 pitch ¢ .

Id NS
7 7
if not
given , s=¥ and D=
→
diameter
G. think of pi

( ( 8(¥
SHE :3 -

30GHz G : 15

✗ max =
0.1 :
10 cm

✗ min : 0-01 =
1cm - 1 find base form of 1 G =
¥-8 :
30

C. =
14.77dB

Lmismatch 2010g
(
= 1

Costin

to =
9 Nma,
= 0.3dB

h in per
m3

567
①E = (E is 5th letter → 56 ) =
28°
DE
707
Sino , ¢+1 ( H is hepta → 7) =
26.25°
n. =
nzsinoz =
dµ
7. 5dEdH
Qc : sin
"

( ¥) 6 =

ya
=
40

Oc : sin
"

( 1T¥) 6 =
16.02 dBi

Qc :
76.74°

)
E. 601T let ( loom) (2)
( generally
=
601T 3017Gt
=
, G =

3×108 (20×103)
✗r
( 10×10 , ) d

MV
d MUF =
fcsecoi § =
62.83 m
hr =

2tan°i OWF
110km =
0.85 Milf

110 = 500 nuns

= 2$
I 1

(70¥ )
Hanoi
500km 3.5°
=
2 =

i. OWF :
8.44 MHz

12rad R load
P dummy
=

eq
" a
1000 as
Pp
-
.

=
=
= 3.18×10
41782 4,1-1500,2 R
Rp = loss due to resistivity of materials

Pp = -
34.97 dBi ( dBi =
dBd t 2.14 ) Pout Prad Brad 67
y =
= = =

Pin Pradt Pross 12rad + Rb 671-5

=
-37.11 dBd

M =
93.06%

( Pref )
Prod
6dB =
1010g

( Pref )
700W
6dB
1010g
=

Pref =
175.832W dmi =
2dg t Zdr

dkm =
17dg +
Hdr

✗ =
§ = 42.86m =
99.54 km

¥ = 21.43m

L
phys
= 0.95 (%) =
20.36 m
 REFRESHER
I

? convoy

FSL =
(411¥ )
FSL ,dB=
1010g FSL .

=
71.08dB comms Criteria :
32 seconds in 31536000 seconds
① Performance -

speed outage
② Reliability - time
availability
dBmtlologB.tn#1o1ogCk)l290K)-
③ Security
Pn =
-174 1×10-3

(
=

)
-112.21 dBm 1- avail = I -
32
✗ 100%
31536000

=
99.9999%

Gant FSL ; Lconst Gant FSL =

2010g ( 4T¥ )

☒
~
/
-

1 FSL 138.21 dB
l
=

§ (E) (F)
' "

EIRP IRL Tu
fc =
+
→ dominant → f. =

÷ =
,
,
= 5GHz

p, I Tu
RSL
Zo = 377
sensitivity
=
RSL -
FM = 500 Review waveguide parameters
( if needed ! ) 1-
( ¥12
RSL :
1010g (750×10-3) -

3.4dB + 30.5dB -
138.21dB -
0.3dB t 30.5dB -
3.4dB f :
7.61GHz

=
-85.56 DBW

TEO ,

Parallel Plane Guide

fc =
% ✗ =
c-
fc
h distance bet .

2
plates

FSL =

2010g ( 41T¥ ) :
134.03dB
dd →
attenuation due to dielectric materials

RSL =
37 dBm -
15dB + 2125dB) -
134.03dB 0 →
resistivity of conductors

-62.03 dB Od of dielectric
resistivity
=
→

RSL FM
sensitivity
=
Od 377

%2±
-

✗ D= 0.2356
→
"
D= =
Neper, /m
FM =
RSL -

sensitivity 2
,
1-
(¥12
= -62.03 dBm -

(-89dB m )
FM = 26.97 dB

c-
fc =

2d
D=
¥ = ¢ '

2¥ =
40cm

If d is not
given ,
assume 50 .

✗
=
f-
5
7 =
0.2083 m
g-

Case 1 : 50 ft , halfway case 2

'

. 10ft , 5mi from 1 side Lphys = 0.1979m

h clearance h
ht =
hobs t hi = hobs +
clearance

( 25 )( 25 ) lot 0.6/72.1 ) 5( 45 )
HT = =
(15×25)
50 + 0.6
-
( 72.1 )
4150 ) he = 0.6
( 17.3 ) 41501
4150 )
\ because miles .

hi =
126,47 mi =
55.88 mi
=
18.35m

0% = 55.88 -

126.47
✗ 100%
126.47
re : 17.3 12 ( 18 )

=
decreased
by 55.82% 2.51301
=
29.36 m
 REFRESHER

-11010g ( GABfc.az )
FM
3010g Dkm 1010g ( I R) 70
: - -
-

3010g (40) t
1010g ( 6.1.0.25 8)
1010g (1-0.9999)-70
= -
-

Terrain climate

wet / humid
4 smooth 0.5

÷4( )÷z
, average 0.25 average
÷yf tough/ )÷a
0.25
dry
0.125
dry

28.8536dB
-
-

31251125)
has = 17.3

41507

=
52.97 m

0
( ÷ :)
"
.

c. n
10=70,1 D=
7,0¥
=
→
=
707

"

0.554+17,0*-1
=

G =
44.25dB

)
downlink
(
"hk
Eb_ UP
✗
must be
=
overall limitless
.

No /
uplink + downlink
u downlink

= 17.97
" exists
A Nighttime : only Flayer
=
12.54dB
f- uplink > f downlink

t / 0
I = É ✗ Ñ
Zo =
F- =
110
ygo
: 601T

?
t ( 1 Hm)2
Pp =
f- É
Zo
=
2 601T

Pp = 2.6526 m¥

EZE
"" ""
"
tan
reflected QB =

-60° Ez =3

u
30°
refracted
q

transmitted
angle

4 odd series /parallel resonant

odd
¥ open
T.tn .

voltage Review even

for trans lines

- Imax
①←

minV
1-
series
I
resonant
(1) current
ckt
 REFRESHER
fact → Cs =
28 act BW of FM → •
C to
accept wide
% µ =

Smax range of frequencies

0.8 =
fact → fact = 60 KHZ
75kHz
→
Max
modulating freq
for FM
: .
CS =
28 act
= 120kHz

f-
image
=
fro + fin AM receivers use 455kHz

455kHz + 1010kHz MHz

Of =
fmax f-min -
=
FM receivers use 10.7

1465kHz
%m = (50.075-49.925)×106 ?? ?
=

10000

%m =
15 ( or 7.5 ? ) fussy = fctfm =
710kHz 1- 10kHz

=
720kHz

AM : 455kHz
fsi =
fs + Zfi FM : 10.7MHz f- B
-
f-c- fm : 710 kHz -
10kHz

109.9 MHz
=
fs t 2 ( 10.7MHz) =
700 kHz

=
88.5 MHz

PS = P suppressed
=
P¢(m¥ ) J3E(SSBSC )

m :
YI Ptotal ☒( It %) A3E ( DSBFC )

1 I

mtota , = (1%5+1%-9):-(YET carrier

7,4m¥ for

=
0.8315 each sideband

= 0.0556 → 0.9445

go -88 MHZ

f- Lo tfvc Of 4.8kHz Um 2.4 ✓ Kvm

80 MHz 1- 83.25 MHz of
=
80
= = = =

174 -180MHz = 163.25 MHz of =

Kvm :(2k¥ )( 7. 2)
( K :
4- 8kHz
2.4
=
214¥ Of = 14.4kHz

B- -

(BW ) ( 12 bits

(4-800)/12 )
=

bits
second

=
57600 %¥wnd
Csc = fit But Bsc =
5.76 kbps
I 1
chrominance
vestigial
sideband sideband
Pc ( %-) = 100 (¥) =
25W

=
174MHz -1 1.25MHz t 3.58MHz

"

Csc =
178.83 MHz BW =
nfs where 1=2
" "

4=2 to 64=2

n=2 n = 6
Y = 0.312 + 0.59Gt 0.1113

=
0.310.5 ) t 0.59 (0.7-5)+0.11 (0.42 )
¥
4=0.6387 : increased 3 times

I =

Bwlogz ( It SNR )

( 4000)
log (11-15)
=
,

I = 16 kbps
 REFRESHER

"
D= nfs 1=2 = 128

7- ( 10kHz) 27=128
fw.mn 220MHz 10.7 MHZ
:

a) = 1-

B. =
70kHz n=7 :
230.7 MHz

bit depth fu,ma× = 224 MHz + 10.7 MHZ

/ 24
,

bits
per
" ×"
1920×1080 pixels =

( 2073600 ) ( 30 Hz) ( 24 bits )

= 234.7 MHz

standard refresh
rate
b) f- go
=
It .
t Fez = 10.7 MHz + 1.5MHz = 12.2MHz

2241-2110.7)
=
1.5
Gbps c) fimg =
fsigt 2f ,,
:

=
245.4MHz

→
step size
✓ 1 I

( %)
'

Pnoise Q ( 1- d) 4 levels packet loss

VIP
=
BW =

Q =
0.012
percentage
=

22=4
12 ,
( , .o, ( lzmbps
2 ) z bits

°Yz
BW =
6MHz
12µW
=
=

✗ baud = bitrate

✗ n

8000
1000 =
I 1-
¥
n
RCE
Es fm
i
1µs
n = 8

a) 8 bits element
Rc :
1
per signal
2-fm
b) 28 = 256 signal elements

I
=

212kHz )

RC
250µs bytes bits
=
2500 =
20000

BW = I Gbps

Propagation time ( within wire ) transmission time

100gepa.gg#
24 lines 80 char 8 bits second
✗
✗ ✗ = ' 536
'

Mbps D= rt 4=20000 bits x

1 1 line 1 char 1×109 bits

page
§
12000km

tp= tf
=
50ms
20µs
=
=

2.4×108 m/s

a) 14.9 MHz ✗ 2×3×3 = 268.2MHz

b) 268.2MHz (6300×10-6) =
1.68966 MHz SNR = 2.8

drift
f- man,
=
269.89 MHz frequency fm = 1.5kHz

8 = 4kHz
f- min =
266.51 MHz

8 :
Pfm where D= sin
"

R )
=
0.3652

8=(0-3652) (1.514-17)=547.8 Hz
14

b) L= 2 =
16384 levels /increments
5=54%1-1--0.187
a-

resolution : Vmax Vmih

c)
-

= 0 .
-732mV
16384

IN = 7.3
 REFRESHER

" "

BW :
81100kHz ) t 7- ( 10kHz ) Dbotal = ☐
tcnwmatic t Ot modal

( ) µ÷m 2km4
't
'
870kHz 100ps
=
:

✗
2km1 ✗ 40km ✗

Klminm

12000 frank ×
10000 bits
×
1min
= 2 Mbps
: 8.25 ns

MY 1 franke go s
BW = 0.35 0.35
= =
42.45MHz
☐ 8. 25×10-4
total

n C- I
f
=
=

V 7

1-
D=
5lb
1.5 =
3×108 1014 = 200×106
I
=
v ✗
510.3671143×106 )

D= 12.7ns / km v = 200×106 m/s 7 =

2µm

( ¥)
"
Oc : sin tan 0ps £ E'
. =

tanot =

E , Ez
= 71.91° I
transmitted
' '

QB = tan 3 angle

QB = 60°

2. 4 =
tdmax NA

a
2dB / Km x 3km = 6dB 2mW = 3.010 dBm

Tldmax -
0.15
2. 4 =

820 nm

Pout Pin losses

4.18µm
= -

dmax =

6dB
=
3.010 dtbm -

-2.99 dBm
-
-

= 0.5 mW

Qc : sin
- '

(1-44)
1.53 2.4 = ltdmax NA

✗
Qc =
70.25°

dmax
:
9.87µm

Pp 1010g ( %) -10dB division for dB

: = →

NA = n ? -
ni = sin Qa Pout =
Pin -

losses

1.552-1.322
"
Oa : sin = 3 dBm - 10dB -

2dB

Qa : 54.34° =
-9 dBm

=
125.89 µW

Pin R
Iw
I = ✗
R = 0.3
typical
responsively

k =
td I = 150nA

200
=
65

K = 3.08 ns / km
 REFRESHER
b Zo =
I
c

to =
158.11h

3dBm 3dB
Loss 0.5dB €369Bn)
=

margin
-

40km 3dB
-

✗ -
1dB -

Tcm
Zo = 75
tj 0.01 r

I
12dB m analogous to Zi 70T j 50
= :
r

FM RSL sensitivity
-
- -

22-1
To = = 1.075 t
j 0.32
Zit Zo

0.35 1000MHz
t =
BW optical ✗
length =

BW of fiber
only
→
BW ✗ 10=1000 MHz
=
4.95ns BW =
100MHz

tr 't ti? tidttph

"
+
ts =
Bweiec 0.70713 optical VSWR I % £0
=j§
- '
=

I = =

=
16.78 ns
=
70.7 MHz VSWR +1 2- Lt Zo

ts =
0.35
VSWR =
It I
=
1+1%51 =
2
BW , , 1-
⑤ / I
,

16.78ns = 0.35
VSWR = 2

BWsystem

BW 20.86 MHZ
Vp I
=

system VF =

g C LC
.
Find ZL .

VF = I

(3×108) 40
pfym .

50h1m
VF = 0.075

Vmax = 4 V
Vswr = Vmax
= 4
Vmin = I V Vmin

I Vswr l 4 -1 Pans Pine (1-22)

35=0-6
= -
:

=
=

Vswrtl 4+1
2- L -
Zo 50-72
z =
=
= -0.1803
Zit Zo 501-72
ZL -

Zo
z
=

2- Lt Zo [1-1-0.180372] :
96.75%

ZL -50
0.6 =

2- it 50

2- i. -45dB m Pin
zoon
1010g
=
=

1×10-3

Pin 31.62 nw
P
:

S =

1Tfµ

k l
8 ,
=

→ 8 ,
d

f ,
f ,

82 f,
=

8, fz

=
1.414 times
 REFRESHER
/

Vs =
VR t IZO 100
load =

3.33
Erlang
=

30
Vs =
3001-40.811500) I call -
hr
hr
Vs =
300
tj 400 = 500253.13°

pf =
Cosa

pf= 0.6

f- (1) = -
I

f- C- 1) =3

lost
605 =

Even : ffx )=f(×) offered

Odd ! f- C- ×) = -
f-(x) I
15

2691-15

605 = 0.0528

hln ] =
{ 1. 2,3 I ,
}
q

"'

Flip : hfn ] :
{ 1.3.2.1 }
q
3)
multiply
2 10 I 2 I 0 1
" 210 1
shift 1 132 1 1 32 I
132
4) Add 2 4+1 62 0

5 8

2101 2 1 01 210 I
Pt 76dB f- 100 dbm )
I 1 3
:
21
-

1321
-

132

2301 03 24 DBM
1 02 Pt =

6 3
z =
251.19 mW

1
210
3 21

i. ✗ [n ] # h[ n ] :{ 2,518,6 , 3,3 ,
I } NL =
0.2T 1- 0.4
= 0.2 (2) 1- 0.4

0.8dB
=

→
present, past
i non - causal

s anti causal -

i
only depends
causal
on past ,
1209 1336

2
1477
,%g ⑦
→ non -
causal 697 I 3
6
770 4 5 6 d pu④
7- ⑦0
,
852 7 8 9 gsz →walang
3
f. qq

"'s+a
941 * 0 # 9
a

here
?⃝
?⃝
 REFRESHER
S = -
174 dBm + NF t 1010g BW
+ %
= -
174 DBM t 8dB + 10 log (200×103) t 15

s = -
98 dBm

Recall :
odd , open → series