Indian Art and Culture-SARAANSH-UPSC Prelims 2024

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1 SARAANSH – Indian Art and Culture for UPSC Prelims 2024

Table of Content
Chapter Chapter name Page

no. number
1 Indian Art and Architecture 3
2 Paintings in India 23
3 Indian Handicrafts 34
4 Indian Music 37
5 Indian Dance Forms 45
6 Theatres in India 50
7 Indian Puppetry and Martial arts 52
8 Indian Literature 54
9 Festivals in India 61
10 Important Institutions, Symbols and Miscellaneous 64
SARAANSH – Indian Art and Culture for UPSC Prelims 2024 2

1 Indian Art and Architecture
Harrapan Architecture Citadel and Public Buildings

Indian architecture reflects a rich history of cultural • Citadel: Located in the western part, it hosted
evolution, marked by the rise and integration of granaries, administrative buildings, and
diverse empires and styles. From the ancient Indus possibly residences of rulers and aristocrats.
Valley Civilization (IVC) to British colonial times, the Unlike Egyptian and Mesopotamian
architecture and art narrate the dynamic saga of civilizations, the Indus Valley lacked large
India's past. monumental structures like temples or
palaces.
Harappan Civilization Highlights • Granaries: Featured strategic air ducts and
• The Harappan Civilization, thriving along the raised platforms for grain storage and pest
Indus River around 2500 BCE, is celebrated for protection.
its urban planning, artistic expressions, and • Public Baths: Indicative of ritualistic cleansing
technological advancements. importance, with the 'Great Bath' at Mohenjo-
daro as a prime example.
Town Planning and Construction
• Grid Pattern Layout: Harappa and Mohenjo-
daro were designed with a rectangular grid
pattern, featuring roads intersecting at right
angles.
• Building Types: The sites include dwelling
houses, public buildings, and public baths.
• Construction Materials: Use of standardized Granaries and Great Bath
burnt mud bricks and gypsum mortar for Residential Areas and Infrastructure
construction. • Lower City Housing: Included small, possibly
• City Division: Cities were divided into a raised double-storied houses with stairs, indicating
citadel for significant buildings and a lower city use by working-class individuals.
for residential areas.

• Wells and Bathrooms: Buildings often had • Examples: UPSC (2013)

private wells and ventilated bathrooms, o Bronze Dancing Girl: Found in Mohenjo-
emphasizing personal hygiene. daro, depicts a naked girl in 'tribhanga'
• Advanced Drainage System: Featured small posture, adorned with bangles and
drains from houses connected to larger amulets.
roadside drains, with regular cesspit o Bronze Bull: Discovered in Kalibangan.
placement for maintenance, showcasing high
hygiene standards. Terracotta Sculptures
• Method: Crafted from fire-baked clay, these
Sculptures of Harappan Civilization sculptures were less refined compared to
Seals bronze figures and made using the pinching
• Variety: Found in shapes such as square, method.
triangular, rectangular, and circular. • Examples:
• Materials: Mainly steatite, with instances of o Mother Goddess: A symbol of fertility,
agate, chert, copper, faience, terracotta, gold, depicted with necklaces and a fan-shaped
and ivory. headgear.
• Designs: Feature inscriptions in an o Bearded Priest: A steatite figure from
undeciphered pictographic script, often Mohenjo-daro, showing a meditative
bidirectional, and intaglio-carved animal pose.
motifs including unicorns, bulls, rhinoceroses, o Male Torso: Made from red sandstone,
tigers, elephants, buffalos, and more. Notably, found in Harappa, notable for its detailed
cows are absent. anatomical execution.
• Usage: Served commercial and communicative
purposes, also used as amulets and possibly for
educational purposes.
Notable Seals:
• Pashupati Seal: Depicts a deity surrounded by
animals, wearing a three-horned headgear,
seated in a cross-legged posture. An elephant
and tiger are depicted on one side, with a Bearded Priest, Mother Goddess, Dancing Girl
rhinoceros and buffalo on the other, and two
antelopes below. Pottery
• Unicorn Seal: Features the mythical unicorn, • Types: Divided into plain and painted (Red and
symbolizing the rich mythological culture of Black Pottery), with motifs of trees, birds, and
the Harappans. geometrical patterns.
• Usage:
o Storage of grains and water.
o Decorative miniature vessels.
o Perforated pottery for straining liquor.
o Ornaments
• Materials: A wide range of materials including
precious metals, gemstones, bones, and baked
clay.
• Items: Necklaces, fillets, armlets, finger rings
for both genders; girdles, earrings, and anklets
Pashupati Seal
for women.
• Production: Large-scale bead production in
Bronze Figures
materials like carnelian and quartz, notably in
• Technique: Utilized the "lost wax technique" Chanhudaro and Lothal.
or "Cire Perdue" for casting bronze statues.

Textiles • Mand (Jammu and Kashmir, India): The

• Materials: Cotton and wool were used, northernmost IVC site.
indicating an advanced knowledge of weaving
and spinning. Mauryan Art and Architecture
• Fashion: The diversity in hairstyles and beards The Mauryan era, marked by the rise of Buddhism
suggest a consciousness of fashion among the and Jainism, witnessed significant changes in the
Harappans. Gangetic Valley's religious and social landscape.
The Mauryan Empire, under the patronage of its
Key Archaeological Sites and Discoveries Kshatriya rulers, produced remarkable
• Harappa (Pakistan): Features include architectural and sculptural works, distinguishing
granaries, symbols of lingam and yoni, between state-sponsored and individually initiated
sculptures, and bronze artifacts. projects.
• Mohenjo-daro (Pakistan): Noted for the
Citadel, Great Bath, Great Granary, and Palaces
iconic sculptures like the Dancing Girl and

Court Art Pillars
the Pashupati Seal.
• Dholavira (Gujarat, India): Renowned for its Stupas
water management systems, stadium, and a Mauryan Art
large signboard-like inscription. Caves
• Lothal (Gujarat, India): An important trade

Popular Art Pottery
center with a dockyard, evidence of chess,
and sophisticated measurement tools. Sculpture
• Rakhigarhi (Haryana, India): The largest IVC
site, known for its granary, cemetery, and A) Court Art
urban planning.
• Ropar (Punjab, India): Features dog-human • Commissioned by Mauryan rulers, Court Art
burials and is significant as the first includes palaces and pillars, serving both
Harappan site excavated post- political and religious purposes.
independence. Palaces
• Balathal and Kalibangan (Rajasthan, India):
Famous for a bangle factory, toy carts, and • Capital and Palaces: The capital at Pataliputra
fire altars. and palaces at Kumrahar showcased the
• Surkotada (Gujarat, India): Known for the Mauryan splendor, with inspiration from
discovery of horse bones. Achaemenid architecture.
• Banawali (Haryana, India): Characterized by • Materials: Principally constructed from wood,
toy ploughs, barley grains, and a unique reflecting the grandeur of the empire.
urban layout. • Notable Structures: Chandragupta Maurya's
• Alamgirpur (Uttar Pradesh, India): The palace, influenced by Persepolis, and Ashoka's
easternmost IVC site, with copper blades palace at Kumrahar, a massive three-story
and ceramic finds. wooden structure adorned with carvings.
• Mehrgarh (Pakistan): A precursor to the Pillars
IVC, notable for its pottery and copper tools.
• Chanhudaro (Pakistan): A bead-making • Significance: Erected during Ashoka's reign,
center without a citadel. pillars served as symbols of state authority, to
commemorate battle victories and mediums
• Kot Diji (Pakistan): Famous for its bull and
for disseminating imperial decrees.
mother goddess statues.
• Construction: Made from Chunar sandstone,
• Daimabad (Maharashtra, India): Known for
consisting of a shaft and capital.
bronze sculptures, including a chariot.
• Design: The shaft was a monolith, topped with
• Kerala-no-dhoro (Gujarat, India): An IVC
a lotus or bell-shaped capital, drawing
salt production center.

influence from Iranian pillars. The polished reign, saw the construction of approximately
finish added to their allure. 84,000 stupas.
• Animal Capitals: Atop the capitals, animal Evolution
figures were mounted on an abacus, • Origins: Rooted in Vedic tradition, popularized
integrating artistic and symbolic elements. by Buddhists for enshrining Buddha's relics
posthumously.
Notable Examples of Mauryan Pillars • Ashoka's Contribution: Marked the zenith of
• Lauria Nandangarh Pillar: stupa construction, with tens of thousands
Located in Champaran. erected under his patronage.
• Sarnath Pillar: Situated near Structure and Construction
Varanasi, pivotal in the creation • Core Material: Unburnt brick for the core, with
of the National Emblem. an exterior of burnt bricks plastered for
National Emblem of India (from Sarnath Pillar) à durability.
Emblem • Decoration: Medhi (base) and toran
• The National Emblem of India is derived (gateways) adorned with wooden sculptures.
from the Sarnath Pillar's abacus and animal • Worship Practice: Devotees perform
sculptures, symbolizing the Mauryan art's pradakshina, circumambulating the stupa as an
enduring legacy. act of reverence.
Noteworthy Examples
Symbolism in the Abacus • Sanchi Stupa: Located in Madhya Pradesh, it
Animals Representing Directions: stands as the most renowned among Ashokan
• West: Galloping horse, symbolizing energy stupas.
and speed. • Piprahwa Stupa: In Uttar Pradesh, recognized
• East: Elephant, depicting Queen Maya's as the oldest stupa.
dream of a white elephant entering her Locations of the Nine Original Stupas
womb, a sign of Buddha's conception. • Built to house Buddha's relics, these stupas are
• South: Bull, representing Taurus, the zodiac situated in:
sign marking Buddha's birth month. o Rajagriha, Vaishali, Kapilavastu,
• North: Lion, signifying Buddha's attainment Allakappa, Ramagrama, Vethapida,
of enlightenment. Pava, Kushinagar and Pippalivana.
National Emblem Details

• Inscription: "Satyameva Jayate" from the
Mundaka Upanishad, translating to "Truth
Alone Triumphs," inscribed below the
abacus in Devanagari script.
• Crown: Topped with the Dharma Chakra or
Wheel of the Law, indicating the eternal
cycle of life and the spread of Dharma.
• Four Lions: Stand for Buddha's
dissemination of Dharma in all four
directions, commemorating his first sermon, B. Popular Art in Mauryan Period
Dhammachakrapravartana, or the setting in • Beyond royal patronage, individual efforts in
motion of the wheel of Dharma. cave architecture, sculpture, and pottery
Stupas emerged as popular art forms during the
Mauryan period. These endeavors reflected
Stupas, originating from Vedic burial mounds, the cultural and religious ethos of the time.
became significant in Buddhist practices for
housing relics and ashes of the deceased. The
tradition, especially emphasized during Ashoka's

Cave Architecture Pottery

• Usage: Initially served as viharas (living • Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW):
quarters) for Jain and Buddhist monks, with Characterized by its black color and glossy
early caves utilized by the Ajivika sect before finish, NBPW pottery is noted for its luxury
becoming predominantly Buddhist status and craftsmanship, representing the
monasteries. zenith of pottery in the Mauryan period.
• Characteristics: Notable for the highly polished
finish of interior walls and ornate gateways. Post-Mauryan Art and Architecture
Notable Examples Following the Mauryan Empire's decline in the 2nd
• Barabar and Nagarjuni Caves (Bihar): century BC, various regional dynasties such as the
Commissioned by Ashoka and his grandson Shungas, Kanvas, Kushanas, Shakas, Satvahanas,
Dasharatha in the 3rd century BC, these caves Ikshavakus, Abhiras, and Vakatakas emerged. This
are among the earliest examples of rock-cut era also saw the rise of Brahmanical sects like
architecture in India. Shaivites, Vaishnavites, and Shaktites, influencing
• Nasik Caves (Maharashtra): Known as "Pandav the artistic landscape.
Leni," this group of 24 Buddhist caves carved Architecture
between the 1st century BC and the 3rd
century AD. These caves transition from Rock-cut Caves [UPSC (2013)]
Hinayana to Mahayana Buddhism, showcasing • Continuation from Mauryan Era: The tradition
the evolution of Buddhist iconography from of carving rock-cut caves persisted, with
symbols to idols of Buddha. The site also innovations in architectural styles.
demonstrates advanced water management Development of Chaityas and Viharas:
systems with tanks carved from solid rock. • Viharas: Residential halls for Buddhist and Jain
monks.
• Chaityas: Introduced as prayer halls, featuring
quadrangular chambers with flat roofs, open
courtyards, and stone screen walls.
• Decorations: Enhanced with human and
animal figures.
o Examples: Karle Chaitya Hall, Ajanta
Caves (comprising 29 caves - 25 Viharas
and 4 Chaityas).
Nashik Cave (Pandav Leni) • Udayagiri and Khandagiri Caves, Odisha
o Patron: Carved under King Kharavela of
Kalinga in the 1st-2nd century BC.
Sculpture and Pottery o Structure: A mix of artificial and natural
Sculptures caves intended for Jain monks, with 18
caves in Udayagiri and 15 in Khandagiri.
• Purpose: Served primarily for stupa
o Notable Inscriptions: Hathigumpha
decoration, particularly in torana (gateways)
inscription in Udayagiri, detailing King
and medhi (base), and as a medium for
Kharavela's military exploits in Brahmi
religious expression.
script.
• Famous Examples: Yaksha and Yakshi
o Significant Caves: Ranigumpha in
sculptures, venerated in Jainism, Hinduism,
Udayagiri, a double-storied cave adorned
and Buddhism, symbolizing various aspects of
with elaborate sculptures.
fertility, protection, and wealth.
• Cultural References: The concept of Yakshi is
mentioned in ancient texts like the Tamil epic
Silappadikaram, and each Jain Tirthankar is
associated with a Yakshi.

• Architectural Innovation: Introduction of

torans (decorative gateways) by the Shunga
dynasty, showcasing intricate carvings of
figures and patterns.
• Hellenistic Influence: The design and
ornamentation of torans reflect Hellenistic
artistic influence.
Notable Examples
• Bharhut Stupa: Located in Madhya Pradesh,
known for its richly decorated torans.
• Sanchi Stupa Toran: Another prime example
Udayagiri and Khandagiri caves, Odisha from Madhya Pradesh, illustrating the artistic
Stupas in the Post-Mauryan Period sophistication of the period.
• Material Shift: Transition from wood and brick
to stone, enhancing durability and decorative
potential.
Sculpture
Feature Gandhara School Mathura School Amaravati School

Origin & 1st century CE, Indigenous, around 1st Developed in 3rd century BCE,
Influence influenced by Greek, century BCE to 3rd century flourished under the Satavahanas
Roman, and Persian CE. and later under the Ikshvakus.
cultures.
Geographical Present-day Pakistan Mathura, Uttar Pradesh, Amaravati, Andhra Pradesh, India.
Region and Afghanistan. India.
Material Grey schist, stucco for Red sandstone, but also Mainly white marble, but also
Used sculptures; later, used other materials like limestone.
terracotta and bronze. spotted sandstone and buff
sandstone.
Iconography Depicted Buddha in Early anthropomorphic Emphasized narrative art, with
human form with images of Buddha, detailed storytelling in relief
Hellenistic features, characterized by a robust panels. Buddha's representation
elaborate robes form, thick drapery, and was symbolic through stupas and
resembling those of explicit expressions. footprints.
Roman senators, and
curly hair.
Artistic Greco-Roman artistic Strong Indian aesthetic, Delicate and detailed narrative
Features elements, detailed emphasis on voluminous sculptures, thin and elongated
musculature, expressive forms, and relatively simple figures, intricate floral and
faces, and heavy drapery with clear folds. geometric patterns.
drapery.
Major Buddhist themes, life of
Buddhist and Hindu Primarily Buddhist, focusing on the
Themes the Buddha, Jataka tales.
themes, depiction of life of Buddha and Jataka tales.
various deities.
Influence & Influenced the Influenced later Indian art, Influential in the spread of
Legacy development of especially in Gupta period Buddhist art in Southeast Asia.
Buddhist art in Central sculptures.
Asia and East Asia.

Gupta Age • Cultural Influence: Crafted by guilds from

• Era: 4th century AD, known as the "Golden Age Vidarbha, Karnataka, and Tamil Nadu.
of India." • Diversity: Showcases a range of themes and
• Religious Influence: Early Gupta rulers were architectural styles.
Buddhists, later shifted to Hinduism. • Distribution
• Art and Architecture: Both Buddhist and Jain o Buddhist Caves: 1–12
art reached their peak; temple architecture o Hindu Caves: 13–29
was significantly developed. o Jain Caves: 30–34 (Digambara sect)
Religious Tolerance • Dynastic Contributions
• Rulers: Later Gupta rulers practiced o Rashtrakuta Dynasty: Hindu and Buddhist
Brahmanical Hinduism. caves.
• Tolerance: Exhibited tolerance towards all o Yadava Dynasty: Jain caves.
religions. • Prominent Caves
• Principal Deities: Vishnu (Northern and Central o Cave No. 10: Buddhist Chaitya,
India), Shiva (Southern India), Shakti (Eastern Visvakarma Cave or Carpenter’s Cave.
India and Malabar coast). Features Buddha in Dharmachakra
Mudra.
Architectural Developments o Cave No. 14: Known as “Raavan ki Khai.”
Caves o Cave No. 15: Dashavatar Temple.
• Continuity: Architectural development of o Cave No. 16: Kailasha Temple, dedicated
caves remained constant. to Lord Shiva, carved from a single rock
• Innovation: Introduction of mural paintings as under Rashtrakuta King Krishna I. Notable
a significant feature. for a sculpture depicting Ravana shaking
Mount Kailasha.
Ajanta Caves [UPSC (2021)] o Cave No. 29: Dhumar Lena.
• Location: Sahyadri ranges, Waghora River, o Cave No. 21: Rameshwar Lena.
near Aurangabad, Maharashtra. o Cave No. 32: Indra Sabha (Jain).
• Composition: 29 caves, 25 Viharas (residential o Cave No. 33: Jagannath Sabha (Jain).
caves), and 4 Chaityas (prayer halls).
• Period: Development from 200 BC to 650 AD.
• Patronage: Inscribed by Buddhist monks under
Vakataka kings, notably King Harishena.
• Art Technique: Fresco painting technique with
natural pigments; notable absence of blue
color.
• Elegant Example: Cave No. 16.
• Themes: Life of Buddha and Jataka stories.
• Phases: 5 caves from the Hinayana phase; 24
from the Mahayana phase.
• Historical References: Chinese Buddhist
travelers Fa Hien and Hiuen Tsang. Ellora caves
• Prominent Sculptures: Mahaparinirvana of Bagh Caves
Buddha (Cave No. 26), Naga King and his
consort (Cave No. 19). • Location: Bank of Baghni River, Madhya
Pradesh.
Ellora Caves • Composition: 9 Buddhist caves from 5th-6th
• Location: 100 km from Ajanta Caves. century AD.
• Composition: 34 caves (17 Hindu, 12 Buddhist, • Similarity: Architecturally akin to Ajanta Caves.
5 Jain) from 5th to 11th centuries AD. • Notable Cave: Rang Mahal.
• Artistic Theme: More materialistic than
spiritualistic paintings.

Junagadh Caves • Notable Sculptures: Varaha (Boar incarnation

of Vishnu) among the earliest Hindu
• Location: Junagadh district, Gujarat.
sculptures. Also features caves dedicated to
• Sites: Three sites - (1) Khapra Kodiya, (2) Baba Shiva, Narasimha (half-lion, half-man),
Pyare, (3) Uparkot. Narayana (resting Vishnu), and Skanda.
• Unique Feature: A 30-50 ft high citadel known
as “Upar Kot” in front of the prayer hall. Stupas
Mandapeshwar Caves • Trend: Decline in development during the
Gupta age.
• Location: Borivalli, near Mumbai. Also known • Notable Example: Dhamek Stupa at Sarnath,
as Montperir caves. near Varanasi, marking the spot of Buddha's
• Era: Developed in the late Gupta period as a first sermon.
Brahmanical cave, later converted into a
Christian cave. Sculptures
• Remains: Sculptures of Natraja, Sada Shiva,
• Development: Emergence of a new school of
and Ardhanarishwara. The site also includes a
sculpture around Sarnath during the Gupta
church and its graveyard above the cave
period.
precincts.
• Characteristics: Use of cream-coloured
Udayagiri Caves (Madhya Pradesh) sandstone and metal, immaculate dressing of
figures, absence of nakedness, intricately
• Location: Vidisha, Madhya Pradesh. Not to be
decorated halos around Buddha's head.
confused with Udayagiri-Khandagiri Caves in
o Example: Sultanganj Buddha, a 7.5 ft
Odisha.
high copper sculpture, located in Bihar.
• Era: Early 5th century AD, under the patronage
of Chandragupta II.
No. Inscription/Edict Location Description
1 Sohgaura Copper Gorakhpur, Earliest known copper-plate, Mauryan era, mentions famine
Plate Uttar Pradesh relief efforts. Pre-Ashoka Brahmi inscription.
2 Ashokan Edicts Throughout 33 inscriptions on pillars, boulders, and cave walls by Emperor
India Ashoka. Includes Pillar Edicts, Major Rock Edicts, and Minor
Rock Inscriptions. Reflects Ashoka’s Buddhist devotion and
social, moral precepts.
3 Rummindei Pillar Rupandehi Minor Pillar Inscription marking Ashoka’s visit to Buddha’s
Edicts (Lumbini) district, Nepal birthplace. Exempts Lumbini from tax, fixes grain contribution.
4 Prayag-Prashasti Allahabad Engraved on Ashokan Pillar, includes Ashokan inscriptions,
(Allahabad Pillar) Queen’s edict, Samudragupta’s conquests by Harisena, and
Jahangir’s Persian inscriptions.
5 Mehrauli Inscription Delhi Established by Chandragupta II, honors Lord Vishnu, mentions
(Iron Pillar) conquests of Vanga Countries and Bahlikas.
6 Kalsi Inscription Kalsi, Only place in North India with Ashoka’s 14 rock edicts. Reflects
Uttarakhand Ashoka’s conversion to Buddhism, commitment to non-
violence.
7 Maski Inscription Raichur, Minor rock edict with the name "Ashoka" instead of titles.
Karnataka Promotes Buddhism, indicates Mauryan rule up to Krishna
Valley.
8 Kalinga Edicts Odisha Reflects Ashoka’s remorse post-Kalinga war, promotes peace
and Buddhism. Contains special edicts for the pacification of
Kalinga.
9 Kanganahalli Gulbarga, Contains Mahastupa and sculptural slabs, including a portrait of
Inscriptions Karnataka King Ashoka with the label "Rayo Ashoka".

10 Aihole Inscription Aihole, Chronicles Chalukyas’ history, defeat of Harshavardhana by

Karnataka Pulakeshin II, victory over Pallavas. Written by court poet
Ravikirti.
11 Hathigumpha Udayagiri- Inscribed by King Kharavela, details his reign, conquests,
Inscription Khandagiri, cultural patronage, and support for Jainism.
Odisha
12 Shahbazgarhi and Pakistan Records 14 edicts of King Ashoka in Kharosthi script.
Mansehra Rock
Edicts
Temple architecture UPSC (2012) 'shikhara' with a square sanctum and pillared
portico.
During the Gupta period, temple architecture
evolved from flat-roofed structures to sculptured
Stage Features Example
First • Flat roof Temple No. 17 at Sanchi (MP)
Stage • Square shape
• Portico on shallow pillars
• Built on low platform
Second • Continuation of first stage features Parvati temple at Nachna
Stage • Higher/upraised platforms Kuthara (MP)
• Instances of two-storied temples
• Addition of covered ambulatory passageway around
garbhagriha
Third • Emergence of shikharas (still low and almost square) Dashavatar temple at
Stage • Introduction of Panchayatan style Deogarh (UP), Durga temple
• Main temple square with elongated mandap at Aihole (Karnataka)
• Four subsidiary shrines giving ground plan a crucified shape
Fourth • Similar to third stage, but main shrine more rectangular Ter temple in Maharashtra
Stage
Fifth • Introduction of circular temples with shallow rectangular Maniyar Math at Rajgir
Stage projections
• Continuation of previous phase features
Styles of Temple Architecture Under the patronage of local rulers, different styles
of architecture developed across various regions of
The basic form of a Hindu temple consists of the India.
following elements:
Nagara School of Architecture
• Sanctum Sanctorum (Garbhagriha): A small,
generally cubicle room that houses the The Nagara School of Architecture, prominent
principal deity of the temple. from the 5th century AD in Northern India, is
• Mandapa: The entrance to the temple, which characterized by distinct features and variations
may be a portico or a hall designed to across its western, central, and eastern sub-
accommodate a large number of worshippers. schools:
• Shikhara: A mountain-like spire on the temple, • Panchayatan Layout: This layout includes
with shapes varying from pyramidal to subsidiary shrines in a cruciform ground plan
curvilinear. around the principal shrine.
• Vahana: The mount or vehicle of the main
deity, positioned just before the sanctum
sanctorum.

• Phamsana: Broader base, shorter than Latina,

with walls sloping upwards in a straight line.
• Valabhi: Rectangular base with a vaulted
chamber roof, resembling a wagon-vault.
• Amalak and Kalash: The shikhara's vertical end
is topped with a fluted disc (Amalak) and a
spherical shape (Kalash).
• Vertical Planes (Rathas): Walls divided into
vertical planes for narrative sculptures,
evolving from triratha to navaratha designs.
• Covered Pradakshina Path: The
circumambulatory path around the sanctum is
covered.
Panchayatana Layout • Minimal Boundary Walls or Gateways: The
• Assembly Halls (Mandaps): Located in front of temple premises are typically open without
the principal shrine for gatherings and elaborate enclosures or gateways.
worship.
• River Goddesses: Statues of Ganga and Nagara Style temple architecture
Yamuna placed outside the garbhagriha
(sanctum sanctorum).
• Absence of Water Tanks: Unlike some other
styles, Nagara temples usually do not include
water tanks or reservoirs within the premises.
• Upraised Platforms: Temples are built on
elevated platforms, enhancing their majesty
and prominence.
• Pillared Porticos: The approach to the temple
is through a pillared portico, adding to the
architectural grandeur.
Shikhara Types:
• Latina or Rekha-prasad: Square base with
walls converging to a point at the top.
Feature Odisha School Khajuraho School Solanki School (Maru-
Gurjara)
Wall Decorations Exterior: Intricate Both interior and exterior: Mostly devoid of carvings
carvings Lavish carvings, erotic themes
Interior: Plain
Porch & Pillars No pillars, use of iron Not specified Decorative arched
girders gateways (torans)
Shikhara Style Rekha deul: Vertical roofs Rekha-prasad shikharas, Not specified
curving inwards mountain range impression
Mandapa Name & Jagamohan, square Garbhagriha, Mandapa, Garbhagriha connected
Style ground plan Ardhamandapa (some with with Mandapa
Antarala)
Special Boundary wall similar to Panchayatan style, high Step-tank (suryakund)
Architectural Dravidian style platform with small temple steps
Elements
Material Used -- Sandstone Sandstone, black basalt,
soft-marble
Orientation & Not specified North or east facing East-facing, equinox sun-
Unique Aspects rays alignment

Notable Examples Sun Temple at Konark, Kandariya Mahadev Temple, Modhera Sun Temple,
Jagannath Temple at Lakshmana Temple at Gujarat
Puri, Lingaraj Temple at Khajuraho
Bhubaneswar
Temple Architecture in South India
Group Stage Description Examples

Mahendra First Rock-cut temples known as mandapas under -
Group Stage Mahendravarman, initiating the Pallava temple
architecture.
Narasimha Second Introduction of intricate sculptures and separate -
Group Stage rathas (chariots), with names like Dharmaraja and
Draupadi rathas indicating the evolution towards
Dravidian architecture.
Rajasimha Third Transition to real structural temples from rock-cut, Shore Temple at
Group Stage showcasing significant architectural advancements. Mahabalipuram,
Kailashnath Temple at
Kanchipuram
Nandivarman Fourth Smaller temples featuring characteristics similar to the -
Group Stage evolving Dravidian architectural style.
Monuments at Mahabalipuram
Monument Description
Ratha Temples Earliest rock-cut temples in India, known as Pandava Rathas. Includes Dharmaraja Ratha
(Pancha Ratha) (largest), Bhima Ratha, Arjuna Ratha, Nakula and Sahadeva Ratha, and Draupadi Ratha
from the 7th century AD.
Rock-cut Caves Varaha Cave Temple, Krishna Cave Temple, Panchapandava Cave Temple, and
Mahishasuramardini Mandapa.
Open Air Rock Descent of the Ganges (Arjuna’s Penance/Bhagiratha’s Penance) carved on two boulders,
Reliefs depicting the descent of River Ganga to earth and Krishna’s Butter Ball nearby.
Shore Temple Features two small and one large temple within a two-tier compound wall with images of
Complex Nandi. Dedicated primarily to Lord Shiva, includes a sculpture of Anantashayana Vishnu.
Declared as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1984, the Group of Monuments at Mahabalipuram is a testament
to the 7th-century Pallava architecture and sculpture in Tamil Nadu.
• Panchayatan Layout: The temple complex
Dravidian Style of Temple Architecture
typically includes a principal temple
The Dravidian Style of Temple Architecture, also surrounded by four subsidiary shrines.
known as Chola Architecture, flourished under the • Vimana: The temple's spire is a stepped
Chola rulers in South India, building on the legacy pyramid, linear in rise, known as vimana,
of Pallava architecture with distinctive variations: diverging from the curved shikharas of Nagara
• High Boundary Walls: Dravidian temples are temples.
characterized by their encompassing high • Shikhara: The vimana's crowning element is
boundary walls, differentiating them from the octagonal, referred to as shikhara, contrasting
Nagara style. with the spherical kalash found in Nagara
• Gopuram: The entrance features a towering architecture.
gateway called a gopuram, marking a key visual
element of this style.

• Single Vimana: Only the main temple features • Dwarf Underfoot: Symbolizes ignorance and
a vimana, setting it apart from Nagara style ego, showcasing Shiva's triumph over these
where subsidiary shrines also have vimanas. aspects.
• Antarala: The assembly hall connects to the • Matted Locks: Represent the river Ganges,
garbhagriha via a vestibular tunnel called symbolizing purity and sanctity.
antarala. • Ardhanarishwar (Earrings): The mix of male
• Sculptures at Entrance: The garbhagriha's and female earrings signifies the union of
entrance is adorned with sculptures of masculine and feminine principles.
Dwaarpal, mithun, and yaksha. • Snake: Twined around Shiva's arm, it
• Water Tank: A distinctive feature of Dravidian symbolizes the Kundalini power, potential for
temples is the inclusion of a water tank within spiritual enlightenment.
the temple enclosure. • Glowing Nimbus: The circle of fire around
Examples of this architectural style include the Nataraja represents the eternal cycles of
Brihadeeswara Temple at Thanjavur, built by Raja creation and destruction, encapsulating the
Raja I in 1011 AD, and the Gangaikondacholapuram concept of cosmic time.
Temple, constructed by Rajendra I to celebrate his This sculpture, often found in Chola temples, is not
victory in the Gangetic delta. only a masterpiece of Indian art but also a
profound symbol of cosmic and spiritual principles.
Brihadeeswara Temple at Thanjavur

Chola sculpture
Chola temples prominently featured sculptures as
a significant aspect of decoration, with the
sculpture of Nataraja in the Tandava dance posture
being a pivotal piece. The Nataraja sculpture,
reaching its zenith during the Chola era,
encapsulates various symbolic elements: Nataraja sculpture
• Drum (Upper Right Hand): Symbolizes the Other Schools of Temple Architecture
sound of creation, signifying that all creations
emanate from this primordial sound. Nayaka School (Madurai School)
• Eternal Fire (Upper Left Hand): Represents • Time Period: 16th to 18th centuries AD under
destruction, the inevitable counterpart of Nayaka rulers.
creation. • Characteristics: Architecturally akin to the
• Abhaya Mudra (Lower Right Hand): Offers Dravidian style but larger, with Islamic
benediction and reassurance to devotees, influences. Notable for prakarams (huge
signifying protection and fearlessness. corridors) around the garbhagriha, roofed
• Path to Salvation (Lower Left Hand): Points ambulatory passageways, and the largest
towards the upraised foot, indicating the way gopurams, reaching their zenith in this period.
to liberation. • Example: Meenakshi Temple in Madurai with
the tallest gopuram.

• Influences: A synthesis of Chola, Hoysalas,

Pandyas, Chalukyas, and Indo-Islamic (Bijapur)
architectural styles.
• Characteristics:
o Decorated Walls: Extensively carved
with geometrical patterns.
o Gopurams: Positioned on all sides,
unlike the earlier practice of having
them only at the front.
o Monolithic Rock Pillars: Featuring the
mythical creature Yali.
Meenakshi Temple in Madurai o Large Enclosing Walls: Encompassing
the temple complex.
Vesara School (Karnataka School)
o Multiple Mandapas: Introduction of the
• Origin: Conceptualised under the later kalyana mandapa for divine marriage
Chalukya rulers in the mid-7th century AD. ceremonies.
• Style: A hybrid of Nagara and Dravidian o Secular Buildings: Inclusion within the
schools, featuring vimanas, mandapas, and temple premises, a novel concept during
open ambulatory passageways. Pillars, this period.
doorways, and ceilings showcase intricate o Enclosed Complex: Boundaries
carvings. surrounding the temple complex.
• Dynastic Contributions: Examples: Vittalaswami Temple Complex, Lotus
o Chalukyas of Badami and Kalyani Mahal, Virupaksha Temple, Raghunatha Temple,
o Rashtrakutas (750-983 AD): Example - all located at Hampi. Notable Rock-cut idol of
Kailasha temple in Ellora. Narasimha on Shesha at Hampi, showcasing
o Hoysala Dynasty (1050-1300 AD): exquisite craftsmanship.
Temples at Halebidu, Belur.
• Influences: Combines Nagara's curvilinear
shikhara and square base with Dravidian's
intricate carvings and sculptures, and the
Vimana and step/terraced Shikara designs.
• Examples: Doddabasappa Temple at Dambal,
Ladkhan Temple at Aihole, Temples at Badami.
Lotus Mahal, Hampi
Extended knowledge by Civils Front

The Badami Cave Temples, located in Karnataka,
serve as a significant historical site, marking the
early Chalukyan capital. These 6th-century AD
rock-cut temples represent the earliest example of
Ladkhan Temple at Aihole temple architecture in the Deccan region,
showcasing Hindu and Jain religious themes across
Vijayanagara School four caves.
• Era: 1335-1565 AD, under the Vijayanagara • Cave 01: Devoted to Shiva, featuring a
Empire with Hampi (Karnataka) as the capital. prominent sculpture of Shiva as Nataraja

and a relief of Harihara (half Vishnu, half • Zigzag Patterns: The temple's walls and stairs
Shiva). feature zigzag patterns, adding to the
• Cave 02: Primarily dedicated to Lord complexity and beauty of the design.
Vishnu, housing a large relief of Vishnu as o Examples: The Hoysaleswara Temple at
Trivikrama, alongside depictions of his Halebidu, Chennakesava Temple at
Vamana and Varaha avatars. Belur, and Chennakesava Temple at
• Cave 03: The largest cave, with detailed Somanathapura stand as testament to
reliefs of Trivikrama, Anantasayana, the rich artistic heritage of the Hoysala
Vasudeva, Varaha, Harihara, and rulers, embodying the distinct aesthetics
Narasimha, illustrating various aspects of of this era.
Hindu mythology.
• Cave 04: A Jain cave, adorned with
intricate sculptures of Bahubali in
Kayotsarga posture, Parshvanatha under a
five-headed cobra hood, and Mahavira
seated on a lion throne, along with
symbols of other Tirthankaras.
Adjacent to Agastya Lake, additional caves
potentially themed around Buddhism complement Hoysaleswara Temple, Halebidu
these four main structures, enriching the cultural
and religious tapestry of Badami. The Pala and Sena School of Architecture
Hoysala Art The Pala and Sena School of Architecture,

prominent in the Bengal region between the 8th
Hoysala Art, originating in Karnataka near Mysore and 12th centuries AD, was nurtured by the Pala
during 1050-1300 AD, showcases a unique style and Sena dynasties. The Pala dynasty, adhering to
through its temple architecture, particularly noted Mahayana Buddhism, and the Sena dynasty,
in Belur, Halebidu, and Sringeri. This period is rooted in Hinduism, both contributed to the
distinguished by several architectural innovations architectural landscape, creating a blend of
and detailed sculptures, marking the Hoysala Buddhist and Hindu elements.
School of art. Pala Dynasty Contributions:
• Design: Temples feature multiple shrines • Focus on Buddhist Architecture: Constructed
radiating from a central pillared hall, departing numerous Viharas, Chaityas, and Stupas.
from the cruciform Panchayatan layout to • Notable Monuments: Universities of Nalanda,
adopt an intricately designed stellate (star- Jagaddala, Odantapuri, and Vikramshila;
shaped) plan. Somapura Mahavihara in Bangladesh.
• Material: Soft soapstone (Chorite schist) was Sena Dynasty Contributions:
predominantly used, allowing for detailed • Hindu Temples: Alongside maintaining
carving. Buddhist structures, they built several Hindu
• Sculptural Emphasis: Exceptional attention to temples.
decorative sculptures, including interior and • Dhakeshwari Temple in Bangladesh is a prime
exterior walls and deities' jewelry, showcasing example.
intricate craftsmanship. Sena Architectural Features:
• Shikharas: All chambers are topped with • "Bangla Roof": Sloping roofs reminiscent of
shikharas, linked by an arrangement of bamboo huts, influencing later Mughal
horizontal lines and mouldings, creating an architecture.
orderly succession of tiers. • Material: Primarily utilized burnt bricks and
• Jagati: Temples are constructed on an elevated terracotta bricks.
platform about 1 meter high, enhancing their • Shikhara: Characterized by a tall, curving
grandeur. structure topped with a large amalaka,
drawing parallels to the Odisha School.

• Sculpture Material: Employed both stone and o Examples: Siddhesvara Mahadeva

metal, with stone as the predominant medium. Temple in Barakar and Temples
• Sculpture Finish: Noted for their highly around Bishnupur in West Bengal.
lustrous finish, making the figures unique.
University Location Details
Odantapuri Bihar Established by Pala Dynasty's King Gopala I. A Buddhist mahavihara,
destroyed by Bakhtiyar Khilji.
Vikramshila Bhagalpur, Bihar Founded by King Dharampala of Pala Dynasty. A Buddhist learning
center, famous for Vajrayana Buddhism and Tantric teachings. Also
taught subjects like logic, Vedas, and astronomy.
Jaggadala Bengal Vajrayana Buddhism center, established by King Ramapala of Pala
dynasty. Scholars sought refuge here post Nalanda and
Vikramshila's decline.
Valabhi Saurashtra, Center for Hinayana Buddhism, known for disciplines like
Gujarat administration and statecraft. Visited by Chinese scholar Hseun
Tsang and supported by Maitraka Dynasty grants.
Nalanda -- A renowned South Asian university, existing since the Gupta period
and prominent under Harshavardhana and Pala kings. Major site for
Mahayana Buddhist teachings, attracting scholars globally.
Takshashila Modern-day Existed around 5th century BC, offering courses in Buddhist and
Pakistan Hindu theologies, political science, and medicine. Notable for
scholars like Chanakya and Panini.
Kancheepuram Near Mysore, A learning center for Hinduism, Jainism, and Buddhism, flourishing
Karnataka under the Pallavas.
Manyakheta Karnataka Gained prominence under Rashtrakuta rule, hosting scholars of
(Malkhed) Jainism, Buddhism, and Hinduism. Features a matha of Dvaita
philosophy.
Pushpagiri Odisha Established by Kalinga kings around 3rd century AD. A Buddhist
Vihara and learning center near Udayagiri hills.
Lalitagiri
Nagarjunakonda Near Amaravathi, A major Buddhist center named after Mahayana scholar Nagarjuna,
Andhra Pradesh attracting international scholars.
Architecture during Medieval India • Mortar: Utilization of mortar as a binding

agent.
Medieval India witnessed a significant • Figurative Representation: Avoidance of
transformation in its architectural landscape human and animal figures, in contrast to Hindu
following the Arab conquest of Sind in 712 AD, architectural norms.
culminating in the emergence of Indo-Islamic or • Spatial Dynamics: Emphasis on spaciousness
Indo-Saracenic architecture. This style represented and massiveness, introducing a sense of
a fusion of Persian and Indian architectural breadth.
traditions, adapting to the tastes of Islamic rulers • Decorative Elements: Shift from sculptures to
while retaining local architectural flavors. calligraphy for decoration, alongside the
Arabesque method featuring geometrical and
Key Features of Indo-Islamic Architecture: vegetal ornamentation.
• Arch and Dome Usage: Introduction of the • Geometry: Extensive use of geometric
‘Arcuate’ style, emphasizing arches and principles for decorative patterns and
domes, replacing the traditional Trabeate symmetry.
style. • Jaali Works: Intricate lattice works signifying
• Minarets: Incorporation of minars around the importance of light.
mosques and mausoleums.

• Water Features: Integration of water through used, and the "batter" style with sloping walls
courtyard pools, fountains, and drains for was introduced for enhanced strength.
religious, cooling, and decorative purposes. o Examples: Cities of Tughlaqabad,
• Gardening: Introduction of the Charbagh style, Jahanpanah, and Ferozabad.
dividing a square block into four identical • Provincial Style: Patronized by local rulers and
gardens. fiefs, reflecting regional variations and
• Pietra Dura: Use of the pietra-dura technique influences.
for inlaying precious stones into walls.
• Foreshortening Technique: Employing Lodi Dynasty Architecture
architectural illusions to make inscriptions • Under the Lodi Dynasty, architectural
appear closer. development was limited, focusing primarily
This period marked a significant departure from on tomb construction. A notable innovation of
previous architectural styles, blending this period was the introduction of double
functionality with an aesthetical emphasis on light, domes, serving both structural strength and
space, and decorative intricacy. aesthetic purposes by lowering the dome's
inner height. The tombs, characterized by their
Architecture During Delhi Sultanate Period octagonal shapes and roughly 15-meter
(1206-1526 AD) diameters, featured hard and bare exteriors
A) Imperial Style without lavish decorations, supported by
sloping verandahs.
Patronized by Delhi's rulers, showcasing unique • Example: Lodi Gardens, establishment of the
contributions across different dynasties. city of Agra by Sikandar Lodi.
• Slave Dynasty (1206-1290 AD): Known for the
Mameluke style, focusing on remodeling B) Provincial Schools of Architecture
existing Hindu structures and initiating new The Indo-Islamic architectural style began
monuments like Qutub Minar and Quwwat-ul- influencing local styles, leading to significant
Islam mosque. developments in regions like Bengal, Bijapur,
• Qutub Minar: Jaunpur, and Mandu.
Initiated by Qutb- • Bengal School (1203–1573 AD): Known for its
ud-din Aibak; later use of bricks and black marble, this school
floors added by continued the tradition of sloping 'Bangla
Iltutmish and roofs' from temple to mosque architecture.
Feroze Shah o Examples: Qadam Rasul Mosque in Gour,
Tughlaq. Adina Mosque in Pandua.
o Other • Jaunpur School (1394–1479 AD): Patronized
Examples: by Sharqi rulers, this style, also known as
Quwwat- Sharqi style, stood out for its avoidance of
ul-Islam minars and the use of bold characters on huge
mosque screens within the prayer hall.
(converted from a Jain temple), Arhai- o Example: Atala Mosque, Jaunpur.
din-ka-Jhopra in Ajmer.
• Khilji Dynasty (1290-1320 AD): Introduced the Malwa School (1405-1569 AD)
Seljuk style, marked by red sandstone use and • Location: Dhar and Mandu, Malwa Plateau
the Arcuate style with prominent use of Characteristics:
mortar. • Use of various colored stones and marbles.
o Examples: Alai Darwaza by Ala-ud-din • Large windows, possibly influenced by
Khilji, Siri Fort. European styles.
• Tughlaq Dynasty: A period of architectural • Decorations with stylized arches and pillars;
crisis, focusing on the building's strength with stairs enhanced aesthetics.
less decorative emphasis. Grey sandstone was
• Minars were notably absent.

Environmental Adaptation:
• Large windows for ventilation. Akbar (Post-1556):
• Lightly arched pavilions for cool interiors. Marked the beginning of the golden period of
• Artificial reservoirs ('baulis') for water storage. Mughal art and architecture, significantly enriching
• Local materials and batter system for the architectural heritage of India.
structural strength.
• Examples: Rani Roopmati Pavilion, Jahaz Akbar's Contributions to Art and Architecture
Mahal, Ashrafi Mahal. • Agra Fort: Initiated by Akbar with further
Bijapur School (1490-1656 AD) additions by Shah Jahan.
• Patron: Adil Shah • Notable Structures: Moti Masjid, Diwan-i-aam,
• Characteristics: Diwan-i-khas, Jahangiri Mahal, Sheesh Mahal.
o Unique mosques, tombs, and palaces. • Features: Charbagh style gardens, housed over
o 3-arched facades and bulbous domes, 5000 women in Akbar's harem.
almost spherical with a narrow neck. • Fatehpur Sikri: A new capital city showcasing
o Introduction of cornices. Indo-Islamic architecture with a blend of Hindu
o Ceilings without apparent support, and Persian styles.
utilizing iron clamps and strong plaster of • Buland Darwaza: Commemorates victory over
mortar. Gujarat, world's highest gateway.
o Rich carvings for wall decoration. • Salim Chishti’s Tomb: Known for its intricate
o Example: Gol Gumbaj in Bijapur Jaali work and Quranic inscriptions, further
(Vijayapura), the mausoleum of Adil Shah. decorated by Jahangir.
• Panch Mahal: A five-storied structure inspired
Mughal Architecture
by Persian badgir.
The Mughal era is renowned for its significant • Jodha Bai’s Palace: Features interiors with
contributions to art and architecture in India, with Hindu motifs.
each ruler adding distinct elements and • Ibadat Khana: A place for religious discussions.
innovations. UPSC (2014)
• Pachisi Court: Where Akbar played chess.
Babur (1526 AD):
• Contributions: Constructed mosques in
Panipat and Rohilkhand.
• Impact: Limited due to his short reign, without
inspiring new styles or techniques.
Humayun:
• Efforts: Focused on battling Sher Shah Suri,
leading to minimal architectural
advancements.
• Initiatives: Laid the foundation of Dinpanah
city but remained unfinished. Persian style
gained prominence.
Sher Shah Suri:
• Monuments: Constructed the Qila-e-Quhunah
mosque in Delhi, Rohtas Fort in Pakistan, and
Buland Darwaja
Sher Shah Suri Masjid in Patna, showcasing
Afghan architectural style.
Jahangir's Contributions to Architecture
• Infrastructure: Reconstructed the Grand Trunk
Although Jahangir's reign was more focused on
Road, enhancing it with sarais (inns) and trees
paintings and the arts, he still oversaw the
for travelers.
construction of several significant architectural
• Tomb: Sher Shah Suri’s tomb in Sasaram, a red
projects:
sandstone structure within a lake, continuing
Delhi Sultanate architectural traditions.

• Akbar’s Tomb in Sikandra: Oversaw its

construction, continuing the Mughal
architectural legacy.
• Gardens: Developed numerous gardens,
including Shalimar Bagh in Kashmir.
• Moti Masjid: Built at Lahore, adding to the
religious architectural landscape.
• Tomb of Itmad-ud-daulah: Constructed by
Noor Jahan in white marble, introducing
pietra-dura works, marking a shift from red
Red Fort
sandstone to white marble.
• Tomb of Jahangir: Erected by Shah Jahan at Aurangzeb's Architectural Legacy
Lahore, continuing the tradition of Aurangzeb's reign marked a period of decline in
monumental tombs. Mughal architecture, with a reduced focus on
Shah Jahan's Architectural Grandeur artistic and architectural advancements due to his
Shah Jahan's era is often considered the zenith of puritanical outlook. However, a significant
Mughal architecture, characterized by grandeur contribution during his time was:
and detailed craftsmanship. • Bibi-ka-Maqbara: Constructed in memory of
• Taj Mahal: A mausoleum for Mumtaz Mahal, his wife, Begum Rabia-ud-Daurani, located in
incorporating calligraphy, pietra-dura, Aurangabad. Often referred to as a lesser
Charbagh style gardens, and elaborate use of imitation of the Taj Mahal.
water for decoration. Noted for its intricate Regional Architectural Developments
jaali work and low relief marble carvings.
• Red Fort: Symbolizing the pinnacle of Mughal During the Mughal period, regional architectural
fortification in Delhi. styles in Rajasthan and Punjab also evolved,
• Jama Masjid: Among the largest mosques in incorporating Mughal influences while maintaining
India, showcasing the imperial architectural distinctive elements.
vision. Rajput Style:
• Shalimar Bagh (Lahore) & Shahjahanabad: • Influence: While influenced by Mughal
Reflecting the emphasis on urban planning and architecture, Rajput style maintained
garden development. uniqueness in construction scale and design.
• Peacock Throne: An exquisite example of • Constructions: Focused on building grand
metalwork from this period, illustrating the palaces and forts.
luxury and artistic refinement of Shah Jahan's Unique Features:
court. • Jharokha (Hanging Balcony): Varied in shapes
Shah Jahan’s architectural legacy is marked by an and sizes, a significant element in Rajput
emphasis on aesthetic appeal, structural architecture.
innovation, and the extensive use of white marble, • Cornices: Designed in arch shapes, creating
setting a new standard for Mughal architecture. shadow patterns reminiscent of a bow.
• This period showcases a blend of declining
Mughal architectural endeavors under
Aurangzeb and the continuation of regional
architectural innovations, particularly in
Rajasthan with the Rajput style, highlighting
the diversity and richness of Indian
architecture.
Sikh Style of Architecture
The Sikh style, emerging in modern-day Punjab, is
a synthesis of Mughal and Rajput architectural
Taj Mahal, Agra

influences, characterized by unique elements and • Temples at Awantipora: Avantiswami (Vishnu)

decorative techniques. and Avantisvara (Shiva), 9th century, Utpala
Dynasty, with Roman and Gandharan
Key Features: influences.
• Chhatris: Multiple kiosks or chhatris atop the • Pandrethan Temple: Dedicated to Vishnu,
construction. 10th century, near Srinagar, known for
• Cornices and Domes: Incorporation of shallow exquisite carvings and domed roof.
cornices and onion-shaped domes. • Mamleshwar Shiva Temple: In Pahalgam, built
• Fluted Domes: Typically adorned with brass around 400 AD, mentioned in Rajatarangini.
and copper guilds for both decoration and • Monuments in Paraspore: Built by Lalitaditya
structural support. Muktapida, with temples dedicated to Vishnu
• Decorated Arches: Arches featuring extensive and Lord Parihaskesana, including Buddhist
foliation for aesthetic enhancement. structures.
• Example: Shri Harmandir Sahib (Golden
Islamic Rule Architectural Development
Temple)
Blend of Kashmiri and Islamic styles, with square
mosques made of wood, brick, and stone, featuring
multi-levelled sloping roofs and tall spires instead
of domes.
Islamic Monuments:
• Jamia Masjid, Srinagar: 14th–15th century,
large courtyard, 370 wooden pillars, absence
of curved dome.
• Aali Masjid, Srinagar: 15th century, Shahmiri
dynasty, timber and stone construction with
pyramidal top and arch-shaped windows.
Golden Temple • Pari Mahal: Mid-17th century by Mughal
prince Dara Shikoh, a terraced structure
Architecture in Kashmir overlooking Dal Lake, near Chashme Shahi
Early Medieval Hindu Phase & Muslim Rule: garden.
Initial Buddhist structures at Harwan and Ushkar,
with temples flourishing under the Karkota and Mughal Gardens:
Utpala dynasties. Inspired by Persian designs, built in Char Bagh style
Key Features of Kashmiri Temple Architecture: with water streams, fountains, and trees.
• Trefoil arches, cellular layout, enclosed • Chashme Shahi: Persian style, built around a
courtyard, straight-edged pyramidal roof, fresh spring.
column walls, triangular pediments, and • Shalimar Bagh: Built by Jahangir in 1619,
numerous steps. summer royal residence.
• Nishat Bagh: Largest Mughal garden in the
Notable Temples and Features: valley, near Dal Lake.
• Martand Sun Temple: In Anantnag, 8th • Other Gardens: Badamwari, Verinag,
century, Karkota Dynasty, showcasing Kokernag, and Achabal Garden in Anantnag.
Gandhara, Chinese, and Gupta influences.
European Architectural Influence in India
Influence Style & Urban Planning Notable Constructions & Examples

Portuguese Introduced Iberian architecture, Patio houses, and Sé Cathedral, Goa: Portuguese late-
Baroque style with elaborate designs for dramatic Gothic style, featuring the 'Golden
effects. Bell.'

Basilica of Bom Jesus, Goa: World

Heritage Site in Baroque style,
houses St. Francis Xavier's body.
French Brought Cartesian grid plans and scientific architectural Church of Sacred Heart of Jesus,
designs, focusing on urban city planning. Puducherry;
British Gothic Style & Indo-Gothic Style: Emphasized large, Victoria Memorial, Kolkata;
elaborate constructions with thin walls, pointed arches, Gateway of India, Mumbai.
and large windows. Notable for crucified ground plan Architects: Edwin Lutyens and
churches and advanced British engineering using steel, Herbert Baker's work in New Delhi
iron, and concrete. Neo-Roman Style (Post-1911): represents this style, described as
Characterized by anonymous constructions with a mix the “Rome of Hindustan.”
of architectural styles, leading to congested spaces.
Focus on circular buildings and the use of oriental
motifs in western designs. Introduced the concept of
upturned domes.
Major Sun Temples in India

1. Modhera Sun Temple, Gujarat: Built in the
11th century, showcases intricate carvings
and architecture.
2. Konark Sun Temple, Odisha: Constructed by
Narasimhadeva I in the 13th century,
designed in the form of a Rath (Chariot) with
a mandapa on a raised platform.
3. Brahmanya Dev Temple, Unao (Madhya Modhera Sun Temple, Gujrat
Pradesh)
4. Suryanaar Kovil, Kumbakonam (Tamil
Nadu): 11th-century Dravidian style
architecture, dedicated to the sun god and
the Navagraha (nine celestial bodies),
featuring a five-layered Gopuram.
5. Suryanarayana Swamy Temple, Arasavalli
(Andhra Pradesh): Believed to be
constructed by a Kalinga king in the 7th
century, the idol is made of granite holding
a lotus.
6. Dakshinaarka Temple, Gaya (Bihar): Said to
be built by King Prataparudra of Warangal in
the 13th century, features a granite deity in
Persian attire and has a Surya Kund (water Konark Sun Temple, Odisha
reservoir) nearby.
7. Navalakha Temple, Ghumli (Gujarat): An
11th-century construction in Solanki and
Maru-Gurjara style, facing east and built on
a large platform.
8. Surya Pahar Temple, Goalpara (Assam)
9. Martand Sun Temple, Kashmir

2 Paintings in India
Introduction • Subjects: Large animals like bison,
• India's rich tradition in painting dates back to elephants, rhinos, tigers; red for hunters,
ancient times, with evidence of wall paintings green for dancers.
found across various parts of the country.
• The history encompasses ancient and medieval 2. Mesolithic Period (10,000-4000 BC):
illustrations, Mughal and Rajput miniature • Predominant use of red color.
styles, and influences from European art • Smaller painting sizes with scenes of
practices in later periods. group hunting, grazing, and riding.
• Modern Indian painters have experimented
with styles and gained international 3. Chalcolithic Period:
recognition. • Introduction of green and yellow colors.
• Depictions of battle scenes, men riding
Principles of Painting: horses and elephants, indicating
• Ancient Roots: Traced back to rock paintings in preparedness for skirmishes.
Bhimbetaka, Mirzapur, and Panchmarhi, and • Existence of Ashokan and Gupta Brahmi
pottery from the Indus Valley Civilization. script writings, indicating late historical
• Gupta Age: Marked the formal beginning of period habitation.
painting, with Vatsyayana's Kamasutra • Notable Sites and Depictions:
outlining six principles or Shadanga of painting: o Narsinghgarh, Madhya Pradesh:
• Rupabheda: Variety of form Tanning skins, musical instruments
• Pramanam: Proportion of the like harps, and geometrical shapes.
object/subject o Jogimara Caves, Surguja,
• Bhava: Creation of luster and gleam with Chhattisgarh (1000 BC): Later period
colors paintings.
• Lavanya Yojanam: Immersion of o Odisha: Gudahandi and Yogimatha
emotions Rock Shelters.
• Sadrisyam: Portrayal of likeness
• Varnikabhanga: Mixing of colors for Classification of Indian paintings
modelling effects
1. Mural Paintings
Styles of Paintings and Features: 2. Miniature Paintings
1. Cauka Pitaka: Isolated framed drawings Mural Paintings in India
2. Dighala Pitaka: Long scrolls of paintings
3. Yama Pitaka: Isolated paintings Murals in India date from the 10th century BC to
the 10th century AD, found in natural caves or
Pre-Historic Paintings in India rock-cut chambers, embodying themes from
Hindu, Buddhist, and Jain traditions.
Pre-historic paintings, primarily rock engravings or
Petroglyphs, trace back to ancient civilizations, Ajanta Cave Paintings
with significant discoveries at Bhimbetka caves,
• Period: Carved from volcanic rocks between
Madhya Pradesh.
2nd century BC and 5th century AD, forming 29
Major Phases: caves in a horseshoe shape.
1. Upper Paleolithic Period (40,000-10,000 BC): • Style: Utilizes tempera technique with
• Colors: Ochre mixed with lime and water; vegetable and mineral dyes, highlighting social
palette included red, white, yellow, and fabric, styles, costumes, and ornaments of the
green. era.
• Themes: Jataka tales, Buddha's life, and
decorative patterns of flora and fauna, with

each female figure depicted with a unique Armamalai Cave Paintings

hairstyle.
• Location: Vellore district, Tamil Nadu
• Techniques: Murals and fresco paintings,
emphasizing emotions through hand gestures • Conversion: Transformed into a Jain temple in
and detailed portrayals. the 8th century.
• Significant Paintings at Ajanta: • Themes: Depicts Astathik Palakas and tales
from Jainism on walls and roof, using colorful
o Jataka Stories: Illustrations of Buddha's
previous lives and teachings. paintings.
o Bodhisattvas in Cave No. 1: Depictions Sittanavasal Cave (Arivar Koil) Paintings
of Vajrapani, Manjusri, and Padmapani
in tribhanga pose. UPSC () • Period: 1st century BC to 10th century AD
o The Dying Princess (Cave No. 16): A • Location: Tamil Nadu
poignant scene. • Jain Influence: Renowned for Jainism-based
o Shibi Jataka and Matri-Poshaka Jataka: murals, resembling those in Bagh and Ajanta.
Stories reflecting Buddha's virtues and • Themes: Focuses on Jain Samavasarana, with
moral lessons. paintings on walls, ceiling, and pillars using
vegetable and mineral dyes.
Ellora Cave Paintings • Significant Scene: A pond with lotuses,
• Location: Ellora Caves, predominantly in Cave depicting monks, ducks, swans, and animals,
No. 16 (Kailasha Temple). illustrating Samavasarana where Tirthankaras
Phases: preached.
• First Phase: Initial paintings during the caves' Ravan Chhaya Rock Shelter
carving, featuring Vishnu and Lakshmi on
Garuda. • Location: Keonjhar district, Odisha
• Second Phase: Later additions in Gujarati style, • Description: Ancient fresco paintings on a rock
showcasing a procession of Shaiva holy men. shelter shaped like a half-opened umbrella,
• Themes: Covering Buddhism, Jainism, and possibly a royal hunting lodge.
Hinduism, Ellora's paintings are relatively • Notable Paintings: A royal procession from the
newer compared to Ajanta's. 7th century, with Chola period remnants from
Notable Depictions: the 11th century.
• Goddess Lakshmi and Lord Vishnu. Lepakshi Temple Paintings
• Lord Shiva and his followers.
• Apsaras, embodying grace and beauty. • Location: Anantapur district, Andhra Pradesh
• Period: 16th century, Vijayanagara era
Bagh Cave Paintings • Themes: Religious motifs from Ramayana,
• Location: Bagh, Madhya Pradesh, considered Mahabharata, and Vishnu's incarnations,
an extension of the Ajanta school. marked by the absence of primary colors,
Characteristics: especially blue, and a decline in quality.
• Similar in design, execution, and decoration to • Details: Figures and costumes outlined in
Ajanta, with a notable difference in the figures black, indicating a deviation from earlier
being more tightly modeled, strongly outlined, painting quality.
and depicting a more earthly and human Jogimara Cave Paintings
essence.
• Cave No. 4 (Rang Mahal): Features murals of • Location: Surguja district, Chhattisgarh
Buddhist Jataka tales, akin to Ajanta. • Period: Circa 1000-300 BC
o Despite their current scanty and decayed • Features: Carved cave with paintings and
state, these murals blend religious themes Brahmi script inscriptions narrating a love
with the contemporary lifestyle, offering a story.
more secular perspective. • Imagery: Dancing couples, elephants, fish, with
a distinctive red outline and additional colors
like white, yellow, and black.

• Nearby: Rock-cut theatre of Sitabenga, Apabhramsa School of Art (11th to 15th Century):
enhancing the cultural and historical
significance of the area. • Regions: Originated in Gujarat and Mewar,
Rajasthan, dominating Western India's
Miniature Paintings in India
painting scene.
Miniatures are small, detailed paintings, with a • Themes: Initially Jain, later incorporating
tradition spanning various schools across the Vaishnava themes with elements from Gita
Indian subcontinent, each with unique Govinda and secular love.
compositions and perspectives. • Evolution: Transition from palm leaf to paper,
Technique: maintaining a mural style in miniature format.
• Size limit: Should not exceed 25 square inches. • Symbolism: Use of colors like red, yellow,
• Proportion: Subjects painted at no more than ochre, and later bright and gold colors for
one-sixth of their actual size (e.g., an adult symbolic meanings.
head of 9 inches depicted no larger than 1.5 • Human Figure Depiction: Fish-shaped eyes,
inches). pointed nose,
• Style: Predominantly features human figures double chin, and
in side profile with distinctive traits such as angular faces with
bulging eyes, pointed noses, and slim waists. stiff postures.
Females depicted
Cultural Variations: with exaggerated
• Rajasthani Miniatures: Characters often hips and breasts.
depicted with brown skin. • Animal
• Mughal Paintings: Characters typically Representation: As toys, contributing to the
portrayed with fairer skin. thematic diversity.
• Divine Beings: Lord Krishna and other deities • Famous Works: Illustrations of Kalpasutra and
usually shown with blue skin. Kalakacharya Katha from the 15th century.
• Details: Women with long black hair and eyes; B) Transition Period Miniature Paintings
men traditionally dressed with turbans.
Cultural Renaissance (14th Century):
A) Early Miniatures in India
Arrival of Muslims in India marked a period of
Originated as a detailed alternative to large wall cultural renaissance and a blend of Islamic and
paintings between the 8th and 12th centuries, traditional Indian painting styles.
focusing on books or albums, using materials like • Western Indian Courts: Retained traditional
paper, palm leaves, and cloth. styles, showcasing a cultural synthesis.
• Southern States (Vijayanagara): Emergence of
Key Schools: a style closer to the Deccan painting tradition,
Pala School of Art (750-1150 AD): characterized by flat color application and
• Medium: Primarily palm leaf or vellum paper, black-demarcated dress and human outlines.
adhering to Buddhist principles of non- Characteristics:
violence, hence using banana or coconut tree • Faces depicted at a three-quarter angle,
leaves. offering a detached appearance.
• Characteristics: Sinuous lines, subdued • Landscapes filled with stylized trees, rocks,
background tones, mostly solitary figures with without mimicking natural appearance.
simple compositions. C) Miniature Art during Delhi Sultanate
• Patronage: Supported by rulers favoring
Buddhism and Vajrayana School. Fusion of Persian and Indian elements, focusing on
• Notable Painters: Dhimman and Vitapala. illustrated manuscripts.
• Nimatnama Manuscript: A prime example
from Nasir Shah's reign in Mandu, combining
indigenous and Persian styles.

Styles: o Establishment of Tasvir Khana: A formal

• Lodi Khuladar: Prevalent in Sultanate regions studio for artists, who were salaried to
between Delhi and Jaunpur, indicating a develop their unique styles.
continuation of Sultanate painting traditions. o Philosophy: Viewed paintings as a
medium for study and entertainment,
Evolution of Major Styles: Post Sultanate period valuing lifelike depictions.
saw the development of three distinct styles: o Indian Influence: Integrated Indian artists
• Mughal: Integrating Persian elements with from previous regimes, enriching Mughal
Indian motifs. art with local elements.
• Rajput: Retaining traditional Indian elements o Techniques: Emphasized three-
while adapting new influences. dimensional figures, the use of
• Deccan: Blending Sultanate precedents with foreshortening, and calligraphy.
local aesthetics. o Focus Shift: From popular to court art,
depicting scenes of royal life.
D) Mughal Era Miniature Painting o Famous Painters: Daswanth, Basawan,
Distinctive Style: and Kesu.
• Originated from Persian influences, o Notable Works: Tutinama, Hamzanama,
introducing a change in color palette, themes, Anvar-i-Suhaili, and Gulistan of Sadi.
and forms. • Jahangir's Era in Mughal Miniature Painting
• Emphasis on glorifying rulers, with a focus on o Zenith of Mughal Painting: Focused on
hunting scenes, historical events, and courtly naturalism, especially in flora and fauna.
life. o Albums vs. Manuscripts: Preferred album
• Integration of Persian naturalistic style and the paintings and emphasized individual
opulence of the dynasty, resulting in portraits with naturalistic details.
beautifully illustrated folios. o Decorated Margins: Introduced elaborate
Characteristics: borders around paintings.
• Use of brilliant colors and emphasis on line o Personal Artistry: Known to have a
drawing accuracy. private workshop, though no major works
• Diverse themes beyond religious motifs, by Jahangir himself survive.
contributing to the uniqueness of Mughal o Famous Artists: Ustad Mansoor, known
miniatures. for capturing complex facial features.
• Introduction of foreshortening technique, o Notable Trend: Naturalistic paintings of
enhancing perspective and realism. animals like the zebra, turkey, and cock.
o Illustrated Works: Ayar-i-Danish
Successive Ruler Contributions: (Touchstone of Knowledge).
• Babur: Founder of the Mughal dynasty; limited
time for arts but patronized Persian artist
Bihzad.
• Humayun: A great patron of arts, his reign saw
disruptions but he brought Persian painters
Abdus Samad and Mir Sayyid Ali from Shah
Tahmasp’s court, influencing Mughal art
deeply.
• Akbar: Under his reign, the Mughal painting
flourished with the creation of illustrated
manuscripts like Tutinama (Tales of a Parrot), Zebra Painting
marking a golden era for Mughal miniature art.
Akbar's Contributions to Mughal Miniature
Painting

• Shah Jahan's Era in Mughal Miniature • Post-Sahibdin: Shift towards depicting court
Painting life and ceremonies in Mewar, with 'tamasha'
o Artificial Elements: Preferred over paintings highlighting detailed court and city
naturalistic depictions, inspired by scenes.
European influence.
Amber-Jaipur School of Painting
o Technique Shift: Transitioned from
charcoal drawing to pencil sketching. • Dynasty Association: Close ties with the
o Material Use: Increased incorporation of Mughals, known for their patronage and
gold and silver. collection of paintings.
o Color Palette: Favored brighter colors • Identity: Known as the ‘Dhundar’ school, yet
compared to predecessors. not as prominent in public knowledge due to
o Atelier Changes: Though the Mughal private collections.
atelier expanded, it underwent significant • Evidences: Wall paintings at Bairat and Amer
stylistic and technical changes under Shah Palace in Rajasthan.
Jahan. • Characteristics: A blend of Mughal attire in
• Aurangzeb's Impact on Mughal Miniature depictions with a folk-style finish.
Painting • Pinnacle Period: Reached its zenith under
o Decline in Patronage: Lacked Sawai Pratap Singh in the 18th century, known
encouragement for painting, leading to a for illustrating religious texts and portraits.
decline in the art form.
o Artist Migration: Many court painters Marwar School of Painting
moved to provincial courts in Rajasthan • Extent: Covers Jodhpur, Bikaner (Rathods
due to decreased support, marking a rulers), and Jaisalmer (Bhatis rulers).
downturn in Mughal painting activities. • Early Influence: Initially followed Mughal
styles with men and women depicted in
Regional Schools of Painting During the Medieval colorful attire.
Period • Post-18th Century: Shift towards Rajput
Despite the dominance of Mughal painting, elements with a focus on linear rhythm and
regional schools flourished by embracing their bright colors.
Indian heritage and a vibrant color palette, • Significant Era: The era of Man Singh (1803-
diverging from the more naturalistic Mughal style. 1843) noted for commissioning series on Shiva
Rajasthani School of Painting Purana, Natacharitra, among others.
• Sub-schools: Includes Kishangarh School and
• Synonymous with Rajput Painting: Patronized Bundi School, enriching the diversity of
predominantly by the Rajput ruling class. Marwar painting.
• Origins: Debate surrounds the genesis of
Rajput painting, with theories suggesting Kishangarh School of Painting (17th-18th Century
emulation of Mughal court practices, AD) UPSC (2018)
influences from Deccan sultanates, local
artistic traditions, and the 'ganga-jamni' • Background: Famous for the romantic legend
cultural fusion. of Sawant Singh and Bani Thani, blending
romance and bhakti.
Schools under Rajasthani Painting • Key Figures: Sawant Singh (prince), Nagari Das
Mewar School of Painting (poet), Nihal Chand (painter) contributed to
the school's legendary status.
• Mewar's Resistance: Maintained artistic
patronage despite resisting Mughal
dominance until Shah Jahan's reign.
• Sahibdin's Era: The 17th century marked by
Sahibdin's contributions, focusing on literary
texts like the Ragamala, Ramayana, and
Bhagavata Purana.

• Iconic Imagery: 'Bani Thani' character, Bundi School of Painting (17th–19th Century AD)
resembling Radha, with lotus-like eyes, thin
• Region: Part of Hadoti region, alongside Kota,
lips, and a distinctive profile highlighted by her
known for shared histories and artistic
'odhni'.
traditions.
• Themes: Focused
• Devotion: Kings’ devotion to Krishna
on Radha and
influenced the art, positioning Krishna as the
Krishna's
true king with rulers as regents.
devotional and
romantic tales, • Artistic Features: Detailed local vegetation,
establishing a round human faces with pointed noses, and
unique identity for distinctive red ribbons in sky depictions.
Kishangarh's • Colour Palette: Varied sky colors, emphasizing
paintings. the diverse natural and spiritual themes in
Bundi's paintings.
Feature Rajput Painting Mughal Painting

Origin and Deeply rooted in Indian traditions, drawing Influenced by Persian styles, emphasizing
Influence from Hindu mythology, epics, and the realism and naturalism, along with Islamic
romantic landscapes of Rajasthan. motifs.
Themes Primarily focuses on themes from epics like Centered around court life, portraits of
Ramayana and Mahabharata, love stories, and emperors, hunting scenes, battles, and
religious texts. Krishna Leela scenes are nature. Also includes illustrations of Persian
predominant. works and royal biographies.
Color Palette Bright and vibrant colors, with an emphasis on Subdued and realistic color schemes,
bold lines and flat application of colors sophisticated use of shading to achieve a
without much shading. three-dimensional effect.
Human Figures Idealized and stylized figures with emphasis More realistic and natural depiction of
on beauty, grace, and emotion. Faces are seen human figures, including various aspects of
in profile with almond-shaped eyes. court life and portraiture with attention to
physical details and expressions.
Background Lacks perspective; flat backgrounds often Greater emphasis on depth and
and filled with floral and geometric patterns. perspective. Backgrounds are detailed,
Perspective Natural scenery is highly stylized. depicting realistic landscapes and
architectural features.
Brushwork and Fine and intricate brushwork, focusing on Precise and detailed brushwork, with a
Detailing minute details and ornamentation. focus on realism and technical perfection.
Usage of Space Often ignores spatial depth, with multiple Careful arrangement of figures and objects
activities happening in one scene without a in space to create depth and perspective.
realistic sense of space.
Pahari School of Painting (17th-19th Century) movement, unique in composition, color, and
pigmentation. Notable painters include
• Flourished in sub-Himalayan states, influenced Nainsukh, Manaku, and Sansar Chand.
by Mughal art, encompassing ateliers across 22
princely states from Jammu to Almora. Divided Basholi School (From 17th Century)
into two main schools: • Origin: Basholi, Jammu and Kashmir, known
1) Basholi School for Miniature Paintings.
2) Kangra School • Characteristics: Early phase marked by
• Themes and Techniques: Varied from expressive faces with receding hairlines and
mythology to literature, featuring dynamic
compositions with distinct figures full of

lotus petal-shaped eyes. Predominant use of o Became the parent school for other
primary colors (red, yellow, green). regional ateliers like Kullu, Chamba, and
• Innovation: Adapted Mughal painting Mandi.
techniques on clothing while developing o The Sansar Chand Museum in Kangra
unique styles. houses significant works of the Kangra
• Patronage: Initiated by Raja Kirpal Pal with school.
illustrations of Bhanudatta’s Rasamanjari, Gita o The Kangra School of Painting is
Govinda, and Ramayana. celebrated for its delicate sensuality,
• Notable Painter: Devi Das, renowned for intricate brushwork, and spiritual
Radha Krishna depictions and portraits of themes, representing a pinnacle of
kings. Pahari painting influenced by both
• Stylistic Elements: Known for the use of Mughal techniques and local artistic
contrasting colors, drawing inspiration from traditions.
Malwa paintings.
Basholi School of Painting

Kangra School of Painting (From Mid-18th Kangra School of Painting
Century) Miniature Paintings in South India
• Evolved in Kangra, Himachal Pradesh, after
Mughal artists migrated post-Mughal Empire's Miniature paintings in South India, distinct from
decline. North Indian schools, emphasize divine figures
• Initially developed in Guler, known as Guler- over patrons and are known for the extensive use
Kangra School, before flourishing in Kangra. of gold.
• Patronage: Reached its zenith under Raja Major Schools:
Sansar Chand, who provided substantial 1) Tanjore Paintings
patronage.
• Characteristics: • Origin: Emerged following the fall of the
o Known for sensuality and intelligence in Vijayanagara Empire and the Thanjavur
its depictions, setting it apart from other Nayakas' defeat by the Marathas.
schools. • Patronage: Flourished under Maratha rulers in
o Focused on themes from Gita Govinda, the 18th century, especially under Maharaja
Bhagwata Purana, Satsai of Biharilal, and Serfoji II.
Nal Damayanti. • Medium: Primarily created on glass and
o Krishna's love scenes were a predominant wooden planks (Palagai padam), a deviation
theme, imbuing paintings with a from the North Indian preference for cloth and
transcendent quality. vellum.
• Innovations: The ‘Twelve Months’ series • Characteristics: Notable for bright color
depicted the emotional effects of each patterns, liberal use of gold leaf, and
month on human beings, showcasing the embellishments with gemstones and cut
emotive style prevalent until the 19th glasses. Predominantly features Krishna.
century. • Recognition: Awarded Geographical Indication
• Legacy: (GI) by the Government of India.

• Evolution: Currently explores diverse subjects, Bazaar Paintings

maintaining traditional techniques.
• Influence: Influenced by European encounters,
2) Mysore Painting distinct from Company paintings by solely
• Patronage: Supported by Mysore's rulers, adopting European techniques without Indian
extending into the British era. integration.
• Themes: Focuses on Hindu deities, with • Style Origin: Drew inspiration from Greco-
paintings featuring multiple figures, one Roman heritage, focusing on copying Greek
dominating in size and color. and Roman statues.
• Technique: Utilizes • Regional Prevalence: Most common in Bengal
'gesso paste' (white and Bihar.
lead powder, • Themes: Featured Indian bazaars with
gambose, and glue) European backgrounds and occasionally
for a sheened depicted Indian courtesans in social settings
background, with British officials.
contrasted with • Religious Themes: Painted religious subjects
muted colors. but avoided depicting Indian deities in non-
• Origins: Derived traditional forms that contradicted European
from Vijayanagara aesthetic norms.
and subsequent Bengal School of Art
Nayaka styles.
Emerged in the early 20th century as a reaction
Comparison and Uniqueness: against the prevailing art styles, focusing on
• Tanjore vs. Mysore: Both schools evolved from indigenous values and simplicity in art.
Vijayanagara art but diverged in techniques • Key Figure:
and materials, with Tanjore known for its o Abanindranath Tagore: Pioneer of the
opulent use of gold and Mysore for its Bengal School, introduced Swadeshi
distinctive use of gesso paste for texture. principles in art, moving away from
• Cultural Heritage: Represent South India's rich Western materialism. Famous for "Bharat
artistic tradition, each with unique stylistic Mata" and Mughal-themed paintings.
approaches to depicting religious themes. • Notable Contributors:
o Nandalal Bose: Associated with
Modern Indian Painting Santiniketan. Known for his iconic Gandhi
sketch of the Dandi March and his
Company Paintings (Kampani Kalam) contribution to the Constitution of India's
• Origin: Emerged in the colonial period, a hybrid original document illumination.
style combining Indian (Rajput, Mughal) and o Rabindranath Tagore: Renowned for
European elements. integrating his literary creativity with art,
characterized by dominant black lines and
• Development: Created by Indian artists
smaller sizes in paintings.
employed by British Company officers,
• Philosophy: Advocated for returning to Indian
blending European tastes with Indian
techniques. traditional art forms, themes, and techniques,
while incorporating modern values and
• Features: Characterized by the use of
expressions.
watercolors, linear perspective, and shading.
• Characteristics:
• Centers: Originated in Kolkata, Chennai, Delhi,
o Utilization of simple colors and emphasis
Patna, Varanasi, and Thanjavur.
on Swadeshi ideals.
• Patronage: Notably supported by Mary Impey
o Distinctive for its rejection of Western
and Marquess Wellesley, focusing on India's
art's materialistic aspects.
exotic flora and fauna.
• Other Prominent Artists: Asit Kumar Haldar,
• Notable Artists: Mazhar Ali Khan and Ghulam
Manishi Dey, Mukul Dey, Sunayani Devi,
Ali Khan.

among others, contributed to the diversity and Pattachitra Painting

richness of the Bengal School's legacy.
• Origin: Odisha, India. A traditional painting
Folk Paintings style known for its intricate details and
mythological narratives.
Madhubani Paintings • Materials: Created on treated cloth with colors
• Origin: Madhubani (Mithila region), Bihar, derived from natural sources like burnt
India. Believed to originate from the time of coconut shells, hingula, ramaraja, and lamp
the Ramayana, specifically for the marriage of black.
Sita and Rama. • Technique: Outlines drawn with a brush in red
• Creators: Traditionally crafted by the women or yellow, without the use of pencil or
charcoal. Backgrounds feature elaborate
of villages around Madhubani.
foliage and flowers, framed intricately.
• Themes: Primarily religious, featuring Hindu
Finished with a lacquer coating for gloss.
deities such as Krishna, Rama, Durga, Lakshmi,
and Shiva. Also depicts auspicious occasions • Themes: Primarily focuses on the Jagannath
like births, marriages, and festivals. and Vaishnava cults, with some works inspired
by Shakti and Shaiva cults.
• Symbolism: Uses symbolic figures like fish to
represent good luck and fertility. • Specialty: Known for reflecting themes similar
to old murals of Odisha, especially in Puri and
• Materials: Originally painted on walls with rice
Konark. Palm leaf Pattachitras are called
paste and vegetable colors on a cow dung and
talapattachitra.
mud base. Now also done on handmade paper,
cloth, and canvas.
• Features:
o Double line borders.
o Bold colors and ornate floral patterns.
o Exaggerated facial features.
o Two-dimensional appearance due to
lack of shading.
• Status: Awarded Geographical Indication (GI)
status, reflecting its unique cultural and
geographical origins.
• Madhubani paintings stand out for their
intricate designs, vivid colors, and rich cultural
narratives, preserved and passed through Pattachitra Painting
generations mainly by female artists. Patua Art
• Origin: Bengal, India. A traditional form of
narrative art with a history spanning around a
thousand years.
• Materials: Initially painted on cloth, now often
created with poster paints on paper sheets
sewn together.
• Technique: Traditionally, patuas paint on pats
or scrolls, narrating auspicious stories of Hindu
gods and goddesses, along with social and
political commentaries.
• Themes: Originally focused on religious stories,
Madhubani Painting particularly Mangal Kavyas. Modern iterations
may address political and social issues.
• Practitioners: Most Patuas are Muslims, with
the art form being a village tradition where

painters travel to narrate stories through their • Themes: Focuses on daily life activities such as
art. fishing, hunting, farming, and festivals.
• Regions: Predominantly found in Medinipur, Includes depictions of the fertility goddess
Murshidabad, North and South 24 Parganas, Palaghata and ancestral spirits.
and Birbhum districts. • Technique: Utilizes a basic vocabulary of
geometric shapes like triangles (for bodies) and
Paitkar Painting
circles (for heads) on walls prepared with a
• Origin: Practiced by the tribal communities in mixture of mud, branches, and cow dung.
Jharkhand, India, considered one of the oldest Traditionally, only white pigment made from
forms of painting in the country. rice powder and gum is used.
• Cultural Significance: Associated with the • Occasions: Created for auspicious events like
worship of Ma Mansa, a prominent deity in harvests and weddings. Modern adaptations
tribal households. Themes often explore life include paintings on cloth with a red or black
after death, tied to social and religious customs background using white poster colors.
like alms-giving and yajnas.
Kalamkari Paintings UPSC (2015)
• Origin: Andhra Pradesh, India. The term
"Kalamkari" derives from 'kalam' (pen) and
signifies the art of painting with a bamboo pen.
• Materials: Utilizes cotton fabric as a base with
vegetable dyes for coloring. The pen is dipped
in a mixture of fermented jaggery and water
for color application.
• Technique: Freehand drawing with a focus on
Hindu mythological themes. The meticulous
process involves multiple steps of dyeing, Warli Painting
washing, and painting.
• Centers: Srikalahasti and Machilipatnam are Thangka Painting
the primary centers, with each having a distinct
• Region: Practiced in regions with Buddhist
style influenced by local traditions and Hindu
influence including Sikkim, Himachal Pradesh,
mythology.
Ladakh, and Arunachal Pradesh, India.
• Special Features: Known for intricate
• Purpose: Serves as a medium of reverence in
handwork on
Buddhism, traditionally crafted by monks and
textiles,
specific ethnic
Kalamkari art has
groups.
been recognized
with • Materials: Painted
Geographical on cotton canvas
Indication (GI) with natural
status, vegetable or
highlighting its mineral dyes. Each
cultural and color symbolizes
historical different aspects of
importance. human emotion
and spiritual
Warli Painting concepts.
• Color Symbolism:
• Origin: Warli painting originates from the Warli
Red for passion,
tribe of the Gujarat-Maharashtra border, with
golden for life/birth, white for serenity, black
traditions dating back to 2500-3000 BC.

for anger, green for consciousness, and yellow

for compassion.
• Presentation: Finished paintings are framed in
colorful silk brocade.
Manjusha Painting
• Region: Bhagalpur,
Bihar.
• Also Known As:
Angika Art, Snake
Painting. Pithora Painting
• Themes: Features Saura Paintings, Odisha
snake motifs
prominently. • Origin: Made by the Saura Tribe of Odisha.
• Medium: Executed on boxes made from jute • Similarity: Comparable to Warli paintings.
and paper. • Type: Wall mural painting, ritualistic in nature.
• Deity: Dedicated to Idital, the main deity of the
Phad Painting
Sauras.
• Region: Rajasthan. • Color Scheme: Predominantly white on a red
• Type: Scroll or yellow background.
painting, religious in • Materials: Colors derived from minerals and
nature. plants.
• Themes: Features • Human Figures: Geometric and stick-like in
local deities like appearance.
Pabuji and
Devnarayan.
• Characteristics: Subjects depicted with large
eyes and round faces, showcasing processions
and pompous narratives.
Cheriyal Scroll Paintings
• Region: Telangana.
• Type: Nakashi art, scroll painting.
• Themes: Hindu Epics and Puranic stories, used
for storytelling with music by the Balladeer
community.
• Recognition: Geographical Indication status. Saura Painting
Pithora Paintings
• Region: Tribal communities in Gujarat and
Madhya Pradesh.
• Purpose: Serves religious and spiritual
purposes, believed to bring peace and
prosperity.
• Occasions: Painted on walls of houses during
special family occasions.
• Themes: Commonly depict animals, especially
horses, as part of ritualistic narratives.

3 Indian Handicrafts
Introduction Printing and Painting on Fabric:
Indian handicrafts, created by skilled artisans, are
unique handmade items reflecting each state's • Kalamkari: Hand painting using vegetable
cultural heritage. Serving both decorative and dyes, mainly in Andhra Pradesh.
practical purposes, these crafts are crucial for the • Batik Art: Wax-resist dyeing, popular in
livelihoods of tribal and rural populations, Madhya Pradesh and West Bengal.
embodying a tradition preserved across Embroidery Crafts:
generations. • Applique/Pipli Work: Patchwork from Pipli,
Odisha, used for lamps.
Glassware Handicrafts in India
• Phulkari: Flower patterns using darning, from
• Historical Reference: First mentioned in the
Punjab, Haryana, and Delhi.
epic Mahabharata; archaeological evidence
• Bagh: Silk thread embroidery on green cloth,
from the Ganges Valley around 1000 BC.
from Punjab.
• Vedic Period: Known as kanch or kaca in
• Gota and Zari Work: Gold thread embroidery,
Satapatha Brahmana.
Rajasthan, notably Khandela and Jaipur.
• Ancient Industry: Found in Brahmapuri,
• Karchobi: Raised zari patterns, Rajasthan.
Kolhapur (2 BC-2 AD), and Maski, indicating
early glassmaking skills including optical • Chikankari: White thread embroidery,
lenses. Lucknow.
• Medieval Patronage: Mughals supported • Kashida: Fine embroidery on Cashmere
glassware art, integrating it into architectural Shawls, Kashmir.
decorations like Sheesh Mahal and creating • Banaras Brocade: Silver and golden zari on silk
luxury items such as glass hukkas and perfume sarees, Varanasi.
boxes. • Himroo: Royal dresses and shawls,
• Modern Centers: Aurangabad.
o Hyderabad: Famous for 'Churi ka jodas', • Maheswari Sarees: Cotton-silk blend with zari,
exquisite glass bangles. Madhya Pradesh.
o Firozabad: Known for glass chandeliers • Chamba Rumals: Himachal Pradesh,
and decorative pieces. embroidered with themes from Pahari
o Saharanpur: Produces 'panchkora', glass paintings.
toys for children. • Shisha (Mirror Work): Kutch, Gujarat, uses tiny
o Patna: Known for 'Tikuli', decorative glass mirrors.
beads worn by Santhal tribes, now also • Muga Silk Embroidery: Manipur, on traditional
crafted on glazed hardboards to shawls for auspicious occasions.
modernize and preserve the art form. • Kasuti: Folk embroidery with geometrical
motifs, Karnataka.
Cloth Handicrafts in India
Ivory Carving and Silver Crafts
Tie and Dye Techniques: Ivory Carving:
• Bandhani/Bandhej: Practiced in Rajasthan and • Historical Significance: Dates back to the Vedic
Gujarat, involves tying fabric and dyeing it to period and Harappan civilization.
create patterns. • Sanchi Inscription: 2nd century BC mention of
• Laharia: Wave-like patterns, prevalent in ivory workers from Vidisha.
Jaipur and Jodhpur. • Mughal Period: Usage in combs, dagger
• Ikat: Yarn is tie-dyed before weaving, found in handles, and ornaments.
Telangana, Odisha, Gujarat, and Andhra • Traditional Centers:
Pradesh. o Delhi, Jaipur, Murshidabad: Known for art
objects, caskets, and the Ambari Hathi.
o Kerala: Painting on ivory.

o Jodhpur: Ivory bangles. o Jaipur and Uttar Pradesh: Pahaldar lamps

o Jaipur: Ivory jali work. in copper and brass.
Silver Crafts: • Telangana: Pembarthi craft for exquisite sheet
• Filigree Work: Famous technique, especially in metal art.
Odisha for silver anklets (painri and paijam).
• Bidri Work: From Bidri village, Karnataka. Other Metal Crafts
Silver inlay work on dark backgrounds, GI • Techniques: Engraving, embossing,
status. damascening with a focus on ornamentation.
Clay and Pottery Work: • Marori Work (Rajasthan): Metal etchings filled
• Historical Background: One of the earliest with black lac.
crafts, with evidence from the Neolithic site of • Moradabad: Specializes in Baarik Kaam or
Mehrgarh. delicate engraving work.
• Ancient Pottery Types: • Tarkashi (Rajasthan): Fine wire patterns in
o Painted Grey Ware: Vedic period, chiseled grooves.
typically grey. • Koftgiri Technique: Inlaying light metal on a
o Red and Black Pottery: Found in West dark base, practiced in Jaipur and Alwar.
Bengal, dated 1500-300 BC. Leather Products
o Northern Black Polished Ware: Two • Historical Use: Since 3000 BC, used for mats by
phases, coinciding partially with the rishis and in Mughal decor.
Mauryan period. • Current Uses: Footwear, bags, wallets.
o Roulette Pottery: Found in • Major Centers:
Arikamedu, near Puducherry, dated o Rajasthan: Known for camel leather
200-100 BC. products.
• Gupta Period: Introduction of embellishment, o Uttar Pradesh (Kanpur): Major center for
painting, stamping, and molding. leather goods.
• Indo-Islamic Traditions: Introduction of glazed o Maharashtra: Famous for kolhapuri
pottery. chappals.
Bronze Crafts • Regional Footwears in India
• Historical Significance: Metal crafting dates o Konglan Stitched Boots: Northern West
back over 5000 years, highlighted by the Bengal, leather sole with high sides.
Dancing Girl statue from Mohenjo-daro (3500- o Paabu Stitched Boots: Ladakh, Jammu
3000 BC). and Kashmir, colourful knee-length boots.
• Literary Evidence: Matsya Purana and o Kolhapuri Chappal (GI): Maharashtra and
Rasaratnakara discuss methods of casting Karnataka, handcrafted leather footwear.
bronze and metal purity. o Katki Chappal: Odisha, ethnic leather
• Major Centres: footwear.
o Uttar Pradesh: Notable for decorative o Tilla Jutti: Punjab, inspired by Rajputana,
items, ritualistic objects like tamrapatra. made of leather with embroidery.
Key cities include Etawah, Sitapur, o Mojari: Rajasthan, traditional leather
Varanasi, and Moradabad. footwear.
o Tamil Nadu: Specializes in ancient statues o Multani Khussa: Rajasthan and Punjab,
reminiscent of the Pallava, Chola, embroidered with brass nails and beads.
Pandyan, and Nayaka periods. Wooden Work
• Key Bronze Works by Region • Historical Development: Flourished since the
o Kerala: Rare Jain imagery and icons. 11th century.
o Karnataka: Reflects ancient Jain pilgrim • Major Techniques: Kashmiri lattice work,
centres' needs. Gujarat latticework.
o Odisha and West Bengal: Dokra casting • Key Centers:
for brass ornaments. o Kashmir: Walnut and deodar woodwork
for furniture, houseboats.

o Gujarat: Wooden doors and windows. Stoneware

o Himachal Pradesh: Woodcarving in • Artisan Skill: Carving and sculpting using a
temples. range of stones from soft sandstone to hard
• Other Wood Crafts granite.
o Nirmal Painting (Telangana): Painting on • Historical Examples: Rock-cut caves of Ajanta
wooden surfaces with gold. and Ellora, Khajuraho sculptures, Sanchi and
o Kashtakari Wood Carving (Goa): Bharhut Buddhist carvings, and Masrur rock-
Woodcarving in churches, temples, and cut temples in Himachal Pradesh.
houses. • Mughal Influence: Shift to marble stonework
o Santalum (Karnataka): Sandalwood with Pietra Dura work and sandstone
carving for religious idols. monuments like Taj Mahal and Itmad-ud-
o Khatamband Woodcraft (GI, Jammu and Daulah's tomb.
Kashmir): Joined wood pieces with Islamic • Marble Centers: Rajasthan (Makrana marble)
patterns. and Jhansi, Uttar Pradesh (Sang-e Rathak).
o Sikki Grass Craft (Bihar): Ornaments and
containers from grass. Floor Designs
o Shital Patti Grass Mat (Assam): Cool mats • Universal Appeal: Made during religious or
made from green patidai reeds. family occasions with freehand concentric
o Khunda - Bamboo Staves (Punjab): Used patterns.
in Bhangra dance. • Materials: Natural materials like dry white
o Kawad - Mobile Shrines (Rajasthan): chalk, lime powder, powdered marble, or a
Portable shrine with epic paintings. mixture of rice powder and lime.
o Choktse - Tables (Sikkim): Foldable • Regional Varieties:
wooden tables with Buddhist signs. o Chowk Purna (Punjab and Uttar
o Likhai (Uttarakhand): Wood carving with Pradesh): Geometrical shapes
Tibetan motifs on doors. symbolizing Lakshmi's seat.
o Sankheda Furniture (GI, Gujarat): o Aipan (Himachal Pradesh): Squares,
Teakwood furniture with abstract designs. circles, and triangles motifs.
o Walnut Wood Carving (GI, Jammu and o Mandana (Rajasthan and Madhya
Kashmir): Traditional high-relief carving. Pradesh): Decorations with red earth
o Pethapur Printing Blocks (GI, Gujarat): (reti) and varied shapes for different
Wooden blocks used for garment printing. occasions.
o Santhias (Gujarat): Entrance decorations
Toys for important occasions.
Various Types of Toys o Rangoli (Maharashtra): Elegant shapes
• Harappan Civilization Toys: Evidence of toy and motifs like lotus and swastik.
carts made of copper, bronze, and terracotta o Kolam (South India): Array of dots linked
found in sites like Alamgirpur, Kalibangan, and with thin lines, outlined with red geru.
Lothal. Also known as Hase in Karnataka,
• Early Historic Sites: Similar cart models found Muggulu in Andhra Pradesh, and Golam in
in Atranjikhera, Nagarjunakonda, and Ujjain. Kerala.
• Ancient and Medieval Period Toys: Made of o Jhonti (Odisha) and Aripana (West
clay, paper, papier-mâché, and painted or Bengal and Assam): Stylized designs with
lacquered wood. motifs like conch shells, fish, and flowers,
using chalk powder and colored powders
Famous Varieties of Toys in India or rice paste.
• Channapatna Toys (GI): Karnataka
• Kondapalli Bommalu Toys (GI): Andhra
Pradesh
• Kinhal or Kinnal Toys (GI): Karnataka

4 Indian Music
Introduction to the understanding of musical
• Origin: Narada Muni introduced music, composition.
teaching about Nada Brahma, the universal o Swaramela-Kalanidhi by Ramamatya and
sound. Chaturdandi-prakashika by
• Ancient Instruments: Seven-holed flute from Venkatamakhin: Offered insights
Indus Valley Civilization; Ravanahatha from primarily into ragas and Carnatic
Hela Civilization of Sri Lanka, among the musicology, respectively.
world's oldest musical instruments. • Gurukuls: Ancient and medieval India
witnessed the tradition of Gurukuls where
Historical Literary References students lived with their teachers to master
• Vedic Era: First traces of music found; Sama the art of music.
Veda contains notes of raga Kharaharapriya. • Persian Influence: The entry of Persian and
Gandharva Veda, an Upaveda of Sama Veda, Islamic elements introduced significant
discusses music. changes to North Indian music, leading to the
• Instrument References: Mention of Veena evolution of Dhrupad style in the 15th century
parts in Aitareya Aranyaka; collective mention and Khayal style by the 17th century, along
of dance and music in Jaiminiya Brahmana. with the emergence of various 'folk' singing
• Philosophical Theories: Musicologists theorize styles.
Om as the source of all ragas and notes.
• Early Documentation: Panini, in the 4th Anatomy of Indian Music
century BC, references the art of music. • Swara: Originally linked to Vedic recitation,
Bharata’s Natyashastra (200 BC-200 AD) "Swara" now refers to a musical note or scale
discusses musical theory comprehensively. degree. Bharata's Natyashastra categorized
Swaras into a 22-notes scale. The current
History of Indian Music Hindustani music notation uses abbreviated
• Devotional Origins: Music development was Swaras: Sa, Re, Ga, Ma, Pa, Dha, Ni, collectively
significantly influenced by devotional known as Saptak or Sargam.
practices, particularly in the later Vedic period • Shruti vs. Swara: Shruti represents the
with Sangama music, which involved chanting smallest pitch gradation, focusing on
verses in musical patterns. Narrative music, frequency quality, with 22 microtones, of
called Jatigan, was also prevalent in epics. which only 12 are audible. These include seven
Suddha Swaras (Sa, Re, Ga, Ma, Pa, Dha, Ni)
• Foundational Texts: and five Vikrit Swaras.
o Bharata's Natyashastra: The first
comprehensive work on musicology, Ragas
detailing the octave and its 22 keys or • There are six main ragas in the Hindustani
srutis, highlighting the foundation of music repertoire, each associated with a
Indian musical theory. specific time of day or season and designed to
o Dattilam: Affirmed the existence of 22 evoke particular emotions (Rasa). In contrast,
srutis per octave, suggesting these were Carnatic music is based on 72 melas or parent
the only tones perceptible to the human scales.
ear. Types of Ragas in Indian Music
o Sangeet Ratnakara by Sarangadeva: • Shuddha Raag: A raga where the addition of
Defined 264 ragas, including North Indian any absent notes does not alter its nature or
and Dravidian repertoires, and form.
categorized various 'microtones'. • Chhayalag Raag: A raga that changes in nature
o Brihaddeshi by Matanga: Focused on and form with the introduction of notes not
defining 'raga', contributing significantly present in the original composition.

• Sankeerna Raag: A complex raga formed by o In Carnatic Music: Features a stricter

the combination of two or more ragas. Every framework compared to Hindustani
raga must include the basic five notes. music, incorporating three main
components—Laghu, Dhrutam, and Anu
Key Elements Within a Raga: Dhrutam. Originally, there are 35 Talas,
• Vaadi (King): The principal note around which each further divisible into five 'Ghaatis',
the raga is constructed. It is the most leading to a total of 175 Talas. Aditala is
frequently used note in the composition. notably prominent in Carnatic music.
• Samvaadi (Queen): The second most o Key Difference: The structural rigidity and
important note, usually the fourth or fifth note extensive range of Talas in Carnatic music
relative to the Vaadi, complementing the contrast with the relatively flexible and
principal note in the raga. fewer commonly used Talas in Hindustani
• Anuvaadi: All other notes in the raga, aside music.
from the Vaadi and Samvaadi.
• Vivadi: Notes that are not included in the Thaat
raga's composition. Thaat is a framework for classifying ragas into
different groups within Hindustani classical music.
Additional Concepts: • Characteristics:
• Aroha: The ascending scale of a raga, where o Composition: A Thaat must contain seven
each note is higher than the preceding one notes selected from the twelve notes
(e.g., Sa re ga ma pa dha ni). available (including Seven Suddha Swaras
• Avaroha: The descending scale of a raga, and Five Vikrit Swaras).
where each note is lower than the preceding o Order: Notes in a Thaat are arranged in
one (e.g., ni dha pa ma ga re sa). ascending order (Aarohi).
• Laya (Speed): Ragas can be performed in three o Emotion: Unlike ragas that are known for
tempos: evoking specific emotions, Thaats lack
o Vilambit (Slow) emotional qualities and are not
o Madhya (Medium) performed.
o Drut (Fast) • The 10 Thaats: Bilawal, Khamaj, Kafi, Asavari,
Bhairavi, Bhairav, Kalyan, Marwa, Poorvi and
Tala/Taal Todi
• Tala (or Taal) refers to the rhythmic patterns or • Usage: Thaats serve as a skeletal structure
cycles in music, comprising beats that range upon which ragas are built. Each Thaat can give
from three to 108. It divides musical time into rise to numerous ragas, which are the melodic
meters that can be simple or complex. formats actually sung or performed.
• Distinct Features: Musical Composition Parts:
o Tala in Indian Music: Acts independently • Sthayee/Mukhda: The first part of the
from the melody it accompanies, having composition, most frequently utilized.
its own set structures and divisions. • Antara: The second part of the composition.
o Laya: Refers to the tempo of the Tala,
ensuring consistency in the time span of Other Components of Raga
the rhythm. • Alap: A gradual exposition of the raga
• Variations: emphasizing the Vaadi, Samvaadi, and other
o In Hindustani Music: More than a silent features at a slow tempo. Typically
hundred Talas are theorized, but performed at the beginning of a raga in North
commonly, only about 30 are known, with Indian classical music, using the sound 'aa'
10 to 12 being regularly utilized. Popular without pronouncing any syllables.
Talas include Dadra, Kaharba, Rupak, • Taan: Fast-paced basic notes showcasing the
Ektal, Jhaptal, Teen-tal, and Chautal, with performer's training, practice, and dexterity in
Teen-tal (16 beats) being a favored choice creating complex note patterns with rhythm
among composers. variations.

o Special Types: Murki, a short taan accompaniment, featuring Sanskrit syllables

consisting of three or four notes, and traditionally performed by a duo.
executed rapidly and requiring • Sub-Forms: Dhrupad singing divides into four
significant musical skill. vanis or banis, each with unique styles and
• Alankar: Ornamentation in a musical piece, emphasis:
presenting a specific melodic pattern where a o Dagar Gharana (Dagar Vani): Known for
sequence is followed, such as 'Sa re ga', 'ga ma emphasizing Alap, the Dagar family has
pa', 'ma pa dha', etc., highlighting a succession performed in pairs for generations, often
of three notes each time. Enhances the singing Hindu texts despite being Muslims.
melodic presentation within the composition. Prominent contemporary performers
include the Gundecha Brothers.
Classification of Indian Music o Darbhanga Gharana: Sings in Khandar and
• Classical Music: Gauhar Vani, focusing on raga Alap and
o Hindustani Classical Music: Originating composed songs with improvised Alap,
from North India, it emphasizes incorporating a variety of layakari. The
improvisation and exploration of ragas Mallik family, with notable members like
(melodic frameworks) and talas (rhythmic Ram Chatur Mallik, Prem Kumar Mallik, and
cycles). It includes vocal forms like Khayal, Siyaram Tewari, are leading exponents.
Dhrupad, and instruments like sitar, tabla, o Bettiah Gharana: Known for Nauhar and
and sarod. Khandar Vani, this style includes unique
o Carnatic Music: Predominant in South techniques known only within the family.
India, Carnatic music is more The Mishras, with Indra Kishore Mishra as a
compositionally structured with a focus current performer, represent this gharana.
on kritis (compositions), and it This and the Darbhanga school are known
incorporates complex rhythms and for the Haveli style.
melodic patterns. Key instruments include o Talwandi Gharana: Specializes in Khandar
the veena, mridangam, and violin. Vani. Based in Pakistan, it faces challenges
• Folk Music: Folk music varies widely across in maintaining its presence within the
India, reflecting the cultural diversity of its Indian music system.
states and communities. It includes various Khyal/Khayal
forms like Bhangra and Giddha of Punjab,
Lavani of Maharashtra, Dandiya and Garba of • Origin: Khyal, from the Persian word for "idea
Gujarat, and Baul of West Bengal. Folk music or imagination," is attributed to Amir Khusrau.
often accompanies traditional dances and It offers extensive improvisational
festivals, narrating stories of everyday life, opportunities, focusing on short songs or
historical events, and cultural tales. 'Bandish'.
• Popular and Contemporary Music: This • Development: Received significant patronage
category includes a wide range of music styles from Hussain Shah of the Jaunpur Sultanate in
influenced by both Indian traditions and the 15th century. Known for its flexibility in
Western music. Fusion music, combining taans, giving less prominence to Alap
elements of classical, folk, and international compared to Dhrupad.
music, also falls under this category. • Performance Structure:
o Bada Khyal: Performed in slow tempo,
Hindustani Classical Music
forming the bulk of the presentation.
Dhrupad UPSC (2012) o Chhota Khyal: Rendered in fast tempo
following Bada Khyal.
• Presentation: Dhrupad emphasizes precise
• Themes: Predominantly romantic, including
elaboration of a raga, beginning with Alap (a
divine adoration, with many compositions
wordless invocation that gradually escalates in
dedicated to Lord Krishna.
tempo), setting the mood of the raga. It
transitions to Dhrupad with Pakhawaj

Major Khyal Gharanas
Gharana Origin features Prominent Figure

Gwalior One of the oldest Khyal Emphasizes melody and rhythm Nathu Khan, Vishnu
Gharana Gharanas known for its rigorous with a preference for simpler ragas. Palushkar.
approach, emphasizing both
melody and rhythm. Prefers
simpler ragas despite the
complexity of singing.
Kirana Named after Kirana town in Known for precise tuning,Pandit Bhimsen
Gharana Uttar Pradesh. Founded by expression of notes, and mastery Joshi, Gangubai
Nayak Gopal, but popularized by over slow tempo ragas. Emphasizes Hangal. Associated
Abdul Karim Khan and Abdul melody and clear pronunciation. with Carnatic
Wahid Khan in the early 20th musicians in
century. Maharashtra and
Karnataka.
Agra Gharana Disputed origins between Combines Khyal with Dhrupad- Mohsin Khan Niazi
Khudabuksh and Haji Sujan dhamar, focusing on Bandish. and Vijay Kichlu.
Khan; revived by Faiyyaz Khan
into the Rangila Gharana.
Patiala Founded by Bade Fateh Ali Khan Known for ghazal, thumri, and Bade Ghulam Ali
Gharana and Ali Baksh Khan in the 19th khyal, with emphasis on rhythm and Khan, acclaimed for
century. Initially supported by emotional expression using Raga Darbari.
the Maharaja of Patiala. alankars. Known for intricate taans,
gamak, and tarana-style gayaki.
Bhendibazaar Founded by Chhajju Khan, Nazir Known for breath control, allowing
Gharana Khan, and Khadim Hussain Khan for long passages in a single breath.
in the 19th century. Incorporation of Carnatic ragas into
their repertoire.
Tarana Style Semi-Classical Styles of Hindustani Music

• Key Features: Focuses on rhythm with a Thumri
structure that includes a main melody
• Nature: Semi-classical, based on mixed ragas.
repeated with variations and a contrasting
• Characteristics: Emphasizes bhava (emotion)
higher melody introduced once. It uses fast-
and lyrics, employs lighter versions of ragas like
tempo words emphasizing rhythmic
Bhoopali or Malkaush, and uses madhyam or
intricacies.
dhrut laya (medium or fast tempo). Known for
• Origin: Revived by Amir Khusro in the 13th-
inherent sensuality and improvisation
14th century and utilized by Guru Gobind Singh
flexibility.
in his compositions.
• Themes: Primarily romantic or devotional,
• Notable Practitioner: Pandit Rattan Mohan
often revolving around a girl's love for Krishna,
Sharma, recognized as the world's fastest
inspired by the Bhakti movement.
Tarana singer and titled “Tarana ke Baadshah”
• Language: Compositions usually in Hindi,
at the Pandit Motiram Sangeet Samaroh in
Hyderabad. employing the Braj Bhasha dialect.
• Performance: Characteristically sung in a
female voice, linked to the classical dance form
Kathak.
• Gharanas: Mainly from Varanasi and Lucknow.

• Notable Exponents: Begum Akhtar, known for • Notable Poets: Includes historical figures like
her husky voice and versatile range; Girija Devi Muhammad Iqbal, Mirza Ghalib, Rumi, Hafez,
of the Purab Ang of Benaras Gharana. and Kazi Nazrul Islam.
Tappa Carnatic Music
• Nature: Semi-classical style characterized by • Nature: Kriti-based, emphasizing saahitya
fast, intricate, and complex compositions. (lyrical quality), set within a traditional octave.
• Origin: Evolved from the folk songs of camel • Components:
riders in North-West India, gained prominence o Pallavi: The thematic opening lines,
in the Mughal court of Emperor Muhammad considered the highlight for improvisation,
Shah. known as 'Ragam Thanam Pallavi'.
• Features: Notable for rapid phrases and o Anu Pallavi: Follows the Pallavi with two
intricate vocal execution. lines, optional in repetition, typically
• Popularity: Once preferred by both the elite towards the song's beginning or end.
and common folks, especially in "baithaki" o Charanam: The concluding, longest verse of
style settings like baithak khanas (assembly the composition.
halls) and jalsaghars (entertainment halls). • Additional Elements:
• Current Status: Rare and nearing extinction, o Swara-Kalpana: Improvised section with
with very few musicians practicing it. the drummer, varying in pace.
• Exponents: Laxman Rao Pandit of the Gwalior o Tanam: Melodic improvisation in free
Gharana and Shanno Khurana are among the rhythm with mridangam accompaniment.
few known practitioners. o Ragam: Pieces of melodic improvisation
without mridangam.
Ghazal
o Instruments: Primarily features
• Form: Poetic, consisting of rhyming couplets mridangam for rhythmic support.
and a refrain, each line sharing the same o Significant Figure: Purandara Dasa (1484-
meter, typically not exceeding 12 couplets. 1564), revered as the Pitamaha
• Origin: Believed to have originated in 10th (father/grandfather) of Carnatic Music, for
century Iran, it flourished in South Asia during his foundational contributions.
the 12th century through Sufi mystics and • Early Proponents of Carnatic Music
Islamic Sultanate courts. o Annamacharya (1408-1503): Pioneer
• Themes: Primarily focuses on love and composer in Carnatic music, celebrated
separation, offering a poetic expression of pain for his sankirtanas dedicated to Lord
and beauty of love. It often has a dual Venkateswara. Known as the 'Grandfather
interpretation, either divine or human love. of Telugu Song-writing', his works were
• Historical Influence: Popularized by Sufi poets predominantly in Telugu.
like Rumi, Hafiz, and Amir Khusrau, who is o Purandara Dasa (1484-1564): Hailed as
considered one of its first practitioners. the "Pitamaha" (father/grandfather) of
• Evolution: Over time, ghazals have become Carnatic Music. Considered an avatar of
simpler in terms of language and style, making sage Narada, his contributions include the
them more accessible to a wider audience. Dasa Sahithya.
Now sung in various styles beyond traditional
classical genres.
Feature Hindustani Music Carnatic Music
Origin Northern India Southern India
Raga Structure More flexible in terms of improvisation; More fixed; Each raga has specific rules
Ragas may change in performance that are strictly followed
Importance of Less emphasis on the composer, more on the Compositions and composers play a
Composer performer's interpretation central role; specific compositions are
closely associated with their creators

Instruments Includes sitar, sarod, tabla, harmonium Predominantly uses veena, mridangam,
violin, and kanjira
Vocal Style Emphasizes improvisation and exploration Focuses on kriti (composition), with
within a raga, leading to longer performances improvisation around it but within a
more structured framework
Performance Performance often begins with alap (slow, Performance usually starts with a
Structure improvisational introduction of raga), varnam (a warm-up piece), followed by
followed by jor and jhala before moving to kritis, and improvisations such as raga
compositions alapana, neraval, and swaraprastara
Types of Dhrupad, Khayal, Tappa, Thumri, Ghazal are Kriti, Varnam, Padam, Javali, Tillana are
Compositions common forms common forms
Rhythmic Talas are often explored deeply in Talas are rigorously counted, and
Structure (Tala) improvisation, especially in instrumental compositions adhere strictly to the tala
performances structure
Influence Heavily influenced by Islamic culture, Strongly rooted in Hindu traditions and
especially in the north temple music
Notation Not traditionally notated, focuses on oral Has a developed notation system but
System transmission (Guru-Shishya Parampara) also relies on oral transmission
Folk Music
Form Region Description

Baul West Bengal, A type of folk music and a religious sect in Bengal. Baul Sangeet, influenced
Assam, by Hindu Bhakti and Sufi traditions, reflects mysticism through songs. Key
Tripura figures include Yotin Das, Purno Chandra Das, Lalon Fakir, Naboni Das, and
Sanatan Das Thakur Baul.
Wanawan Jammu and Folk music performed during wedding ceremonies, considered auspicious.
Kashmir
Pandavani Chhattisgarh Folk music narrating stories from the Mahabharata with Bhima as the hero.
It combines singing and instrument playing, usually with a tambura. Teejanbai
is a renowned artist awarded Padma Shri, Padma Bhushan, and Padma
Vibhushan for her contributions.
Alha Madhya A heroic ballad form associated with the Mahabharata, sung in languages like
Pradesh Braj, Awadhi, and Bhojpuri. It glorifies heroes akin to the Pandavas, including
Alha, Udal, Malkhan, Lakhan, and Deva.
Panihari Rajasthan Thematically centered around water, these songs depict women fetching
water from wells and their daily village life, including romantic encounters
and familial relationships.
Ovi Maharashtra, Sung by women during leisure or household chores, Ovi songs consist of four-
Goa line poetry, often related to marriage, pregnancy, and lullabies.
Pai Song Madhya Festival songs, especially for the rainy season, seeking good monsoons and
Pradesh harvests. Accompanied by Saira dance, these are primarily farmer community
songs.
Lavani Maharashtra A popular folk dance and music genre, performed to the beats of the Dholki.
Known for its powerful rhythm, Lavani is a celebratory form of music and
dance.
Maand Rajasthan Originating in royal courts, Maand is a folk music form close to classical music,
often narrating the valor of Rajput rulers. It shares similarities with Thumri
and Ghazal, with "Kesariya Balam" being a notable Maand song.

Dandiya Raas Gujarat A traditional folk dance performed during Navratri, featuring men and
women dancing in circles with sticks, symbolizing the Holi festivities and the
love between Krishna and Radha.
Powada Maharashtra A ballad form celebrating heroes like Shivaji, recounting their heroic deeds
and significant events from the past.
Khongjom Manipur A musical narration of the battle of Khongjom (1891) between the British and
Parba Manipuri forces, highlighting the valor of Manipuri resistance.
Bhavageete Karnataka, Emotional songs akin to Ghazals, often themed around nature, love, and
Maharashtra philosophical reflections, rendered in a slow pitch.
Mando Goa A blend of Indian and Western music, played with guitars, violins, and the
ghumot drum, reflecting Goa's unique cultural heritage.
Kolannalu or Andhra A traditional stick dance similar to Dandiya, involving rhythmic movements
Kolattam Pradesh and dancers forming dual circles.
Fusion of Classical and Folk Music intensifying tempo aimed at invoking a

transcendental state. The origin of Qawwali is
• Bhajan: Devotional singing popular in North attributed to Amir Khusrau, though this claim
India, originating from the Bhakti movement. is debated. Notable performers include the
Lyrics are set to simple melodies in one or Sabri Brothers, Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan, and Aziz
more ragas, focusing on stories of gods, Warsi.
goddesses, and epics like the Mahabharata and
Ramayana. Instruments include chimta, Other varieties of Music
dholak, dafli, and manjira. Notable medieval • Rabindra Sangeet: Music inspired by Nobel
exponents were Mirabai, Tulsidas, Surdas, Laureate Rabindranath Tagore, blending
Kabir, with contemporary singers like Anup classical elements with Bengali folk traditions.
Jalota and Anuradha Paudwal. Encompassing over 2000 compositions,
• Shabad: Devotional songs from Sikhism, themes include devotion to the divine, nature,
developed by Guru Nanak and his disciple love, life, and patriotism. It expresses a deep
Mardana. Performed in Gurudwaras, Shabad reverence for one's nation above personal
singing comes in three types: raga-based, needs.
traditional as mentioned in the Adi Granth, and • Gana Sangeet: A form of music performed in
lighter versions. The Guru Granth Sahib chorus, often with a patriotic or protest theme.
organizes shabads by ragas. It aims to convey social messages, such as
• Qawwali: A devotional music form praising advocating against exploitation. "Vande
Allah, Prophet Muhammad, or major Mataram," the national song of India, is a
Sufi/Islamic saints. Typically composed in a notable example, celebrating national pride.
single raga, with lyrics in Urdu, Punjabi, Hindi, • Haveli Sangeet: Originating in Rajasthan and
and occasionally Brajbhasa and Awadhi. Gujarat, this music genre is traditionally
Performed in Sufi shrines, Qawwali involves a performed within temple premises but has
solo or duo of lead singers supported by an expanded beyond. Associated with the
ensemble of about eight members. Pushtimarg Sampradaya community, it
Instruments include tabla, dholak, and emphasizes devotion and the spiritual path to
harmonium, contributing to a gradually salvation.
Musical instruments
Category Description Common Instruments

Notable
Use/Contributors/Musicians
Awanad/Avanaddha Membranophone Tabla, Drum, Dhol, Tabla accompanies Hindustani
Vadya instruments with a Congo, Mridangam. classical vocals; Mridangam is
stretched membrane for

producing sound. Known used in Carnatic music

as percussion performances.
instruments, struck to
create musical sounds.
Sushira Vadya Aerophones or wind Bansuri (flute), Shehnai, Ustad Bismillah Khan
instruments where sound Pungi, Ninkirns. (Shehnai), Pandit Hariprasad
is produced by blowing air. Chaurasia (Flute).
Ghana Vadya Non-drum percussion Manjira, Jaltarang, Manjira has archaeological
instruments not requiring Kanch-tarang, Ghungroo, evidence dating back to the
tuning, also called Ghatam, Khartal. Harappan Civilization.
Idiophones. Used to keep
rhythm.
Tata Vadya Chordophones or string Bowed: Sarangi, The Bhangash family (Sarod);
instruments, including Esraj/Dilruba, Violin. Various Gharanas for Sitar;
bowed, plectral, and Plectral: Sitar, Veena, Veena associated with
struck subtypes. Tanpura, Guitar. Struck: Goddess Saraswati.
Gotuvadyam,
Swaramandal.

5 Indian Dance Forms

Introduction compassion, disgust, horror, heroism, wonder,
• Origin Story: Inspired by a divine request, Lord and peace.
Brahma created the Natya Veda, a fifth Veda Bharatnatyam UPSC (2012)
combining elements from the four Vedas, • Origin: Tamil Nadu, known as the oldest
highlighting dance's sacred inception in Indian classical dance form.
culture. • Etymology: Named after Bharata Muni with
• Divine Significance: Shiva's Tandava and 'natyam' meaning dance in Tamil; also reflects
Parvati's dance forms symbolize cosmic the integration of 'Bhava' (emotion), 'Raga'
processes and feminine responses, (melody), and 'Taal' (rhythm).
respectively, underscoring dance's • Historical Roots: Evolved from 'Sadir', the
mythologiutcal importance. dance of temple dancers or 'devadasis'.
• Historical Evidence: The prehistoric • Revival: Brought back from near extinction
community dances at Bhimbetka and the through the efforts of E. Krishna Iyer and
Harappan Bronze dancing girl sculpture popularized globally by Rukmini Devi Arundale.
emphasize dance's longstanding role in social • Inclusivity: Originally performed by solo
and cultural contexts. female artists, now embraced by male and
• Natyashastra: Authored by Bharata Muni, this group performers.
seminal text, compiled between 200 BC and • Key Components of a Recital:
200 AD, thoroughly explores the intricacies of o Alarippu: Invocation, introducing basic
Indian classical dance, defining it as a postures and rhythms.
'complete art' that encapsulates music, o Jatiswaram: Pure dance (Nritta) segment,
sculpture, poetry, and drama. focusing on movements and poses.
o Shabdam: Expression of words through
Aspects of Indian Classical Dance dance, often in praise of the divine.
o Varnam: Central piece combining dance
• Lasya: Represents the grace, bhava (emotion), and emotion, expressing a story.
rasa (essence), and abhinaya (expression) in o Padam: Focus on abhinaya, conveying
dance, embodying feminine qualities. spiritual messages.
• Tandava: Denotes the vigorous, rhythmic, and o Jawali: Fast-paced, expressing love
dynamic aspects of dance, reflecting masculine themes.
attributes. o Thillana: The finale, showcasing pure
Basic Elements (According to Abhinaya Darpan by dance with vibrant movements and
Nandikeshwara): rhythmic complexity.
• Nritta: Pure dance movements, focusing on • Tanjore Quartet: Chinnaiah, Ponniah,
rhythm and technique without expressing any Vadivelu, and Shivanandam significantly
emotion. shaped Bharatnatyam, leading to its alternate
• Natya: Dramatic storytelling through dance, name, Tanjore Natyam.
involving characters and narratives. • Nickname: Often called the 'fire dance' due to
• Nritya: Combination of dance and expression, the dynamic movements resembling a dancing
portraying emotions and stories using gestures flame.
and facial expressions. • Balance of Tandava and Lasya: Incorporates
• Nayaka-Nayika Bhav: Conceptual framework both the vigorous (Tandava) and graceful
where the divine is the hero (Nayaka) and the (Lasya) aspects, with a strong emphasis on
devotee-dancer is the heroine (Nayika), hand gestures or 'mudras'.
emphasizing the spiritual dimension of dance. • Principal Mudra: 'Katakamukha Hasta' where
• Nine Rasas: Fundamental emotions conveyed three fingers join to denote 'Om', a significant
through dance, including love, laughter, fury, symbol in the dance's expressive repertoire.

• Posture and Movement: Characterized by • Earthly Elements: Represents earthly

bent knees and evenly distributed weight elements within the human body.
across both feet, enhancing the dance's • Dance-Drama: Performers often sing while
aesthetic appeal. dancing, blending dance and drama.
• Ekcharya Lasyam Style: Showcases the • Lasya and Tandava: Both graceful (Lasya) and
versatility of a single dancer portraying vigorous (Tandava) dance elements are crucial.
multiple characters or roles within a Solo Elements:
performance. • Manduk Shabdam: Story of a frog.
• Tarangam: Performance on the edges of a
Kuchipudi UPSC (2012) brass plate with water pot or diyas on the
head.
• Origin: Kuchipudi, named after the village • Jala Chitra Nrityam: Creating floor pictures
Kusselavapuri or Kuchelapuram in Andhra with toes while dancing.
Pradesh, was traditionally performed by • Music Accompaniment: Typically
traveling actors known as Kusselavas. accompanied by Carnatic music, with violin
• Formalization: In the 17th century, Siddhendra and mridangam as primary instruments,
Yogi played a pivotal role in formalizing performed in Telugu.
Kuchipudi, authoring 'Bhama Kalapam' among • Famous Proponents: Radha and Raja Reddy,
other works. Yamini Krishnamurthy, Indrani Rahman.
• Vaishnavism Influence: Transitioned to temple
performances by male Brahmins, focusing on Kathakali
Bhagavat Purana stories, with performers • Origin: Evolved from Ramanattam and
called Bhagavathalus. Krishnattam under feudal patronage in Kerala.
• Royal Patronage: Flourished under the • All-male Performance: Traditionally
Vijayanagara and Golconda rulers, remaining performed by an all-male troupe.
primarily a village tradition until the 20th • Minimal Props: Uses minimal props but
century. elaborate makeup and costu ()mes to depict
• Modern Revival: Notable revival efforts by characters.
Balasaraswati and Ragini Devi, with • Dance-Drama Fusion: Integrates dance and
Lakshminarayan Sastri introducing solo drama, portraying the battle between good
performances and encouraging female and evil.
participation in the early 20th century. • Themes: Based on epics and Puranas, known
as the "ballad of the east."
Kuchipudi Dance Features • Language: Manipravalam (mix of Malayalam
• Team Performance: Characterized by intricate and Sanskrit).
foot movements, often performed as a group. • Music: Essential for conveying the drama, with
• Story Basis: Recitals predominantly based on specific compositions enhancing the narrative.
Bhagavata Purana stories with a secular • Gestures and Expressions: Extensive use of
theme, emphasizing Shringara Rasa. hand gestures and facial expressions, including
• Character Introduction: Principal characters 'Navarasas' (nine emotions).
introduce themselves with a "daaru," a dance- • Performance Setting: Open-air theatres or
song composition for character revelation. temple premises, often with natural
• Classical Components: Incorporates Nritta backdrops.
(pure dance movements), Natya (dramatic • Lighting: Brass lamp for illumination.
element), and Nritya (expressive dance). • Symbolism: Represents the sky or ether
Distinct Elements element.
• Sollakath/Patakshara: Nritta component • Famous Proponents: Guru Kunchu Kurup, Gopi
focusing on body movements. Nath, Kottakal Sivaraman, Rita Ganguly.
• Kavutvams: Nritya component featuring
acrobatics, also performed as Nritta. Mohiniattam

• Origin: Developed by Vadivelu in the 19th • Batu Nritya: Dance segment featuring
century, prominent under Travancore rulers in tribhanga and chowk postures.
Kerala. • Pallavi: Facial expressions and song
• Solo Female Performance: Primarily a solo representation.
dance performed by women. • Tharijham: Pure dance before conclusion.
• Grace and Elegance: Combines • Moksha/Trikhanda Majura: Concluding items
Bharatnatyam's grace with Kathakali's vigor, signifying liberation or farewells.
emphasizing gentle footwork. • Music Accompaniment: Uses Hindustani
• Theme: Often narrates the dance of Vishnu in classical music with instruments like Manjira,
his enchantress form, Mohini. Pakhawaj, Sitar, and Flute.
• Dominant Lasya: Focuses on beauty and grace, • Symbolism: Represents the element of water.
showcasing the feminine aspects of dance. • Lyrics: Often uses Jayadeva's Gita Govinda
• Music and Songs: Accompanied by classical along with local poets' compositions.
music and traditional songs. • Costume and Jewelry: Elaborate hairstyles,
• Costume: Features white and off-white colors silver jewelry, and long necklaces for female
with gold brocade designs, minimal facial dancers.
makeup, and Ghungroo (bells) on ankles. • Famous Proponents: Guru Pankaj Charan Das,
• Symbolism: Represents the element of air. Guru Kelu Charan Mohapatra, Sonal Mansingh,
• Basic Dance Movements: Includes a repertoire Sharon Lowen (USA), Anandini Dasi
of 40 basic movements known as 'Atavakul' or (Argentina).
'Atavus'.
• Musical Instruments: Cymbals, veena, drums, Manipuri UPSC (2017)
flute, etc., are used for accompaniment. • Mythological Origins: Linked to the celestial
• Famous Proponents: Sunanda Nair, dance of Shiva and Parvati along with local
Kalamandalam Kshemavathy, Madhuri Amma, Gandharvas in Manipur.
Jayaprabha Menon. • Religious Influence: Gained prominence with
Vaishnavism in the 15th century, focusing on
Odissi Krishna.
• Revival: Raja Bhag Chandra in the 18th century
• Historical Roots: Early examples found in and later popularized by Rabindranath Tagore
Udayagiri-Khandagiri caves, associated with at Shantiniketan.
'Odra nritya' from Natya Shastra. • Devotion vs. Sensuality: Emphasizes devotion
• Practitioners: Initially performed by 'maharis' with minimal sensuality.
and later by 'Gotipuas' after the decline of the • Facial Expressions and Costume: Lesser focus
Mahari system. on facial expressions, dancers wear long skirts
• Revival: Gained international acclaim in the and cover faces with a thin veil.
mid-20th century through efforts by Charles • Movements: Prioritizes gentle hand and feet
Fabri and Indrani Rahman. movements, laying emphasis on Lasya.
• Postures: Notable for the tribhanga (three- • Signature Posture: Nagabandha mudra
bend) posture and the 'Chowk' posture symbolizes connection through ‘8’ shaped
depicting masculinity. curves.
• Movement: Characterized by static lower body • Themes: Ras Leela depicting Radha-Krishna's
with torso movement and expressive hand love story is a common theme.
gestures. • Musical Accompaniment: Pung (drum), flute,
• Expression of Grace: Known for creating khartals, and dhols, with compositions of
intricate geometrical shapes, earning the title Jayadeva and Chandidas.
'mobile sculpture'. • Influences: Also influences Thang-Ta and
Sankirtana.
Elements: • Famous Proponents: Jhaveri sisters (Nayana,
• Mangalacharan: Invocation and offering to Suverna, Ranjana, Darshana), Guru Bipin
Mother Earth. Singha, N Madhabi Devi.

• Components: Comprises Nritta (pure dance),

Nritya (expressive dance), and Natya (dramatic
Kathak narrative).
• Performance: Traditionally by male monks
• Origins: Rooted in Ras Leela of Brajbhoomi, (Bhokots) in groups, focusing on devotional
Uttar Pradesh. Named after 'Kathika' themes of Vishnu.
storytellers of epics. • Instruments: Accompanied by Khol (drum),
• Mughal Influence: Adapted Persian styles Cymbals (Manjira), and Flute with 'Borgeets'
during the Mughal era, later revived by Lady compositions by Shankaradeva.
Leela Sokhey. • Technique: Emphasizes rhythmic syllables,
• Gharanas: Unique for its development of postures, footwork, and includes both Lasya
different gharanas. and Tandava elements.
o Lucknow: Emphasizes expression and • Costumes: Men wear Dhoti and Paguri
grace, flourished under Nawab Wajid Ali (turban); women don traditional Assamese
Shah. jewellery and silk garments. Both genders wear
o Jaipur: Founded by Bhanuji, focuses on a waist cloth.
fluency, speed, and complex rhythms. • Modern Forms: Evolved into Gayan-Bhayanar
o Raigarh: Promoted by Raja Chakradhar Nach (monks' dance) and Kharmanar Nach
Singh, known for percussion music (ritual dance).
emphasis. • Dramatic Forms: 'Ankia Naat' (play or musical-
o Banaras: Started by Janakiprasad, notable drama in Brajavali language) and 'Bhaona'
for floor work and symmetry focus. (based on Krishna's stories).
• Characteristics: Known for intricate footwork
and spins (pirouettes). Folk Dances of India
• Recital Elements: • Chhau: Mask dance from Jharkhand, Odisha,
o Ananda: Introductory performance. and West Bengal depicting mythological tales.
o Thaat: Soft and diverse movements. • Garba: Circular dance form from Gujarat
o Todas/Tukdas: Fast rhythm pieces. performed during Navratra with "Garbha
o Jugalbandi: Competitive interaction with deep".
tabla player. • Dandiya Raas: Stick dance from Gujarat
o Padhant: Recitation and demonstration of representing a mock fight between Durga and
bols. Mahishasura.
o Tarana: Rhythmic movements towards • Tarangamel: Folk dance of Goa celebrated
the end. during Dussehra and Holi with colorful
o Kramalaya: Concludes with fast footwork. costumes.
o Gat Bhaav: Mime to depict mythological • Ghoomar or Gangore: Dance form of the Bhil
stories. tribe, Rajasthan, known for its pirouetting
• Music Accompaniment: Primarily dhrupad movements.
music, including taranas, thumris, and ghazals • Kalbelia: Sensuous dance by Rajasthan's
from the Mughal period. Kalbelia community with serpent-like
• Famous Proponents: Birju Maharaj, Lacchu movements.
Maharaj, Sitara Devi, Damayanti Joshi. • Charba: Folk dance from Himachal Pradesh
performed during Dussehra festivities.
Sattriya UPSC (2014) • Bhangra/Giddha: Energetic dance from Punjab
with Bhangra by men and Giddha by women.
• Origin: Introduced by Vaishnava saint • Dadra: Semi-classical dance and music style
Sankaradeva in 15th century Assam, named popular in Uttar Pradesh.
after 'Sattras', the monasteries where it was • Jawara: Harvest dance from Madhya Pradesh’s
performed. Bundelkhand, involving a basket full of Jawar.
• Inspirations: Draws from ancient text 'Natya
Shastra' and Bhakti Movement.

• Matki: Solo women's dance from Malwa, • Chakyar Koothu: Solo narrative dance from
Madhya Pradesh, balancing earthen pots on Kerala, combining prose, poetry, and elaborate
the head. costume.
• Gaur Muria (Bison horn): Ritualistic dance of • Jhoomar: Harvest dance from Punjab and
Chhattisgarh's Muria tribes mimicking a bison. surrounding areas, performed in a circle to
• Alkap: Dance-drama from Jharkhand and West drum beats.
Bengal, performed by troops narrating • Karma Naach: Dance during the 'Karma'
folklore. festival by tribes of Eastern India, especially in
• Biraha: Dance of Bihar expressing the pain of Chota Nagpur Plateau.
women whose partners are away. • Raut Naach: Dance from Chhattisgarh by the
• Paika: Martial dance from Odisha using Yadav community, especially during Diwali.
wooden spears and shields. • Dumhal: Dance by Jammu and Kashmir's
• Bagurumba: Folk dance by Assam's Bodo tribe, Wattal tribe with colorful costumes and a tall
related to nature and environment. conical hat.
• Jat-Jatin: Dance from North Bihar depicting • Fugdi: Dance from Maharashtra and Goa's
love and quarrels of a married couple. Konkan region during festivals by women in
• Jhumair: Harvest dance of Jharkhand and circles or rows.
Odisha performed by tribal people. • Cheraw: Bamboo dance from Mizoram,
• Danda-Jatra: Oldest folk art in Odisha, performed using long bamboo sticks.
blending dance, drama, and music, often on • Dalkhai: Dance during Dussehra in Odisha,
Shiva themes. performed by tribes with stories from epics.
• Bihu: Group dance of Assam celebrating • Hulivesha: Dance from Coastal Karnataka,
festivities with colorful traditional attire. where male dancers paint like tigers to honor
• Thang Ta: Martial dance from Manipur, Goddess Durga.
showcasing mock fight sequences. • Tippani: Dance from Gujarat's Saurashtra
• Rangma: War dance of the Nagas with colorful region by women using wooden sticks to beat
costumes and mock war formations. the floor.
• Singhi Chham: Mask dance from Sikkim • Garadi: Dance from Puducherry celebrating
symbolizing the snow lion. Lord Rama's victory over Ravana with "Vanars"
• Kummi: Tamil Nadu and Kerala's dance by (monkeys) celebrating.
women in circular formations with rhythmic • Tera Tali: Performed by Rajasthan's "Kamar"
clapping. tribe with cymbals tied to various body parts.
• Mayilattam: "Peacock dance" from Kerala and • Hojagiri: Folk dance from Tripura by women
Tamil Nadu with young girls dressed as focusing on lower half body movements, often
peacocks. during Lakshmi puja.
• Butta Bommalu: West Andhra Pradesh's dance
with performers wearing masks resembling
toys.
• Kaikottikali: Temple dance of Kerala
performed during Onam by both men and
women.
• Padayani: Martial dance in Kerala's Bhagavati
temples with dancers wearing kolams (huge
masks).
• Kolkali-Parichakali: Martial dance from Kerala
and Lakshadweep using mock wooden
weapons.
• Pata Kunitha: Religious dance from Mysore,
Karnataka, using long bamboo poles decorated
with colorful ribbons.

6 Theatres in India
Introduction Folk Theatre in India
Indian theatre has a rich heritage, with evidence of • Overview: India's diverse folk theatre
the world's oldest amphitheatres found at traditions reflect local lifestyles, social norms,
Sitabena and Jogimara caves. Bharat Muni's Natya beliefs, and customs. Emerging around the
Shastra, written between 200 BC and 200 AD, is the 15th-16th century, folk theatre originally had
foundational text for classical Sanskrit theatre, devotional themes but later adopted secular
describing ten types of plays encompassing music, narratives.
dance, and acting.
1. Ritual Theatre
Classical Sanskrit Theatre • Ankia Naat: A traditional Assamese one-act
• Origins: Theatre in India began as a narrative play focusing on Lord Krishna's life,
form, incorporating music, dance, and acting. performed opera-style with music and
Types of Plays: masks, developed by Vaishnava Saint
• Lokadharmi: Realistic depictions of daily life. Sankaradeva.
• Natyadharmi: Stylised narrations with • Ramlila: A dramatic re-enactment of the
symbolism. Ramayana, popular in Uttar Pradesh,
Key Playwrights: involving songs, dances, and dialogues.
• Ashvaghosha's "Sariputraprakarana" is • Raslila: A dance drama depicting the love
considered the first classical Sanskrit drama. stories of Krishna and Radha, popular in
• Bhasa composed 13 plays around the 3rd-4th Gujarat and parts of North India.
century AD. • Bhuta Aradhana: A form of ancestor
• Sudraka introduced conflict in worship involving ritualistic theatre,
"Mricchakatika". prevalent in coastal Karnataka.
• Kalidasa, known for "Malavikagnimitram", • Ramman: A ritualistic theatre from the
"Vikramorvashi", and "Shakuntalam". Garhwal region of Uttarakhand, dedicated
Conventions: to the deity Bhumiyal Devta, recognized by
• Plays often have four to seven acts and always UNESCO for its cultural significance.
end happily.
2. Theatres of Entertainment in North,
• The protagonist, typically male, achieves his
desires by the end. West, and Eastern India
• Plays have a structured opening, progression, • Bhavai (Rajasthan): A folk theatre form
development, pause, and conclusion. that uses dance to narrate series of small
Performance Rituals: plays, focusing on romantic themes with
• Begins with pre-play rituals (purva-raga). performers balancing earthen pots or
• The Sutradhar (stage manager) performs an brass pitchers.
introductory ceremony. • Daskathia (Odisha): Features two
• The theatre could accommodate around 400 narrators using a wooden musical
people, with two-storeyed stages for celestial instrument called kathia, with themes
and terrestrial representations. revolving around Lord Shiva.
Characters: • Garoda (Gujarat): Performed by the
• Nayaka (Hero): Different personalities like 'Garoda' Brahmin community using
Lalita, Shanta, Uddhata. painted pictures to narrate stories of
• Nayika (Heroine): Roles include queens, romance and valour.
friends, courtesans, and divine ladies. • Jatra (Eastern India): An open-air
• Vidusaka (Clown): A comic character, usually performance with roots in Vaishnavism,
the hero's friend, often speaking in Prakrit to narrating Puranic legends and secular,
question social norms through satire. historical themes. Variants include Rama
Jatra, Shiv Jatra, and Chandi Jatra.

• Kariyila (Himachal Pradesh): An open-air 3. Theatres of South India

theatre performed during village fairs and
festivals, comprising a series of small plays • Villu Paatu: A musical theatre from Kerala and
and skits. Tamil Nadu, narrating Ramayana stories with
• Maach (Madhya Pradesh): Folk theatre bow-shaped instruments.
from the Malwa region, initially based on • Yakshagana: An ancient dance-drama from
mythological themes, later including Karnataka and Kerala, originating in the
romantic folk tales. Vijayanagara empire courts, influenced by
• Nautanki (North India): Popular theatre Vaishnava Bhakti Movement.
form delivering plays through dance and • Burra Katha: Story-telling tradition of Andhra
music on historical, social, and folk tales, Pradesh featuring a narrator and two co-
known for its lyrical dialogues. artists, using the Burra percussion instrument.
• Ojapali (Assam): A unique narrative • Pagati Veshaalu: Folk tradition from Telangana
theatre associated with the Manasha and Krishna district, Andhra Pradesh, focusing
festival, involving a main narrator (Oja) and on role-playing acts with principal and sub
chorus members (Palis). characters.
• Powada (Maharashtra): Operatic ballads • Bayalata: Open-air theatre tradition in
depicting stories of valour, sung by Karnataka performed during worship of local
Gondhalis and Shahirs, celebrating heroic deities, based on Radha-Krishna love stories.
deeds like those of Chatrapati Shivaji • Tal-Maddale: Predecessor to Yakshagana,
Maharaj. performed sitting without costumes, dance, or
• Swang (Rajasthan, Haryana): Musical acting, primarily in coastal Karnataka and
dramas sung through verses, involving Kerala.
mimicry and dialogue, known for its use of • Theyyam: Performed in Kerala, akin to
traditional musical instruments. Karnataka's Bhuta Kola, honoring spirits of
• Tamasha (Maharashtra): Known for its ancestors and gods, featuring elaborate
humour and erotic content, featuring headgear and colorful costumes.
female actors even in male roles, • Krishnanattam: Dance-drama from Kerala
accompanied by Lavani songs. depicting Lord Krishna's life, based on Krishna
• Bhand Pather (Jammu and Kashmir): Geethi, performed over eight nights in
Involves contemporary social satire or temples.
mythical stories, performed by Muslims • Kuruvanji: About 300 years old, featuring
but secular in outlook. classical Tamil poetry and Bharatnatyam
• Bhaona (Assam): A presentation of Ankia dance, focuses on a love-struck heroine's fate
Naat with Vaishnavite themes, aiming to predicted by a fortune-teller.
spread religious and moral messages
through entertainment. Koothiyattam, a centuries-old theatre tradition
• Dashavatar (Konkan region): Honours the from Kerala, adheres to Natya Shastra and is
ten incarnations of Lord Vishnu, performed by the Chakyar and Nambiar castes. It
performed by farmers, divided into combines Sanskrit, Prakrit, and Malayalam, with
'poorva-ranga' and 'uttara-ranga'. music from Mizhavu and Edakka. Performances
• Naqal or Bhand (Punjab, Uttar Pradesh): start with a recap of events (Nirvahana) and unfold
Mimicry-based performance known as with deep social and philosophical commentary.
'Naqal' in Punjab and 'Bhand' in Uttar MargiMadhu Chakyar is a key exponent.
Pradesh, using comedy to convey social or
political messages.

7 Indian Puppetry and Martial arts

Introduction Examples:
Puppetry, an ancient form of entertainment, Kathputli (Rajasthan):
combines design, color, and movement. Offers • Derived from 'kath' (wood) and 'putli' (doll).
freedom for artistic expression in animation and • Features traditional Rajasthani attire.
performance. • Notable for the absence of legs, manipulated
by puppeteer’s fingers.
Origin of Puppetry • Accompanied by dramatic folk music.
• Evidence of puppetry in India dates back to Kundhei (Odisha):
Harappa and Mohenjo-daro.
• References found in ancient texts like • Crafted from light wood, dressed in long skirts.
Silappadikaram and Mahabharata. • Enhanced flexibility due to more joints.
• Philosophical importance highlighted in • Manipulated via strings attached to a
Bhagavad Geeta and Indian theatre, portraying triangular prop.
God and narrators as puppeteers controlling • Influenced by Odissi dance.
the universe or story. Gombeyatta (Karnataka):
• Challenges: Decline due to reduced audience • Designed based on Yakshagana Theatre
interest and financial challenges. characters.
Categories of Indian Puppetry • Unique for requiring multiple puppeteers.
• India's puppetry traditions vary regionally, • Reflects traditional Karnataka puppetry styles.
each with unique puppet forms and stories Bommalattam (Tamil Nadu):
rooted in mythology, folklore, and local • Fusion of rod and string puppetry.
legends. • Strings connected to an iron ring worn by the
• Encompasses elements of painting, sculpture, puppeteer.
music, dance, and drama. • Among the largest marionettes, up to 4.5 ft
• Broadly classified into four main categories and 10 kg.
reflecting diverse Indian cultural practices. • Theatre stages include Vinayak Puja, Komali,
Amanattam, and Pusenkanattam.
Shadow Puppets
Characteristics:
• Made from leather, flat figures.
• Painted on both sides for identical appearance.
• Placed against a white screen; backlight
creates shadow imagery.
• Manipulated to create silhouettes, telling
stories without direct visibility.
Examples:
String Puppets Togalu Gombeyatta (Karnataka):
Characteristics: • Variation in puppet size indicates social status;
• Made from wood, typically 8-9 inches tall. larger for kings/religious figures, smaller for
• Painted with oil for facial features (eyes, lips, commoners/servants.
nose). • Known for its storytelling and thematic depth,
• Limbs created from small wooden pipes, focusing on local myths and social tales.
dressed in colorful attire. Ravanchhaya (Odisha):
• Adorned with miniature jewelry and • Crafted from deer skin, showcasing bold,
accessories. dramatic postures.
• Manipulated through strings attached to • Lacks joints, requiring skilled manipulation for
various parts of the puppet. expression.

• Includes non-human figures like trees and Martial Arts in India

animals for a comprehensive narrative • Kalaripayattu (Kerala) UPSC (2014): Ancient
experience. martial art focusing on combat techniques,
• Renowned for its lyrical and sensitive portrayal footwork, and weaponry. Includes Uzhichil
of themes. (massage), Maipayattu (body exercises), and
Tholu Bommalata (Andhra Pradesh): weapon-based practices.
• Accompanied by classical music, focuses on • Silambam (Tamil Nadu): Staff fencing martial
mythological and devotional stories. art with historical significance. Emphasizes
• Puppets are larger, with detailed coloring on swift foot movements, hand coordination, and
both sides. techniques like snake hits and monkey hits.
• Integrates a musical and thematic richness, • Thang-ta and Sarit Sarak (Manipur): Thang-ta
bringing epic and puranic tales to life. involves sword and spear combat, while Sarit
Sarak focuses on unarmed combat. Known for
Glove Puppets
their lethal effectiveness.
Characteristics:
• Cheibi Gad-ga (Manipur): Sword and shield
• Small figures with a head, arms, and a long
combat, now practiced with a stick and shield.
skirt.
Points are awarded based on skill and force in
• Made of cloth or wood, worn like a glove for
duels.
manipulation.
• Pari-khanda (Bihar): Sword and shield fighting
• Puppeteer uses index finger, thumb, and art, influencing Chhau dance. Focuses on
middle finger for movement.
combat techniques with historical Rajput
Example: origins.
Pavakoothu (Kerala):
• Thoda (Himachal Pradesh): Archery-based
• Traditional glove puppet show with heavy martial art celebrated during Baisakhi. Teams,
Kathakali influences. representing Pandavas and Kauravas, aim for
• Puppets adorned with colorful headgear, below the knee hits.
feathers, and face paint. • Gatka (Punjab): Sikh martial art emphasizing
• Themes revolve around Ramayana and weapon skills, particularly with sticks, Kirpan,
Mahabharata narrations. and Talwar. Displayed during festivals and
Rod Puppets celebrations.
Characteristics: • Mardani Khel (Maharashtra): Armed martial
• Larger than glove puppets, controlled by rods art known for its weaponry skills and agile
from behind a screen. movements. Utilizes swords and lances.
• Found mainly in Eastern India, with elaborate • Lathi (Punjab and Bengal): Stick fighting art
costumes and designs. with a long history. Practiced widely in rural
Examples: areas and by Indian police for crowd control.
Yampuri (Bihar): • Inbuan Wrestling (Mizoram): Traditional
• Rod puppets made of wood, carved from a wrestling with strict rules against kicking, knee
single piece. bending, and leaving the circle. Victory is
• Painted in bright colors, with no joints, achieved by lifting the opponent off their feet.
depicting various characters. • Kuttu Varisai (Tamil Nadu): Unarmed combat
Putul Nachh (Bengal-Odisha-Assam Region): focusing on athleticism and footwork.
• Puppets are 3 to 4 feet high, resembling Jatra Incorporates stretching, yoga, and breathing
characters. exercises.
• Feature three joints for movement: neck and • Musti Yuddha (Varanasi): Ancient boxing-like
shoulders. art with techniques including punches, kicks,
• Controlled by puppeteers using rods, and strikes. Divided into four categories named
performed behind a curtain. after Hindu Gods.
• Accompanied by a musical ensemble of
harmonium, cymbals, and tabla.

8 Indian Literature
Hindu Literature in Ancient India Upanishads, with each Veda having its
corresponding Aranyaka.
Sacred texts central to Hinduism, focusing on
knowledge for life on Earth and beyond. Comprised Upanishads
of Rig Veda, Yajur Veda, Sama Veda, and Atharva A collection of texts that constitute the
Veda, these texts include hymns, rituals, and philosophical and spiritual core of Vedanta,
philosophical teachings. addressing the universe's origin, the cycle of life
• Rig Veda: The oldest Veda, containing 1028 and death, and the pursuit of salvation (moksha).
hymns dedicated to various deities. It Over 200 Upanishads exist, with the Muktika
emphasizes themes like creation, sacrifice, and Canon highlighting 108 as crucial for understanding
the quest for cosmic knowledge, organized Hinduism's foundational rituals. The Upanishads
into 10 Mandalas. are known for their exploration of knowledge
• Yajur Veda: Focuses on sacrificial rites and (Jnana-kanda) as opposed to the Aranyakas' focus
mantras. It has two major recensions: Shukla on ritual actions (Karma-kanda).
(Vajasaneyi Samhita) and Krishna (Taittiriya
Samhita), serving as a guidebook for Vedic Ramayana
rituals. Authored by Sage Valmiki, known as Adikavi,
• Sama Veda: Known as the "book of chants," it Ramayana is considered Adikavya, first among
is primarily derived from the Rig Veda and poetry, composed around 1500 BC. It narrates the
emphasizes melodies and songs. It contains story of Rama, the ideal man, illustrating the four
hymns and verses that outline the objectives of mankind: Dharma (righteousness),
development of Indian music during the Vedic Artha (wealth), Kama (desire), and Moksha
period. (liberation). The epic spans 24,000 verses across
• Atharva Veda: Associated with practical seven books (Khandas), detailing Rama's victory
aspects of daily life, including healing and over the demon King Ravana to rescue his wife Sita,
magic. It discusses peace, prosperity, and symbolizing the triumph of good over evil.
treatment for various ailments, contributing to
the holistic understanding of ancient Indian Mahabharata
society's concerns and beliefs. Penned by Ved Vyas, Mahabharata, initially
comprising 8,800 verses named 'Jaya,' evolved into
Brahmanas its current form with 1,00,000 verses divided into
Part of Hindu sruti literature, each Veda is ten chapters (parvas). This epic centers on the
accompanied by a Brahmana that explains Vedic conflict between the Kauravas and the Pandavas
rituals, philosophy, and the significance of sacred for the throne of Hastinapur, with Lord Krishna as
words. They were compiled around 900-700 BC. a pivotal figure. The narrative includes the
The Rig Veda has the Aitareya and Kaushitaki Bhagavad Gita, a seminal philosophical dialogue
Brahmanas, the Sama Veda includes the Tandya between Lord Krishna and Prince Arjuna,
Mahabrahmana and Sadvimsha Brahmana, the addressing the essence of duty, action, and
Yajur Veda is associated with the Taittiriya and righteousness (Dharma), advocating for selfless
Shatapatha Brahmanas, and the Atharva Veda has action (Nishkama Karma).
the Gopatha Brahmana.
The Puranas
Aranyakas • The Puranas, meaning "ancient" or "old," are a
Texts that delve into the philosophy behind Vedic genre of important Hindu mythological texts,
rituals and sacrifices, offering explanations from focusing on the universe's creation,
various perspectives. Authored by Munis dwelling preservation, and eventual destruction. They
in forests, they serve as a bridge between the narrate the tales of kings, heroes, sages, and
ritualistic Brahmanas and the philosophical

demigods, particularly emphasizing the Hindu

trinity: Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva. • Mricchakatika (The Little Clay Cart): Explores
• There are 18 Mahapuranas, each dedicated to the love affair between the young Brahmin
a specific deity, elaborating on the Charudatta and the wealthy courtesan
philosophical and religious concepts Vasantasena.
associated with them. Prominent Puranas Vishakhadutta:
include Bhagavata, Brahma, Vishnu, Matsya, • Mudrarakshasa: A political drama depicting
Vayu, Agni, Garuda, and Padma. the rise of King Chandragupta Maurya.
• These texts serve as a historical and cultural • Devi Chandraguptam: Further explores the
repository, offering insights into the narrative around Chandragupta Maurya.
geography, history, and genealogies of post- Bhavabhuti:
Vedic India. Their narrative style, combining • Uttara Ramacharitam: Focuses on the later life
myths, legends, and sermons, made them of Lord Rama, written around 700 AD.
accessible and popular among the masses, Bhasa:
leading to translations into various vernacular • Swapnavasavadatta: Features Vasavadatta in
languages. a dream scenario.
• The Puranas utilize parables and fables to • Pancharatra and Urubhanga: Narrate the
convey spiritual, moral, or religious lessons. story of Duryodhana during and after his battle
Parables, typically involving human characters, with Bhima.
impart spiritual or moral lessons through prose Harshavardhana:
or verse. Fables, often featuring animals or • Ratnavali: A love story between Princess
mythical creatures with human qualities, Ratnavali of Ceylon and King Udayana, notable
illustrate moral lessons through succinct for the first mention of the Holi festival.
stories or maxims. • Nagananda: Highlights Prince Jimutavahana's
• Examples of this narrative technique include sacrifice to save serpents from being offered to
the Panchatantra by Vishnu Sharma and Garuda, with a unique invocation to Lord
Hitopadesha by Narayan Pandit, both of which Buddha.
employ animals to impart wisdom and moral • Priyadarsika: Unites King Udayana with
lessons to humans. Priyadarsika, the daughter of King
Dridhavarman.
Classical Sanskrit Literature
Sanskrit Poetry
Sanskrit Drama: Sanskrit drama, a vital part of Sanskrit poetry, known as Kavya, emphasizes form,
classical Sanskrit literature, was primarily aimed at style, figures of speech, and literary beauty. This
entertaining the public (Lokaranjana), often genre has produced works that remain
through romantic tales. These works followed unparalleled in their poetic finesse and
strict grammatical rules, as outlined in Panini's philosophical depth.
"Ashtadhyayi."
Notable Sanskrit Poets and Their Works:
Key Dramatic Works and Authors: Kalidasa:
Kalidasa: • Kumarasambhava: Chronicles the birth of
• Malavikagnimitra: Chronicles the romance Kartikeya, the son of Shiva and Parvati.
between Malavika, a maiden of the queen, and • Raghuvamsa: Details the lineage of the Raghu
Agnimitra, the son of Pushyamitra Shunga. dynasty.
UPSC (2016) • Meghaduta: A lyrical poem where a cloud
• Vikramorvasiya: Tells the love story of King serves as a messenger between a lover and his
Vikramaditya and the celestial nymph Urvasi. beloved.
• Abhigyana Shakuntalam: Famous for the story • Ritusamhara: A poetic depiction of the six
of Shakuntala and King Dushyanta, highlighting seasons.
the theme of recognition.
Sudraka:

Harisena: Celebrated for his compositions praising Literature and History:

the valor of Samudra Gupta, inscribed on the • Rajatarangani by Kalhana: Chronicles the
Allahabad pillar. rulers of Kashmir.
Jayadeva: • Katha-sarit-sagar by Somadeva: A collection of
• Gita Govinda: A 12th-century epic poem stories and fables from medieval Kashmir.
focusing on the exploits of Lord Krishna, his Significance:
love for Radha, and the beauty of nature. • These texts not only provided a framework for
Bharavi (6th century AD): societal norms and governance but also laid
• Kiratarjuniya: A narrative of the encounter the foundations for scientific inquiry and
between Arjuna and Lord Shiva disguised as a exploration in ancient India.
hunter. • The Gupta period, in particular, marked a
Magha (7th century AD): renaissance of Sanskrit literature, with the
• Sishupalavadha: Describes the slaying of language becoming the lingua franca of the
Shishupala, blending martial valor with poetic educated elite.
elegance.
Pali and Prakrit Literature in Ancient India
Major Sanskrit Texts
Sanskrit literature encompasses a broad spectrum Pali and Prakrit languages were prominent in
ancient India, especially in the composition of
of texts on law, state governance, sciences, and
more, serving as the bedrock for the cultural and Buddhist and Jain literature. These languages
brought forth a diverse range of texts, from
intellectual fabric of ancient India.
religious doctrines to poetry, reflecting the cultural
and philosophical richness of the period.
Legal and Governance Texts:
• Dharamsutras and Dharamshastras: Codified Buddhist Literature:
laws governing Hindu kingdoms, detailing
property rights, social conduct, and legal • Canonical Works (Tripitaka):
penalties. o Vinaya Pitaka: Rules for Buddhist
• Manusmriti (Laws of Manu): Discourses on monks.
societal roles, conduct, and ethics, compiled o Sutta Pitaka: Buddha's dialogues on
between 200 BC and 200 AD. morality.
• Arthashastra by Kautilya (Chanakya): A o Abhidhamma Pitaka: Philosophical and
treatise on economics, statecraft, and military metaphysical discussions.
strategy from the Mauryan era. • Non-Canonical Works:
Scientific Texts: o Jatakas: Stories of Buddha's previous
• Pingala's Chandasastra: Mathematical work. births.
o Buddhacharita by Asvaghosha: Epic on
• Charak Samhita by Charak: Foundational text
Buddha's life.
on medicine.
• Sushruta Samhita by Sushruta: Pioneering
Other Buddhist Texts:
compilation on surgery.
• Dipavamsa and Mahavamsa: Chronicles of
• Madhava Nidana by Madhava: Treatise on
Buddhism in Sri Lanka.
pathology.
• Milinda Panho: Philosophical dialogues
• Pancha-Siddhantika and Brihat Samhita by
between King Menander and Monk Nagasena.
Varahamihira: Works on astronomy, geology,
• Mahavastu: Jataka tales and Avadana stories.
and architecture.
• Lalitavistara Sutra: Stories of Buddha's life.
• Aryabhatiya by Aryabhata: Seminal book on
astronomy and mathematics. • Udana: Contains the "Blind Men and the
Elephant" story.
• Vedanga Jyotisha by Lagadha: Ancient text on
Vedic astronomy. • Bodhi Vamsa: Prose-poem on Buddhism in Sri
Lanka.
• Mahavibhasa Shastra: Discussions on
Buddhist and non-Buddhist philosophies.

• Visuddhimagga by Buddhaghosa: Theravada • Umaswati: Tattvartha-sutra, foundational Jain

Buddhist doctrine. work in Sanskrit.
• Jinasena: Mahapurana, Adipurana, significant
Prakrit Poetry: Digamabara texts.
• Gatha Saptasati by Hala: Collection of 700 • Haribhadra Suri: Influential Svetambara
verses with contributions from female poets, Sanskrit author.
focusing on erotic poetry. • Hemachandra Suri: Renowned for grammars,
poetry, and awarded "Kalikalasarvajna."
Jain Literature in Prakrit:
• Agamas: Core Jain scriptures. Centers of Learning:
• Shantinatha Charitra: Life of the 16th • Vallabhi and Kalinga: Prominent Jain learning
Tirthankara, recognized by UNESCO. centers before their decline.
• Upamitibhava Prapancha Katha: Jain text in
Sanskrit. Sikh Literature
Jain Literature Sikhism, founded in the 15th century by Guru

Jain literature, encompassing a wide range of Nanak, has its teachings encapsulated in the Guru
languages including Prakrit, Sanskrit, Tamil, Granth Sahib, the central scripture of Sikhism. Sikh
Shauraseni, Gujarati, and Marathi, is classified into literature encompasses the philosophies and
Canonical (Agamas) and Non-canonical texts, teachings of the Sikh Gurus along with
reflecting the rich doctrinal and cultural heritage of contributions from various saints.
Jainism.
Key Sikh Literary Works:
Jain Agamas: • Adi Granth: Compiled by Bhai Gurdas under
• Primary Sacred Texts: Teachings of Jain the direction of Guru Arjan Dev in 1604, it
Tirthankaras, initially compiled by Ganadharas, forms the core of Sikh scripture, incorporating
Mahavira's chief disciples. the hymns of Sikh Gurus and 15 Bhagats from
• Svetambara and Digambara Perspectives: the Bhakti and Sufi traditions.
Svetambaras recognize texts compiled in • Guru Granth Sahib: An expansion of the Adi
Vallabhi (5th century AD) as authoritative; Granth by Guru Gobind Singh in 1678, it serves
Digambaras regard the original teachings as as the eternal Guru of the Sikhs. The scripture,
lost. written in Gurmukhi script, includes diverse
• Components: 12 Angas, 12 Upangas, 10 linguistic elements from Punjabi, Sanskrit,
Prakirnakasutras, 4 Mulasutras, 6 Chedasutras, Persian, and other languages, emphasizing
2 Culikasutras. inclusivity and universal brotherhood.
• Key Teachings: Emphasis on life reverence, • Dasam Granth: Attributed to Guru Gobind
vegetarianism, asceticism, compassion, and Singh, this collection includes various hymns,
non-violence. fables, and Puranic stories, though its
• Digambara Sacred Works: Karmaprabhrita authorship is debated. Parts of it are integral to
(Discussion on Karma) and Kashayaprabhrita. daily Sikh prayers (Nitnem).
• Janamsakhis: Narrative accounts of Guru
Notable Jain Works and Authors: Nanak's life, blending mythological elements
• Bhadrabahu: Kalpa Sutra, Uvasaggaharam with historical anecdotes. Notable examples
Stotra. Pioneer of the Digambara sect. include Bhai Bala Janamsakhi, Miharban Janam
• Acharya Kundkund: Samayasara, Niyamasara. Sakhi, and Adi Janam Sakhi, offering insights
• Samanta Bhadra: Ratna Karanda into the life and teachings of Sikhism's founder.
Sravakachara, Aptamimansa.
• Ilango Adigal: Silappadikaram, a moralistic Sikh literature, through these seminal works,
Tamil epic. provides a profound understanding of the Sikh
• Tirutakkatevar: Civaka Cintamani, a Tamil epic. faith, its teachings, and the ethical and spiritual
• Nalatiyar: Ancient Tamil text by Jain monks. guidance offered by the Sikh Gurus.

Dravidian Literature • Kokasandisan and Bhasa Kautilya, a

commentary on the Arthashastra.
Dravidian literature encompasses the rich literary • Ramacharitam by Cheeraman in the 12th
traditions of four major Dravidian languages: century, an epic poem marking a significant
Tamil, Kannada, Telugu, and Malayalam. Among point in Malayalam literature.
these, Tamil literature is notably ancient, with a • Ezhuthachan, known as the Father of the
close grammatical and lexical relationship to Malayalam Language, contributed significantly
Sanskrit. to its literature, especially through his
Tamil Sangam Literature [UPSC (2022)] advocacy of the Bhakti movement.
Sangam literature, dating from 300 BC to 300 AD, Champu Literature

is a cornerstone of Tamil literary tradition, named • Champu, a literary style that blends poetry
after the Sangams, or assemblies, organized by the and prose, is prominent in Telugu, Odia,
Pandya kingdom. This literature is broadly Kannada, and Sanskrit literature,
classified into two categories: showcasing a unique narrative technique.
• Aham/Agam (Inner Field): Focuses on
personal, emotional aspects like love and
relationships. Telugu Literature
• Puram (Outer Field): Covers social life, ethics, Telugu literature flourished especially during the
valor, and societal norms. Vijayanagara Empire, with Nannayya from the 11th
The first two Sangams are considered more century AD recognized as its first poet. The golden
mythical, with the majority of surviving works age of Telugu literature is marked by the reign of
attributed to the third Sangam. The literature Krishnadevaraya (1509-1529), who was not only a
includes around 30,000 lines of poetry compiled patron but also a poet, known for his work
into eight anthologies known as Ettuthogai. Amuktamalyada.
Notable contributions include the revered The era is distinguished by the Ashtadiggajas, eight
Tirukkural by Saint Thiruvalluvar, offering wisdom eminent poets at Krishnadevaraya's court,
on morality, governance, and love, and works by including:
the female saint, Avvaiyar. • Allasani Peddana, celebrated as Andhra Kavita
Pitamahudu, known for Manu Charitra.
Other Tamil Texts • Nandi Thimmana, author of
• Tolkappiyam: An elaborate treatise on Tamil Parijatapaharanamu.
grammar and poetry. • Tenali Ramakrishna, remembered for
• Silappadikaram and Manimekalai: Epic tales Panduranga Mahatmayam and his witty tales.
reflecting the socio-economic and political • Ramaraja Bhushanudu (Bhattumurti), known
landscape of Tamil society during the 6th for works like Vasucharitram,
century AD. Narasabhupaleeyamu, Harishchandra, and
The early medieval period witnessed the Nalopakhyanamu.
emergence of devotional literature influenced by • Madayyagari Mallana, famed for
Vaishnava Bhakti and Shaivism, marked by the Rajasekaracharitra, highlighting the love and
works of the Alvars and Nayanars. Among the war tales of King Rajasekara of Avanti.
Alvars, Andal is a celebrated female saint. In • Ayyalaraju Ramabhadrudu, who penned
secular literature, Periya Puranam and Ramabhudayamu.
Kambaramayanam stand out for their popularity
and impact.
Krishna Deva Raya: A Scholar and Patron of
Malayalam Literature Literature
Malayalam, predominantly spoken in Kerala, has a
Krishna Deva Raya (1509-1529) of the Vijayanagara
rich literary tradition with notable works from the
Empire was not only a formidable ruler but also a
medieval period, including:
distinguished scholar and patron of literature
across multiple languages including Telugu,

Kannada, Tamil, and Sanskrit. His reign is 2. Ponna: Known for his treatise Shanti Purana,
celebrated as the Golden Age of Telugu Literature, Ponna was a celebrated poet in the 9th-10th
significantly marked by the flourishing of arts and century.
letters. 3. Ranna: Author of Ajitha Purana, Ranna's
contributions in the 10th-11th century are
Key Highlights: pivotal to Kannada literary heritage.
• Multilingual Patronage: Krishna Deva Raya
supported scholars and poets across Telugu, Vijayanagara Empire and Kannada Literature:
Kannada, Tamil, and Sanskrit, showcasing his
diverse literary interest and inclusivity. The patronage from the Vijayanagara empire
• Golden Age of Telugu Literature: His court was catalyzed the growth of Kannada literature, with
adorned by eight eminent poets, known as the notable works on language grammar such as
Ashtadiggajas, with Allasani Peddana being the Shabdamanidarpana by Keshiraja.
most notable among them.
• Kannada Literature: He patronized several Quasi-Religious Texts:
Kannada poets, including Mallanarya, Chatu • Torave Ramayana by Narahari and Jaimini
Vittalanatha, and Thimmana. Vyasatirtha, a Bharata by Lakshmisha are significant texts
revered Kannada saint, served as his Rajaguru. inspired by Sanskrit epics but entirely written
• Literary Works: Among his contributions to in Kannada.
Kannada literature is the Krishna Deva Rayana • People’s Poet and Women’s Contributions:
Dinachari. His Telugu masterpiece, o Sarvajna, known for his tripadi
Amuktamalyada, written during his campaign compositions in the 16th century, and
in Vijayawada, narrates an episode from Lord Honnamma, the first notable female
Vishnu's life. poetess in Kannada literature with her
• Sanskrit Contributions: Krishna Deva Raya's work Hadibadeya Dharma, highlight the
literary prowess extended to Sanskrit, where language's inclusive and diverse literary
he penned works such as Madalasa Charita, tradition.
Satyavadu Parinaya, Rasamanjari, and
Jambavati Kalyana. Medieval Literature and the Rise of Persian
• Tamil Poetry: He was a patron to the Tamil
poet Haridasa, further evidencing his support Introduction to Persian in India:
for diverse literary traditions. • Persian, with ancient roots, became prevalent
in India with the arrival of Turks and Mongols
Kannada Literature in the 12th century. It was adopted as the court
Kannada literature, with its deep-rooted Jain language during the Delhi Sultanate and the
influences, showcases a rich tapestry of cultural Mughal era.
and philosophical narratives. One of the earliest Prominent Persian Poets and Works:
Jain-influenced texts in Kannada literature is • Amir Khusrau Dehlavi (12th-13th Century):
Dharmanathapurana by Madhava, detailing the life Known for his Divan, Nuh Sipihr, and Duval
of the 15th Tirthankara. Rani-Khizr Khan.
Foundational Works: Delhi Sultanate's Persian Literature:

Kavirajamarga: Authored by Amoghavarsha I, a • Ziauddin Barani: Authored Tarikh-e-Firoz
Rashtrakuta king in the 9th century, this text is one Shahi.
of the first recorded literary works in Kannada. • Minhaj-i-Siraj: Noted historian of the period.
The Three Gems of Kannada Literature: • Ibn Battuta: Moroccan traveler with accounts
1. Pampa: Dubbed the 'Father of Kannada', of socio-political conditions.
Pampa's notable works include Adipurana and Mughal Period Persian Literature:
Vikramarjuna Vijaya, showcasing his poetic • Baburnama by Babur: Autobiography detailing
genius in the 9th-10th century. the Mughal conquest, originally in Turkish.

• Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri by Jahangir: Autobiography • Faizi: Master of Persian poetry and one of

of Jahangir. Akbar's Navaratnas.
• Humayun-namah by Gulbadan Begum: Life
account of Humayun. Shah Jahan and Aurangzeb's Era:
• Ain-e Akbari and Akbarnama by Abul Fazl: • Shahjahannama by Inayat Khan: Chronicles
Chronicles of Akbar's reign. Shah Jahan’s reign.
• Razmnama: Persian translation of • Kulliyat by Jafar Zatalli: Satirical poetry in
Mahabharata by Badauni. Aurangzeb’s period.
• Hamzanama: Illustrated work depicting the • Padshahnama by Abdul Hamid Lahori: About
story of Amir Hamza. Shah Jahan’s reign.
• Padmavat by Malik Muhammad Jayasi: • Diwan-i-Makhfi by Zeb-un-Nissa: Posthumous
Composed in 1540. compilation of Aurangzeb’s daughter's poetry.

9 Festivals in India
Festival State/Region Significance
Pongal Tamil Nadu Major harvest festival
Makar Sankranti All India Hindu Festival, celebrated when farmers bring
home their harvest
Ganga Sagar Mela West Bengal Most important fair celebrated
Vasanth Panchmi All India Saraswati, Goddess of learning, is worshipped
Gangaur Rajasthan Important local festival dedicated to Gauri, a
manifestation of Parvati
Teppam Tamil Nadu To honor Meenakshi & Sundereshwar (Shiva)
Desert festival Rajasthan Celebrated in Jaisalmer with puppeteers, acrobats,
folk dancers, and camel races
Easter All India Celebration of Christ's resurrection from the dead
Vishu Kerala New Year's Day for Keralites
Nau Roz All India 3,000-year-old Zoroastrian tradition signaling the
start of Spring and the Persian new year
Goru Bihu Assam Cattle festival celebrated on the Hindu New Year's
Day
Naba Barsha Bengal New Year's Day of the Bengalis
Gudi Padva Maharashtra Widely celebrated as Marathi new year
Ugadi Andhra Pradesh, New Year's Day for these states
Telangana, Karnataka
Puthandu Tamil Nadu Celebrated as the Tamil New Year's Day
Cheti Chand All India Sindhi New Year, celebrated in honor of the birth of
Jhulela
Buddha Purnima All India The birth anniversary of Lord Buddha
Baisakhi Punjab, Haryana, western Marks the beginning of the solar New Year and is
Uttar Pradesh usually celebrated on 13 or 14 April
KaragaNaba Karnataka Begins from Dharmaraja temple in Bangalore
Meenakshi Kalyanam Madurai Celebrates the mythical marriage between Siva and
(Chitra Festival) Meenakshi
Dhungri forest festival Manali Celebrated at the Hadimba or Dhungiri temple in
Manali, located in Dhungri van vihar forest
National Festival
Festival Date Description
Independence August India celebrates independence from British rule in 1947. The Prime Minister
Day 15th hoists the flag at the Red Fort in New Delhi, followed by speeches and cultural
events nationwide.
Republic Day January Marks the adoption of the Indian Constitution in 1950. Celebrated with a
26th grand parade in New Delhi showcasing military power, cultural diversity, and
achievements. The President hoists the flag, and the event includes marching
bands, state tableaux, and cultural performances.
Gandhi Jayanti October Commemorates Mahatma Gandhi's birth anniversary. It is a national holiday
2nd with prayer meetings, cultural programs, and cleanliness drives held across
the country to honor his principles of non-violence and truth.

Festivals in North East

Festival Location Description
Bihu Assam One of Assam's most celebrated festivals, Bihu is closely associated with the
Assamese New Year. There are three Bihu festivals celebrated at different
times of the year, each with its own significance and marked by traditional
music, dance, feasting, and cultural performances.
Hornbill Nagaland Held annually in December in Kohima, the Hornbill Festival celebrates
Festival Nagaland's diverse tribal cultures and traditions. It features colorful tribal
dances, indigenous games, crafts, and a display of Naga cuisine, providing a
unique opportunity to experience the rich heritage of Nagaland.
Chapchar Mizoram Celebrated in March, Chapchar Kut marks the clearing of forests for jhum
Kut cultivation. The festival is characterized by traditional dances, music, and
various competitions, offering a glimpse into the vibrant culture of Mizoram.
Hemis Arunachal Celebrated at the Hemis Monastery in Tawang, the Hemis Festival
Festival Pradesh commemorates the birth anniversary of Guru Padmasambhava, the founder
of Tibetan Buddhism. The festival features masked dances, religious rituals,
and colorful processions, offering a unique cultural experience.
Dree Festival Arunachal Celebrated by the Apatani tribe in July, Dree is an agricultural festival
Pradesh dedicated to the gods and goddesses of agriculture. It involves rituals, dance
performances, and offerings to ensure a bountiful harvest, reflecting the
importance of agriculture in the region's culture.
Losar Sikkim Also known as Namsoong or Losoong, Losar is the Tibetan New Year festival
celebrated in Sikkim, especially by the Bhutia community. It is characterized
by colorful celebrations, traditional rituals, and cultural performances,
marking the Sikkimese New Year.
Cheiraoba Manipur The Cheiraoba Festival, also known as Sajibu Cheiraoba or Meetei
Festival Cheiraoba, is celebrated in Manipur to mark the Manipuri New Year. It is
characterized by various rituals, cultural activities, and communal feasting,
offering a glimpse into Manipur's rich cultural heritage.
Saga Dawa Sikkim Celebrated in regions with significant Tibetan Buddhist communities, Saga
Dawa is marked by various religious rituals and cultural performances. It is
an important festival observed by the local Tibetan Buddhist communities,
reflecting the region's strong Tibetan Buddhist cultural influence.
Ambubachi Assam The Ambubachi Mela is a significant annual Hindu religious festival
Mela celebrated at the Kamakhya Temple in Guwahati, Assam. Dedicated to the
goddess Kamakhya, the festival features various religious activities and
rituals, attracting devotees from far and wide.
Sekrenyi Nagaland Celebrated by the Angami Naga tribe in February, Sekrenyi is known for its
Festival rich cultural and traditional significance. The festival typically includes
various rituals and ceremonies, providing a glimpse into the unique
traditions of the Angami Naga tribe.
Boat Racing Manipur Manipur is known for its traditional boat racing festivals, with the Lai
Festival Haraoba festival being one of the most prominent. Teams of rowers
compete in traditional boats, and the event is accompanied by cultural
performances, showcasing the region's rich cultural heritage.
Sangken Arunachal Sangken is the traditional New Year festival of the Theravada Buddhist
Pradesh communities of Arunachal Pradesh, particularly the Khampti tribe.
Celebrated with water festivals and sprinkling of holy water, Sangken
signifies cleansing and purification, reflecting the community's spiritual
beliefs and traditions.

Wangala Meghalaya The Wangala Festival is celebrated by the Garo tribe of Meghalaya to give
thanks for a good harvest. It features traditional dances, drumming, and the
playing of traditional musical instruments, offering a glimpse into the rich
cultural heritage of the Garo tribe.
Ziro Festival Arunachal While not a traditional festival, the Ziro Festival of Music is a significant
of Music Pradesh cultural event showcasing contemporary music and local talent in the
picturesque Ziro Valley. The festival offers a platform for artists to showcase
their talents and promotes cultural exchange and appreciation.
Majuli Assam Majuli Festival is an annual cultural and religious festival celebrated on the
Festival Majuli Island in Assam. The festival typically takes place during the months
of November and December and is known for its vibrant celebrations and
performances, reflecting the island's rich cultural heritage.
Lui-Ngai-Ni Manipur The Lui-Ngai-Ni Festival is a significant cultural festival celebrated by the
Festival Naga tribes in Nagaland and Manipur. It is known for bringing together
various Naga tribes, each with its own distinct culture and traditions, and
serves as a unifying event for the Naga community, showcasing the region's
rich cultural diversity.
Aoling Nagaland The Aoling Festival is celebrated by the Konyak Naga tribe in Nagaland and
Festival across the border in Myanmar. It marks the arrival of spring and the Naga
New Year, and is celebrated with great enthusiasm, featuring various
cultural activities and rituals, offering a glimpse into the rich cultural
heritage of the Konyak Naga tribe.
Nongkrem Meghalaya The Nongkrem Festival, also known as the Nongkrem Dance Festival, is an
Festival annual harvest festival celebrated by the Khasi tribe in Meghalaya. It is
known for its vibrant celebrations and performances, offering a glimpse into
the rich cultural traditions of the Khasi tribe.
Torgya Arunachal The Torgya Festival is an annual religious festival celebrated by the Monpa
Festival Pradesh tribe in Tawang, Arunachal Pradesh. The festival typically takes place in
January, marking the beginning of the Tibetan new year in the Monpa
calendar. It is an important cultural and religious event for the Monpa
community, featuring various rituals and ceremonies.
Chapchar Mizoram The Chapchar Kut festival is an important agricultural festival celebrated by
Kut Festival the Mizo people in Mizoram, as well as by Mizo communities in neighboring
areas of Myanmar and Bangladesh. It is known for its vibrant cultural
celebrations, marking the onset of spring and the preparation for the
upcoming Jhum cultivation season.
Mopin Arunachal The Mopin Festival is a traditional agricultural festival celebrated by the Galo
Festival Pradesh community in Arunachal Pradesh. It is observed to seek the blessings of
deities for a bountiful harvest and to ward off evil spirits. The festival
typically takes place in April, reflecting the community's deep connection to
agriculture and nature.

10 Important Institutions, Symbols and

Miscellaneous
Miscellaneous
Sangeet Natak Akademi • Governance: Operates under the Department
of Higher Education, Union Ministry of
• Function: India's national academy for music, Education.
dance, and drama.
• Establishment: Created in 1953 by a resolution Lalit Kala Akademi
of the Ministry of Education, with P.V. • Inauguration: Established on August 5, 1954,
Rajamannar as its first Chairman. by Maulana Abul Kalam Azad, the then
• Purpose: Dedicated to the preservation and Honourable Minister for Education.
promotion of India's diverse cultural heritage • Statutory Authority: Granted in 1957 under
expressed through music, dance, and drama. the Societies Registration Act 1860.
• Status: Presently operates as an Autonomous • Purpose: Dedicated to promoting the creative
Body under the Ministry of Culture. endeavors of Indian artists and making their art
• Leadership: The Chairman is appointed by the accessible to a wide audience, thereby playing
a crucial role in shaping and reshaping the
President of India for a five-year term.
cultural sensibility related to visual arts.
• Funding: Fully supported by the Government
• Headquarters: Located in New Delhi.
for the implementation of its various schemes
and programmes.
• The Akademi establishes and looks after Indian National Trust for Art and Cultural
institutions and projects of national Heritage (INTACH)
importance in the field of the performing arts. • Type: A non-profit charitable organization.
Few important ones are: • Registration: Registered under the Societies
o National School of Drama, New Delhi Registration Act, 1860.
was set up in 1959 • Founding Year: Established in 1984.
o Jawaharlal Nehru Manipur Dance • Purpose: Dedicated to the conservation of
Academy in Imphal- 1954 India's natural and cultural heritage.
o Kathak Kendra (National Institute of • Recognition: Awarded special consultative
Kathak Dance) in New Delhi- 1964 status with the United Nations Economic and
o National Projects of Support Social Council in 2007.
to Kutiyattam (Sanskrit theatre of
Kerala), Chhau dances of eastern India,
Sattriya traditions of Assam, etc. Sahitya Akademi
• Mandate: India's National Academy of Letters,
Commission for Scientific and Technical dedicated to promoting literature in Indian
Terminology (CSTT) languages.
• Publications: Publishes two bimonthly literary
• Mandate: Responsible for developing standard journals, Indian Literature in English and
technical terminology in all Indian languages. It Samkaleen Bharatiya Sahitya in Hindi.
publishes quarterly journals named 'Vigyan • History: Established by the Government of
Garima Sindhu' and 'Gyan Garima Sindhu'. India in 1952 and formally inaugurated in 1954.
• Background: Established in 1961 by a • Governance: Initially operated under executive
Presidential Order under Article 344 (4) of the order, later registered as a society under the
Constitution of India, which deals with the Indian Societies Registration Act, 1860. It is
Commission and Committee of Parliament on supported by, yet independent of, the Indian
official language. government.

• General Council: Operates for a term of five • Role: The premier organization for
years, meets once a year, and was first archaeological research and protection of
presided over by Prime Minister Jawaharlal India's cultural heritage.
Nehru. • Responsibilities: Administers over 3650
• Headquarters: Located in Delhi. ancient monuments, archaeological sites, and
• Languages Recognized: Recognizes 24 Indian remains of national importance. Activities
languages, including Rajasthani, English, and include surveying antiquarian remains,
the 22 languages listed under the 8th Schedule exploring and excavating archaeological sites,
of the Indian Constitution. and conserving and maintaining protected
monuments.
• Founding: Established in 1861 by Alexander
Archaeological Survey of India (ASI)
Cunningham, the first Director-General of ASI,
• Affiliation: Operates under the Ministry of who is also known as the "Father of Indian
Culture. Archaeology."
National Symbols of India

outlines the proper etiquette for displaying the
National Flag
flag, including its size, material, and occasions
• Design: The National Flag of India, also known for hoisting.
as the Tiranga (meaning "tricolor"), consists of • Flag Hoisting: The national flag is hoisted on
three horizontal stripes of equal width. The top important national events such as Republic
stripe is saffron (Kesari), the middle is white, Day (January 26), Independence Day (August
and the bottom stripe is dark green. In the 15), and Gandhi Jayanti (October 2). It is also
center of the white stripe is a navy blue Ashoka displayed on government buildings and public
Chakra, a 24-spoke wheel. institutions.
• Symbolism: • Manufacturing: The production and
o The saffron color represents courage manufacturing of the Indian national flag are
and sacrifice. strictly regulated. The Bureau of Indian
o The white color stands for truth, peace, Standards (BIS) sets the standards for the flag's
and purity. manufacturing process, and the Khadi
o The green color symbolizes faith, Development and Village Industries
fertility, and the land. Commission is the only licensed body
o The Ashoka Chakra represents the authorized to produce the flag.
eternal wheel of law and dharma • Respect: The flag is a symbol of national pride
(righteousness). and must be treated with respect. There are
• Dimensions: The flag's length-to-width ratio is specific guidelines for the disposal of damaged
3:2. or worn-out flags, which should be done in a
• Adoption: The flag was adopted in its present dignified manner.
form during a meeting of the Constituent • International Presence: The Indian national
Assembly held on July 22, 1947, just a few flag is also flown at Indian diplomatic missions
weeks before India's independence from and international events where India is a
British rule on August 15, 1947. participant, representing the country's
• Designer: The flag was designed by Pingali sovereignty and unity on the global stage.
Venkayya, an Indian freedom fighter and
agriculturist. National Anthem
• Regulations: The use and display of the • Lyrics and Music: The lyrics were written by
national flag are governed by the Flag Code of Nobel laureate Rabindranath Tagore in
India, which was established in 2002. The code Bengali. The anthem is composed in a highly

Sanskritized form of Bengali called Sadhu • Abacus: The circular abacus below the lions is
Bengali. adorned with sculptures of a horse, a bull, an
• Adoption: "Jana Gana Mana" was officially elephant, and a lion, separated by intervening
adopted as the National Anthem of India on wheels (chakras). These animals symbolize
January 24, 1950. different phases of Gautama Buddha's life.
• Duration: The full version of the anthem lasts • Motto: Below the abacus is a scroll with the
approximately 52 seconds, while a shorter motto "Satyameva Jayate" (Truth Alone
version consisting of the first and last lines lasts Triumphs) inscribed in Devanagari script. This
about 20 seconds. phrase is taken from the ancient Indian
• First Performance: The song was first publicly scripture, the Mundaka Upanishad.
sung on December 27, 1911, at the Calcutta • Usage: The National Emblem is used as the
(now Kolkata) session of the Indian National official seal of the President of India, the
Congress. Government of India, and various other Indian
• Official Occasions: "Jana Gana Mana" is played authorities. It is also featured on Indian
or sung on various national and public currency notes, passports, and other official
occasions, including Independence Day, documents.
Republic Day, and other significant • Historical Origin: The original Lion Capital of
government and cultural events. Ashoka was erected by Emperor Ashoka in the
• Regulations: The playing and singing of the 3rd century BCE at Sarnath, near Varanasi,
National Anthem are governed by guidelines Uttar Pradesh. It was discovered in 1904 by
issued by the Government of India to ensure archaeologist Alexander Cunningham.
respect and dignity. • Legal Protection: The use of the National
Emblem is regulated by the State Emblem of
National Song “Vande Mataram” India (Prohibition of Improper Use) Act, 2005,
• Lyrics and Music: The song was composed by to prevent its misuse.
Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay in a mix of
National Calendar
Bengali and Sanskrit, and the music was later
set by Rabindranath Tagore. • India's National Calendar, also known as the
• Origin: "Vande Mataram" was first published Saka Calendar, is based on the Saka Era and is
in Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay's novel used alongside the Gregorian calendar for
"Anandamath" in 1882. official purposes.
• Adoption: It was officially recognized as the • Adoption: The National Calendar was adopted
National Song in 24th Jan, 1950. on March 22, 1957, along with the Gregorian
calendar, for official purposes by the
National Emblem Government of India.
• Adoption: The Government of India adopted • Structure: The Saka Calendar is a lunisolar
the National Emblem on January 26, 1950, the calendar, which means it is based on the
day India became a republic. positions of both the moon and the sun. It
• Design: The emblem features four Asiatic lions consists of 12 months, each with either 30 or
standing back to back, mounted on a circular 31 days.
abacus. Only three lions are visible in the • New Year: The Saka year begins with Chaitra as
emblem, with the fourth one hidden from its first month, and the New Year falls on
view. March 22 in a common year and March 21 in a
• Symbolism: The four lions symbolize power, leap year.
courage, pride, and confidence. They • Months: The months in the Saka Calendar are
represent the four cardinal directions and the Chaitra, Vaishakha, Jyaistha, Asadha,
universal principle of dharma (righteousness).

Shravana, Bhadra, Asvina, Kartika, Agrahayana, been founded by King Salivahana in the 1st
Pausha, Magha, and Phalguna. century CE.
• Usage: The National Calendar is used for
official purposes in India, such as in
government documents, news broadcasts, and
calendars published by the Government of
India.
• Historical Origin: The Saka Era, on which the
National Calendar is based, is believed to have
Other Important Symbols
Category National Symbol Description
National Bengal Tiger (Panthera Symbolizes strength, agility, and grace. Chosen as the national
Animal tigris tigris) animal in 1973 to raise awareness for tiger conservation.
National Ganges River Dolphin Represents the purity and vitality of the Ganges River.
Aquatic Animal (Platanista gangetica) Declared the national aquatic animal in 2009 to highlight the
need for conservation of the species and its habitat.
National Fruit Mango (Mangifera Known for its rich taste and cultural significance in India.
indica) Chosen due to its widespread cultivation and popularity across
the country.
National Tree Indian Banyan (Ficus Symbolizes immortality and represents the unity of India. The
benghalensis) choice reflects its importance in Hindu mythology and its
ability to support a diverse ecosystem.
National Bird Indian Peafowl (Pavo Known for its vibrant plumage and courtship display. Selected
cristatus) as the national bird in 1963 for its rich religious and cultural
associations in Indian traditions.
National Fruit Mango (Mangifera As mentioned earlier, the mango is celebrated for its flavor and
(Repeated) indica) cultural significance, making it an apt choice as India's national
fruit.
In News
Gifts from the Prime Minister to Greece's • Practitioners: Traditionally practiced by the
President and Prime Minister Gadwas, Gonds, and Dhurwas tribes using the
lost wax technique or hollow casting.
Meghalaya Shawl: • Name Origin: Named after the 'Dhokar
• Origin: Woven for Khasi and Jaintia royalty in Damar,' a nomadic Indian tribe.
Meghalaya, symbolizing power and status. • Themes: Commonly features figurines of
• Significance: Worn during ceremonial Hindu gods, goddesses, and various animals.
occasions and festivals, reflecting the royal • Technique: Non-ferrous metal casting using
family's wealth and prestige. the lost-wax casting technique, with a history
• Designs: Highly symbolic, featuring animal of over 4,000 years in India.
motifs (tigers, elephants) for power and
strength, and floral patterns for beauty and Telangana Bidri Art Vases:
grace. • Origin: Originated in the 14th century in Bidar,
• Craftsmanship: Handwoven by women using Karnataka.
traditional techniques, locally sourced wool, • Centers: Vibrant centers in Bidar, Karnataka,
and natural dyes. and Hyderabad, Telangana.
Chhattisgarh's Dhokra Art: • Recognition: Awarded prestigious GI Status for
• Historical Context: One of the earliest its unique craftsmanship.
expressions found in Mohenjo-Daro and • Technique: Involves preparing a new mold for
Harappan excavations. casting an alloy of zinc and copper, sketching

motifs, etching with a chisel and hammer, and • Style: His works are known for their clarity,
inlaying with silver wire. sharpness, and use of the Upanishadic
• Aesthetic: Known for the contrast of shining question-and-answer format.
silver against black metal, unique to Bidri art.
• Top of Form
'Vaishali' Festival of Democracy:
• Organizer: Indian Council for Cultural Relations
Statue of Oneness (Ekatmata ki Murti) -
(ICCR).
Overview:
• Location: Nalanda University, Bihar.
• Location: Unveiled on the Mandhata hillock at • Context: Part of the side events of the G-20
Omkareshwar in Madhya Pradesh. Summit, organized by the Union Culture
• Height: 108 feet tall. Ministry.
• Depiction: Represents Adi Shankaracharya, an • Purpose: Aimed at highlighting India's
8th-century Indian philosopher and democratic ethos, the festival celebrates the
theologian. historical and cultural significance of Vaishali
• Purpose: Part of the Ekatma Dham project by as the birthplace of democracy.
the Madhya Pradesh government, aimed at Ancient City of Vaishali:
developing a major destination for spiritual- • Significance: A major Buddhist pilgrimage site
religious tourism. and the birthplace of Lord Mahavira, the last
Adi Shankaracharya and Advaita Vedanta: Tirthankar of Jainism.
• Life: Lived from 788–820 CE, born in Kaladi, • Historical Events: Buddha's last sermon and
Kerala, and died in Kedarnath. announcement of Nirvana took place here. The
• Philosophy: Established the Advaita Vedanta Second Buddhist Council was held after
School of Hindu philosophy, emphasizing the Buddha's death.
unity of the individual soul and the supreme • Legacy: Believed to be the world's first
soul (Brahman). republic.
• Teachings: Advocated for the importance of Gana or Sangha - The Ancient Democratic System:
reasoning (pramana) and intuitive experience • Structure: A form of government in the
(anubhava) in gaining spiritual knowledge. Magadha empire with multiple rulers (rajas)
• Inclusivity: Stressed that anyone can attain who performed rituals and made decisions
Supreme Consciousness through scripture collectively through discussion and debate.
study, meditation, fasting, and worship. • Exclusions: Women, dasas, and kammakaras
• Legacy: Revived Hinduism and established four were not allowed to participate in assemblies.
ashrams/mathas in Sringeri, Dwaraka, Puri, • Notable Figures: Both Buddha and Mahavira
and Joshimatha for its survival and belonged to ganas or sanghas.
regeneration. • Decline: Annexed by Ajatshatru, the great
Magadh King, in the 5th century BC, leading to
Works of Adi Shankaracharya: a gradual loss of glory and power.
• Hymns: Composed 72 devotional and • UNESCO Recognition: The ruins of Nalanda
meditative hymns like Soundarya Lahari, Mahavihara are declared a World Heritage
Sivananda Lahari, and Nirvana Shatkam. Site.
• Commentaries: Wrote 18 commentaries on
major scriptural texts including the Brahma Nalanda University:
Sutras, the Bhagavad Gita, and 12 major • Timeline: A center of higher learning from the
Upanishads. 5th to the 12th century CE.
• Philosophical Texts: Authored 23 books on • Location: Present-day Rajgir, Bihar.
Advaita Vedanta philosophy, such as Viveka • Curriculum: Covered a wide range of subjects
Chudamani, Atma Bodha, and Upadesa including the Vedas, fine arts, medicine,
Sahasri. mathematics, astronomy, politics, and
warfare.

• International Recognition: Attracted scholars • Post-Independence Role: Became the seat of

from around the world, with notable Chinese the Constituent Assembly of India after British
scholars I-Qing and Xuan Zang visiting in the withdrawal, and later, the Indian Parliament
7th century CE. after the Constitution came into force on 26
• Methodology: Emphasized debate and January 1950.
discussions, with up to one hundred discourses • Tenure: Served as the venue for the Lok Sabha
happening daily. and the Rajya Sabha, the lower and upper
• Notable Faculty: Xuan Zang studied houses of India's bicameral parliament, for 73
yogashastra under Shilabhadra, the Chancellor years.
of Nalanda, who was the highest living
Konark Sun Temple
authority in yoga at the time.
• Deity: Dedicated to the Hindu Sun God, Surya.
Chausath Yogini Temple UPSC (2021) • Location: Konark, approximately 35 kilometers
northeast of Puri city, Odisha.
• Location: Mitaoli village, Morena district, • Construction: Built around 1250 CE during the
Madhya Pradesh. reign of King Narasimhadeva I of the Eastern
• Historical Significance: Believed to have Ganga dynasty.
inspired the design of the Old Indian • UNESCO Status: Declared a World Heritage
Parliament building. Site in 1984.
• Construction: Built by King Devpala of the • Cultural Importance: A major pilgrimage site,
Kachchhapaghata dynasty. especially during the Chandrabhaga Mela in
• Purpose: Served as a venue for education in February.
astrology and mathematics based on the Sun's • Historical Nickname: Known as the "Black
transit. Pagoda" by European sailors due to its dark
• Recognition: Declared an ancient and appearance.
historical monument by the Archaeological • Konark Wheel - Architectural Significance:
Survey of India. • Design: The temple is shaped like a giant
• Alternate Name: Also known as Ekattarso chariot with 7 horses and 12 pairs (24 total) of
Mahadeva Temple due to the presence of intricately decorated wheels.
numerous Shiva lingas. • Dimensions: Each wheel is 9 feet 9 inches in
• Architecture: Circular structure with 64 diameter, with 8 wider and 8 thinner spokes.
chambers dedicated to 64 yoginis and a central • Placement: 6 wheels on each side of the main
shrine for Shiva. temple, 4 on each side of the Mukhasala, and
• Rainwater Management: Features slab 2 on each side of the eastern steps.
coverings with perforations in the central
shrine to drain rainwater to an underground Symbolism of the Konark Wheel:
storage. • Interpretations: The wheels are thought to
• Durability: The temple's design has withstood represent various concepts:
earthquake shocks without damage to its • The 7 horses symbolize the days of the week.
circular structure over several centuries. • The 12 pairs of wheels symbolize the 12
months of the year.
History of the Old Parliament House: • The 24 wheels represent the 24 hours of a day.
• Design: Created by British architects Edwin • The 8 major spokes of each wheel signify the 8
Lutyens and Herbert Baker. prahars (three-hour periods) of a day.
• Construction Period: 1921 to 1927. • Some see the wheels as the 'Wheel of Life,'
• Inauguration: Opened in January 1927 by depicting the cycle of creation, preservation,
Viceroy Lord Irwin as the seat of the Imperial and realization.
Legislative Council. • The wheels may also represent the 12 zodiac
• Historical Events: Hosted the third session of signs.
the Central Legislative Assembly on 19 January
1927.

• Others believe the Konark Wheel is akin to the Lambani Community

Dharmachakra or the Wheel of Karma in • Origins: Initially nomadic tribes from
Buddhism. Afghanistan, they migrated to Rajasthan and
• Sundial Function: The spokes of the wheels eventually spread across Karnataka and other
can be used as a sundial to determine the parts of India.
approximate time of day. • Historical Role: Assisted Mughal Emperor
Aurangzeb in the 17th century to transport
Features and goods to southern India.
Carvings of the • British Era: Movement restricted by the
Konark Wheel: Criminal Tribe Act of 1871.
• Unique Carvings: • Language: Known as "Gorboli," "Gor mati
Each of the 24 Boli," or "Brinjari," an independent dialect
wheels has under the Indo-Aryan language category.
distinct carvings, • Regional Names: Referred to as Lambada or
with circular Lambadi (Sukali) in Andhra Pradesh, Lambani
medallions at the center of the thicker spokes. in Karnataka, and Gwar or Gwaraiya in
• Axels: Project about one foot from the surface, Rajasthan.
with similar decorations at their ends.
Indian Council for Cultural Relations (ICCR)
• Rims and Spokes: Rims feature carvings of
foliage, birds, and animals, while medallions in • Founding Year: Established in 1950.
the spokes depict women in various luxurious, • Founder: Maulana Abul Kalam Azad, India's
often sensual, poses. first Education Minister.
Lambani Art • Affiliation: An autonomous body under the
Ministry of External Affairs.
• Recognition: Achieved a Guinness world Objectives:
record for the 'largest display of Lambani Art • Participate in formulating policies related to
items' during the 3rd G20 Culture Working India's external cultural relations.
Group (CWG) meeting in Hampi, Karnataka. • Foster and strengthen cultural relations and
• Origin: Practised by the Lambani community, mutual understanding between India and
also known as the Banjara community, in other countries.
Karnataka.
• Features: Known for its vibrant and intricate
embroidery, including colorful threads, mirror
work, and diverse stitch patterns.
• Products: Encompasses clothing, textiles,
accessories, home decor items, and jewellery.
• Geographic Indication (GI) Tag: Received in
2010 from Karnataka.
• Technique: Involves stitching together small
pieces of discarded fabric to create beautiful
textiles.
• Centers: Practised in several villages of
Karnataka, including Sandur, Keri Tanda,
Mariyammanahalli, Kadirampur, Sitaram
Tanda, Bijapur, and Kamalapur.
• Cultural Significance: Serves as a vital source
of livelihood and economic empowerment for
the skilled women of the Lambani community.

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SARAANSH

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1 SARAANSH – Indian Art and Culture for UPSC Prelims 2024

Chapter Chapter name Page

SARAANSH – Indian Art and Culture for UPSC Prelims 2024 2

1 Indian Art and Architecture

Harrapan Architecture Citadel and Public Buildings

3 SARAANSH – Indian Art and Culture for UPSC Prelims 2024

• Wells and Bathrooms: Buildings often had • Examples: UPSC (2013)

SARAANSH – Indian Art and Culture for UPSC Prelims 2024 4

Textiles • Mand (Jammu and Kashmir, India): The

iconic sculptures like the Dancing Girl and

• Lothal (Gujarat, India): An important trade

5 SARAANSH – Indian Art and Culture for UPSC Prelims 2024

National Emblem Details

SARAANSH – Indian Art and Culture for UPSC Prelims 2024 6

Cave Architecture Pottery

7 SARAANSH – Indian Art and Culture for UPSC Prelims 2024

• Architectural Innovation: Introduction of

Feature Gandhara School Mathura School Amaravati School

SARAANSH – Indian Art and Culture for UPSC Prelims 2024 8

Gupta Age • Cultural Influence: Crafted by guilds from

9 SARAANSH – Indian Art and Culture for UPSC Prelims 2024

Junagadh Caves • Notable Sculptures: Varaha (Boar incarnation

SARAANSH – Indian Art and Culture for UPSC Prelims 2024 10

10 Aihole Inscription Aihole, Chronicles Chalukyas’ history, defeat of Harshavardhana by

11 SARAANSH – Indian Art and Culture for UPSC Prelims 2024

• Phamsana: Broader base, shorter than Latina,

SARAANSH – Indian Art and Culture for UPSC Prelims 2024 12

Temple Architecture in South India

Group Stage Description Examples

13 SARAANSH – Indian Art and Culture for UPSC Prelims 2024

Brihadeeswara Temple at Thanjavur

SARAANSH – Indian Art and Culture for UPSC Prelims 2024 14

• Influences: A synthesis of Chola, Hoysalas,

Lotus Mahal, Hampi

Extended knowledge by Civils Front

15 SARAANSH – Indian Art and Culture for UPSC Prelims 2024

Hoysala Art The Pala and Sena School of Architecture,

SARAANSH – Indian Art and Culture for UPSC Prelims 2024 16

• Sculpture Material: Employed both stone and o Examples: Siddhesvara Mahadeva

Architecture during Medieval India • Mortar: Utilization of mortar as a binding

17 SARAANSH – Indian Art and Culture for UPSC Prelims 2024

SARAANSH – Indian Art and Culture for UPSC Prelims 2024 18

19 SARAANSH – Indian Art and Culture for UPSC Prelims 2024

• Akbar’s Tomb in Sikandra: Oversaw its

SARAANSH – Indian Art and Culture for UPSC Prelims 2024 20

influences, characterized by unique elements and • Temples at Awantipora: Avantiswami (Vishnu)

European Architectural Influence in India

Influence Style & Urban Planning Notable Constructions & Examples

21 SARAANSH – Indian Art and Culture for UPSC Prelims 2024

Basilica of Bom Jesus, Goa: World

Major Sun Temples in India

SARAANSH – Indian Art and Culture for UPSC Prelims 2024 22

23 SARAANSH – Indian Art and Culture for UPSC Prelims 2024

each female figure depicted with a unique Armamalai Cave Paintings

SARAANSH – Indian Art and Culture for UPSC Prelims 2024 24