Building capacity: challenges and opportunities in large class pedagogy (LCP) in Sub-

Saharan Africa
Author(s): Alan R. Foley and Joanna O. Masingila
Source: Higher Education, Vol. 67, No. 6, Special Issue: Large Class Pedagogy: Opportunities
and Challenges of Massification (June 2014), pp. 797-808
Published by: Springer
Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/43648691
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High Educ (2014) 67:797-808
DOI 10.1 007/s 1 0734-0 1 3-9697-6

Building capacity: challenges and opportunities in large

class pedagogy (LCP) in Sub-Saharan Africa

Alan R. Foley * Joanna O. Masingila

Published online: 26 November 2013

© Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2013

Abstract Over the past 20 years most countries, particularly developing countries, have
seen a large increase in the number of students seeking higher education. A consequence of
this growth is increasing pressure on teaching staff and institutions, usually resulting in,
among other effects, increased class size. Large classes of between 300 and 1 ,000, and
even more, at the undergraduate level are not uncommon in a number of countries
(Mulryan-Kyne in Teach High Educ 15(2): 175-185, 2010). Large classes are often per-
ceived as one of the major obstacles to the attainment of quality education. Despite the
difficulties associated with teaching and learning in large classes, they remain a reality in
many countries affecting learners across all levels of the education system and are often the
only perceived option available to meet growing demand for higher education in Sub-
Saharan Africa (Mohamedbhai in The effects of massification on higher education in
Africa. Report from the Working Group on Higher Education of the Association for the
Development of Education in Africa, 2008). We contend that the challenges of delivering
large classes can be confronted, and in many ways diminished, through the use of current
and emerging technologies and enhanced faculty development. In this expository paper, we
present findings from project activities focused on higher education faculty development
and capacity building. The findings include both formative and summative development
activities, as well as data collected in faculty professional development workshops and the
results of two surveys. We use these data to lay out issues, challenges (e.g., skills,
resources, logistics - including poor campus infrastructure), and opportunities (e.g., mobile
capacity, distance tools such as Moodle ) of large class pedagogy using a design-based
research framework.

Keywords Large class pedagogy • Technology • Design-based research • Mobile

learning • Universal design for learning • Learning management systems

A. R. Foley (El)
Syracuse University, 330 Huntington Hall, Syracuse, NY 13244, USA
e-mail: [email protected]

J. O. Masingila
Syracuse University, 150 Huntington Hall, Syracuse, NY 13244, USA

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 798 High Educ (2014) 67:797-808

Introduction

Over the past 20 years most countries, particularly developing countries, have seen a large
increase in the number of students seeking higher education. This phenomenon has been
called the massification of higher education and has occurred globally (Mohamedbhai
2008). A consequence of this growth is increasing pressure on teaching staff and institu-
tions, usually resulting in, among other effects, increased class size. Large classes of
between 300 and 1 ,000, and even more, at the undergraduate level are not uncommon in a
number of countries (Mulryan-Kyne 2010).
Large classes are often perceived as one of the major obstacles to the attainment of
quality education. Biggs (1999) observed that the practical problems faced by students and
instructors increase and change in nature as class size increases. Researchers have found
that student motivation, perceived learning and teacher sensitivity are factors commonly
affected by large classes. Large classes inhibit students' opportunities to receive feedback
and interaction with other students and teachers. Carbone and Greenberg (1998) found a
general dissatisfaction among students related to large classes. Despite the difficulties
associated with teaching and learning in large classes, they remain a reality in many
countries, affecting learners across all levels of the education system and are often the only
perceived option available to meet growing demand for higher education in Sub-Saharan
Africa (SSA) (Mohamedbhai 2008).
The notion of large classes is often paradoxical in the context of a networked world
where globalization is changing the nature of international commerce - a phenomenon
often referred to using Thomas Friedman's (2007) term "flat world." The paradox is that
the reasons that make sense for large classes in the immediate African context are at odds
with an increasingly global job market. This is an industrial model of instruction that is
possibly already obsolete in the world economy, and this raises questions such as: Does
large class pedagogy de-emphasize critical thinking and problem solving that are advo-
cated in models of twentyfirst century skills, and what is the trade-off between the quantity
of students served in large class contexts versus the quality of education they receive? At a
curricular level, are there points where large classes make more sense than others? In the
United States' model of higher education, large classes are typically lower-level under-
graduate courses; general education classes and more advanced classes tend to be smaller,
providing opportunities for more engaged models of learning.
Another paradox is that while developing and delivering large classes offers access to
education to more students (and more revenue potentially to universities), the practice risks
de-professionalizing faculty members. There is tremendous potential to erode faculty
members' autonomy and job security, as well as contribute to the narrowing of the cur-
riculum - especially by limiting instruction as constrained by technology and reinforcing
particular pedagogic methods that reflect certain understandings of learning (Foley 2003).
This echoes earlier critiques and concerns of distance education. Consider that courses are
developed by tenure-track faculty members only to be delivered routinely by adjunct
instructors or part-time instructors in a gradual process of standardization and deskilling.
When the content of the curriculum is constructed independent of the instructor, its content
and perspective are easier to control and more reliably delivered to students. At the same
time, a standardized curriculum makes fewer demands intellectually on the professor.
Hence, the university may employ less qualified, and subsequently, less expensive faculty
members to teach more students. Hornsby and Osman (2012, personal communication)
note:

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 High Educ (2014) 67:797-808 799

Nevertheless, there is increasing pr

dents as possible in tertiary educa
tertiary education, health, empowe
2005; OECD 2008:4; World Bank 20
education can lead to both private an
are seen in the rise in employment p
money. This leads to improving prod
better health and longer life expecta

We contend that the paradoxes of

many ways diminished, through th
enhanced faculty development. In thi
activities focused on higher educati
findings include both formative an
collected in faculty professional dev
sity, near Nairobi, Kenya, in October
one of Kenyatta University faculty
the context of our work and our use o
challenges and opportunities in large
out issues, challenges (e.g., skills, r
structure), and opportunities (e.g., m
tools such as Moodle ) of large class

Context

The Schools of Education at Kenyatta University and Syracuse University, in Syracuse,

New York, USA, have had an institutional linkage since 2000 and have collaborated in a
number of areas since that time, including providing professional development to teachers
in a rural area in Kenya, co-hosting an international conference on education every 2 years
starting in 2009, and having around 20 graduates of Kenyatta University pursue graduate
studies at Syracuse University. In 201 1, the two universities were awarded a partnership
grant funded by the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) through
the Africa - US Higher Education Initiative. The USAID-funded Kenyatta University-
Syracuse University (KUSU) partnership is focused on building capacity in teacher edu-
cation through professional development for faculty members, program and curricula
review and revision, and collaborating with educational stakeholders to improve teacher
preparation and development.
One of our first partnership activities was to conduct a survey of all of the Department
of Educational Communication and Technology faculty members at Kenyatta University to
gain baseline data on a variety of teaching and learning issues; included among these issues
were class size, supporting all learners, and integrating technology into teaching. Twenty-
one faculty members completed the survey. The respondents identified large classes as one
of the top two concerns related to teaching the teacher education courses; the other top
concern was the need to review and revise course curricula. All but one ( ~ 95 %) of the
respondents reported that classes are too large while all but two (~90 %) noted that
tutorials are too large. Tutorials are discussion groups that are smaller than the lecture that
meet once a week; each student is assigned to a tutorial for the course. Due to the faculty
members' responses on this issue, we chose to address teaching and learning in large

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 800 High Educ (2014) 67:797-808

classes for our first workshop spon

versity partnership.

Design-based research framework

Because the KUSU partnership is f

professional development, program
we employed an approach based on
systematic study of designing, dev
educational research, DBR is an emp
with goals and objectives, testing the
intervention (Cobb et al. 2003).
Design-based research not only foc
most traditional research does, but
istics of such intervention as well as
et al. 2007). Such a shift in resear
(Design-Based Research Collective
practice. The DBR process is compr
in Fig. 1.
A DBR project seeks to understand how an intervention operates in an authentic situ-
ation through a process of problem identification, theory development, intervention design,
iterative implementation and coordination with participants, feedback, revision, evaluation
and reflection. DBR narrows the gap between education research and actual practice by
conducting research in situ, where hypotheses and interventions are observed and data
collected in a situated environment, rather than in a laboratory setting. The benefit of this
practice is to advance the external validity and authenticity of what works in an envi-
ronment where research controls are difficult and transfer to practice (Walker 2006).
Design-based studies are interactive, iterative and flexible. They require interactive
collaboration among developers, users, and practitioners, and without such collaboration,
interventions are unlikely to affect changes in the real-world context (van den Akker 1999;
Wang and Hannafin 2005). Design studies are often time-consuming because designs and
interventions tend to be continuously developed and refined through an iterative design
process from analysis to design to evaluation and redesign. However, the ongoing,
recursive nature of the design process also allows greater flexibility than do traditional
development approaches. The design, development and implementation of KUSU project
innovations was conducted using a DBR framework comprised of interrelated and iterative
phases involving faculty, staff, and students from both institutions.
In this project, observational and survey results were used to develop a series of faculty
development workshops focusing on topics related to the use of technology in instruction
with an emphasis on LCP. Baseline measures of faculty skills and interested were used to

Analysis of practical i Development of solutions . e ® , r " . ļ Reflection to produce

problems by researchers L'j informed by existing ř.j- . j * . e ref, ® nemem , "f° solutions r " _>• i "design principles" & ¡
problems & practitioners by ,n L'j design principles by existing & ^ ř.j- . j * . ref, nemem » p act o ce. solutions _>• "design enhvanc< principles" so|ution
collaboration ! technological innovations » p act ce. ^ implementation

Iterative process to refine problems, solutions, methods & design principles - '

Fig. 1 The design-based research process (adapted from Amiel and Reeves 2008)

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 High Educ (2014) 67:797-808 801

identify instructional topics and de

round of workshops, and consultat
sequent workshops focused on te
technology in teaching (see Fig. 2)
Training sessions engaged partic
explorations. Some sessions involve
educators in thinking carefully abo
supporting prospective teachers in
nology in instruction was the topi
different apps and functions of ta
porting these teachers teaching of
using the University Design fram
students, and creating accessible m
and techniques for using learning
session.

Other sessions involved technology in scholarship. One session engaged faculty

members in developing a web presence through creating profiles in Google Scholar and
Academia.edu in order to create an online identity and connect with scholars across the
world in areas of interest. Another session was about designing effective presentations. We
also had some sessions on basic technology, such as assistance with any email, word
processing, or navigation questions.

Challenges and opportunities in large class pedagogy

In this section, we discuss issues impacting large class teaching identified in survey and
workshops with faculty. Our understanding of both the challenges facing faculty teaching
large classes and also the opportunities to build and enhance these classes evolved over the
course of multiple iterations of workshops, observations, and evaluation.

Collecting data to inform planning

Large class pedagogy consists of instructional approaches used by instructors to teach

classes with many students; in public universities in SSA this often means classes with
400-1,000 students. In October 201 1, we had a workshop at Kenyatta University to look at
the issues and challenges associated with large classes. Faculty members raised a number
of issues:

• Is it possible to support students in developing teaching skills in large classes?

Fig. 2 DBR flow for capacity building with KU faculty members

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 802 High Educ (2014) 67:797-808

• Will resources, such as technology

• Can an instructor mark (grade) all o
deadline when marks are due?
• How can an instructor give students feedback in a timely manner, both while teaching
and after marking?
• How can an instructor monitor student attendance and understanding during a lesson?
• How can learner dissatisfaction be minimized in large classes?
• How can cheating be minimized during exams?

These issues point to the challenges faced by instructors in wanting to teach effectively
and reach all students.

Workshop participants also discussed issues and challenges related to students and their
learning needs in large classes. These issues included that (a) students may feel emo-
tionally distant from the instructor and course content, that they can hide in a large class,
and that their needs may not be met, leading to frustration; (b) below and above average
students may be left out as lecturers may tend to focus on the average learner; (c) there may
be inadequate availability and access to resources; (d) there may be inadequate exposure to
hands-on experiences; and (e) there may be a lack of feedback from the instructor. These
indicate the difficulties that students may face in large classes and point to the challenge of
providing a conducive learning environment in this situation.
These are all valid issues and challenges that faculty members must consider and have
strategies for coping with them. In the same workshop, Kenyatta University faculty
members proposed a number of possible strategies, including (a) engaging students
actively in class through an interactive lecture combined with some group discussion;
(b) use a learning management system, such as Moodle , to give students some content prior
to class, (c) agree with the class on instructor and student responsibilities, (d) assign
students to share information in class, and (e) divide the class into project groups and give
assignments for the groups. In general, the strategies proposed the instructor working
together with the students to create a learning environment that engages students and keeps
them involved in learning.
These proposed strategies may have implications for changes in the classroom culture,
the amount and nature of content covered in a course, and/or the preparation of instructors.
For example, the strategy of engaging students actively in class through an interactive
lecture combined with some group discussion may mean that the classroom norm of the
instructor lecturing and students copying notes that is often found in SSA universities will
need to change. Coinciding with this change may be a change in the amount of content and
the focus of content included in a course. Frequently engaging students in group discus-
sions may mean that some content will be covered in more depth than through lecturing
only, and the breadth of the content covered in a course may be reduced. These are the
pedagogical trade-offs that instructors must decide on, balancing quality and depth of
learning against coverage of course content. Being able to meaningfully engage students
actively in discussing conceptual ideas may also require support and training for faculty
members. Pedagogical moves such as preparing and engaging students in discussions are
quite different in nature from preparing and delivering lectures. Faculty members will
likely find it difficult to teach in a manner different from how they were taught without
support and professional development.
Regarding strategies for students to use in coping with the challenges of large classes,
the faculty members recommended that students (a) maximize use of available resources;
(b) learn to share resources among classmates; (c) take more responsibility for their

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 High Educ (2014) 67:797-808 803

learning; (d) form study groups; (e)

and (0 apply learning styles approp
participatory learning). Instructors
strategies for them to be effective.
The faculty members also generated
(a) have a student desk where stude
departmental website where course
master's students to monitor during
to schedule the exams during the se
university.
As an outcome of the workshop, participants recommended, in a policy brief to the
university central administration, that (a) more faculty members should be hired;
(b) existing lecture halls be equipped with LCD projectors and multiple screens so that all
learners can see visual displays, and Internet connectivity should be upgraded; and
(c) faculty members should have ongoing opportunities for professional development to
build capacity in integrating technology and developing effective pedagogical approaches,
such as incorporating polls (clickers) or small group discussions as part of interactive
lectures for teaching large classes. These important recommendations will take commit-
ments in these areas from the university in order to be actualized.
As part of our partnership project we wanted to learn if instructors in other universities
in SSA were also trying to cope with large classes, and if so, what strategies they were
using. Thus, as one of our project activities, we surveyed universities in SSA regarding
class size and strategies for teaching large classes. Using the Internet, we developed a list
of universities that fit our criteria and searched for email addresses of deans of Schools of
Education, or academic administrators if we were not able to find the email address of a
dean of a School of Education. We amassed a list of 70 people and sent them a link in
October 201 1 to our survey that was available on SurveyMonkey™.
The survey asked six questions: (1) what type of college or university is the institution
(public or private), (2) how many undergraduate students are enrolled at the institution
(<5,000; between 5,000 and 10,000; between 10,000 and 20,000; between 20,000 and
30,000; more than 30,000), (3) what is the average class size in undergraduate courses
(<50; between 50 and 100; between 100 and 300; between 300 and 500; more than 500),
(4) does the institution have any undergraduate courses that have more than 200 students
(yes or no), (5) what strategies do faculty members use to teach large classes effectively,
and (6) if the respondent knows of faculty members at the institution who are able to teach
large classes effectively would the respondent be willing to give an email address for us to
follow up.
We received 10 responses to our survey, from one private and nine public institutions.
We speculate that unreliable or slow Internet access and perhaps our message going to
email accounts that are not checked regularly contributed to a response rate of ~ 14 %.
Three of the schools enroll more than 30,000 students, while two enroll between 20,000
and 30,000, two enroll between 10,000 and 20,000, and three enroll <5,000 students. Four
schools reported that their average undergraduate class size is between 300 and 500 stu-
dents, one school reported between 100 and 300, four schools reported between 50 and
100, and one school reported an average class size of <50 students. We found that large
classes were taught primarily through lectures, which were sometimes conducted via radio
and other times by use of public address systems in large halls.
Respondents listed a variety of teaching strategies - some that had already been gen-
erated in the Kenyatta University workshop, and others, such as using (a) supplementary

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 804 High Educ (2014) 67:797-808

teaching/learning materials; (b) coll

support; (e) clickers; (0 postgraduate
engagement; (h) multimedia; and (i)
of options. Faculty members at Ke
strategies they want to work on im
may involve changes in the classroom
support and training for instructors.
We could envision collaborative te
Kenyatta University often has sever
cationcourse or a methods and curric
the teaching, taking turns for diff
different way of looking at the act o
students.
Clickers or polls that can be comple
www.polleverywhere.com) can be w
example, an instructor can prepare q
messages that allows the instructor
students about some topic, or the
concept. The instructor can then use
The strategy of having parallel activ
would require a different type of plann
to use this strategy for a particular
l
all students, the instructor would p
small group discussion, preparing a le
which students would choose. While students work on these activities in class, the
instructor would walk amongst the students, facilitating small group discussions, asking
questions of students to prompt their thinking, and assessing the learning that is occurring.
These strategies are the type of professional development activities that faculty members
will need in order to be prepared to use these instructional approaches, as well as support in
engaging all learners so that learners below and above the average are actively engaged,
along with average learners, which lecturers tend to aim toward.

Accessing resources and enhanced infrastructure

Leveraging technology to facilitate LCP requires instructors comfortable with technology

and infrastructure to support the integration of technology into their teaching practice.
Physical spaces used for LCP require permanent and reliable infrastructure such as Internet
access, projectors), and audio amplification. Instructors using these spaces need to be
trained on the use and troubleshooting of these spaces and need to be able to rely on
consistent and easily accessed technology support in case something is not working
properly.
The use of technology to facilitate LCP is also dependent on campus technology
infrastructure. Infrastructure can include everything from the campuses connection to the
Internet, the local area network or (LAN), services such as email, and a course manage-
ment system, such as Moodle. Campus infrastructure presents a fairly easily fixed problem;
however, it is one with some cost. We believe it is possible and probably beneficial for
tertiary institutions in Africa to leapfrog universities in Western countries by not creating
large, complex wired networks and instead focus on developing wireless and mobile
capacity on their campuses.

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High Educ (2014) 67:797-808 805

During professional development wo

accessing the Internet via mobile da
trying to use the campus wired netw
and connect it to the campus network
Another issue we encountered while
a ready supply of spare parts and p
sustained technology use is a stockp
from broken computers or outmode
computer speakers are a commodity
computer is replaced the speakers a
comes with a new computer.
The challenge we observed at Kenyat
technology logistics. In this sense,
zational systems that make the tech
Many of these technology logistics
checking in and checking out equip
are important if an institution is
infrastructure. Instructors need to b
available when they enter a classro
mechanism for getting assistance w
We observed an interesting distinct
communicated with each other com
text message versus email. KU facu
messages to communicate instead
meetings are organized and send out
communication, s and valuable in the
can be used to support LCP (namely
drawbacks as an academic and admi
still interact with students in fairly
Given the numbers of students to fa
Texting does not provide some of th
cedures of email use that have evo
universities, email is essentially a do
record of communication. Email sen
considered as official as paper docum
institutional record - notes of conve
dents, and administrative tools for
based services, like Gmail, allow use
bution lists and LISTSERVs are easy
agement systems offer integrated cl
While in many ways the use of SM
sophisticated use of mobile technology
well as a LCP practice. As a means of
could potentially be a viable broadcast
however, the cost and logistics (SMS c
would be significant. There are tools
additional material and personnel suppo
with had email accounts both through
Gmail. These services essentially prov

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 806 High Educ (2014) 67:797-808

use of SMS by university faculty, and

faculty and students at Kenyatta Univ

Utilizing growing mobile capacity t

The use of mobile technology provi

classes by providing alternative mech
While campus infrastructure is be
immediate stopgap solution by tapp
facilitate, enhance, and extend teach
Globally, mobile network covers mo
2010). Approximately half of Africa
grid (Zachary 2009), yet the number
1 1 % of the world total). In Keny
Internet usage is via mobile network
million users were using mobile da
19.2 % from the same period in 20
Additionally, the number of Inter
from 201 1. There are roughly 43 mi
million mobile phones being used b
As a teaching tool, mobile devices c
current infrastructure might not pr
infrastructure, instructors can hav
Increasingly, sophisticated android
presentation devices, running speci
One way mobile can be used in LCP
An increasingly popular technique
Student Response Systems (SRS). Th
Sawada 2002) that allows instruct
comprehension, ask questions, and e
systems have been proprietary and
students must purchase or rent inp
large class instructors to engage stu
Everywhere (http://www.polleveryw
As mobile technology matures and
software itself is changing. Whole in
where sophisticated but easy to use
contrast to the model for desktop ap
fits-all approach, mobile apps are sm
or a small list of tightly related thin

Using universal design for learning

One of the areas KU faculty members

program development through the US
of technology in large class pedagogy
versal design for learning (UDL), of
effectively teach all learners. Univers
nor does the use of technology itself

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 High Educ (2014) 67:797-808 807

technology makes Universal Design an

developed in the fields of architecture
accessible spaces and products. The term
that consider the needs of the broadest ra
of products, services, and environments
Rose and Meyer 2006) draws on unive
education and educational materials thr
20 1 2). Principle I - Provide Multiple Mea
to access course content, or "what" they
lecture. Universal design encourages inst
presented to students. Principle II - P
suggests that there are different f ways
content other than exams (assessments),
Multiple Means of Engagement Universal
can be engaged in their learning and mot
Another benefit of UDL is that it st
instruction and instructional materials
different contexts and media. Universally
in multiple ways diff and offer students
content. In addition, UDL encourages th
meaning in the material and thus mo
instructional techniques and by pushing
makes good use of a variety of technol
Emerging mobile instructional tools a
LCP. Apps like Educreations (http://ww
com) allow an instructor to present m
lecture they are giving with the content
projected images and the live lecture.
Management System (CMS) and be avail
see or hear all aspects of the lecture pre

Expanding use of course management s

Through its Institute of Open, Distan

operates a free, open source e-learnin
example of a well-established category of
management systems (LMS), course m
environments (VLE). While often thoug
are a number of uses for an LMS in a
large classes by automating functions p
be used to keep and calculate grades, sh
and administer and grade quizzes. LMSs
as calculating grades, distributing readin

Conclusion

Large class pedagogy can be an effective and efficient approach to addressing the need for
increased access to tertiary education in SSA in ways that foster skills students will need in

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 808 High Educ (2014) 67:797-808

a global,
"flat world" context. The u
efficientand more meaningful for le
build capacity in LCP predicated on
development and support, and enhanc

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