U ni t

6
MATRICES AND DETERMINANTS

Unit Outcomes:
After completing this unit, you should be able to:



know basic concepts about matrices.



know specific ideas, methods and principles concerning matrices.



perform operation on matrices.



apply principles of matrices to solve problems.

Main Contents
6.1 MATRICES
6.2 DETERMINANTS AND THEIR PROPERTIES
6.3 INVERSE OF A SQUARE MATRIX
6.4 SYSTEMS OF EQUATIONS WITH TWO OR THREE VARIABLES
6.5 CRAMER’S RULE
Key Terms
Summary
Review Exercises
Mathematics Grade 11

INTRODUCTION
Matrices appear wherever information is expressed in
tables. One such example is a monthly calendar as shown in
the figure, where the columns give the days of the week and
the rows give the dates of the month. A matrix is simply a
rectangular table or array of numbers written in either ( ) or
[ ] brackets. Matrices have many applications in science,
engineering and computing. Matrix calculations are used in
connection with solving linear equations.
In this unit, you will study matrices, operations on matrices, and determinants. You will
also see how you can solve systems of linear equations using matrices.

 H
HIISSTTO
ORRIIC
CAALL N
NOOTTE
E

Arthur Cayley (1821-95)

Many people have contributed to the development of the theory
of matrices and determinants. Starting from the 2nd century BC,
the Babylonians and the Chinese used the concepts in connection
with solving simultaneous equations. The first abstract definition
of a matrix was given by Cayley in 1858 in his book named
Memoir on the theory of matrices.
He gave a matrix algebra defining addition, multiplication, scalar multiplication
and inverses. He also gave an explicit construction of the inverse of a matrix in
terms of the determinant of the matrix.

 O PPEENNIINNG
G P
PRRO
OBBLLE
EMM
Consider a nutritious drink which consists of whole egg, milk and orange juice. The
food energy and protein of each of the ingredients are given by the following table.
Food Energy (Calories) Protein (Grams)
1 egg 80 6
1 cup of milk 160 9
1 cup of Juice 110 2
How much of each do you need to produce a drink of 540 calories and 25 grams of
protein?

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 Unit 6 Matrices and Determinants

6. 1 MATRICES

Definition 6.1
Let R be the set of real numbers and m and n be positive integers.

A rectangular array of numbers in R of the form,

 a11 a12 ... a1n 

 
a a22 ... a2n 
A =  21
 ... ... ... ... 
 
 am1 am 2 ... amn 

is called an m by n (m × n) matrix in R.

Consider the matrix A in the definition above:

 The number m is called the number of rows of A.
 The number n is called the number of columns of A.
 The number aij is called the ijth element or entry of A which is an element in
the ith row and jth column of A.
 A can be abbreviated by: A = ( aij ) m× n

 The rectangular array of entries is enclosed in an ordinary bracket or in a

square bracket.
 m × n (read as m by n) is called the size or order of the matrix.
Example 1 Consider the matrix:.
1 − 3 2
A =  
 4 0 3
Then A is a 2 × 3 matrix with a11 = 1 , a13 = 2 and a23 = 3 .

 3 −1 
 
Example 2 The matrix A = 1 2  is a 3 × 2 matrix with:
 4 0
 
a11 = 3 , a12 = −1 , a21 = 1 , a22 = 2 , a31 = 4 and a32 = 0 .

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Mathematics Grade 11

Note:
 The entries in a given matrix need not be distinct.
 The best way to view matrices is as the contents of a table where the labels of the
rows and columns have been removed.
Example 3 Three students Chaltu, Solomon and Kalid have a number of 10, 50 and 25
cent coins in their pockets. The following table shows what they have.
Student name
Chaltu Kalid Solomon
No of coins

10 cent coins 2 6 4
50 cent coins 3 2 0
25 cent coins 4 0 5
a Represent the table in matrix form.
b What is represented by the columns?
c What is represented by each row?
d Suppose aij denotes the entry in the ith row and jth column. What does a31
tell you? What about a23?
Solution
 2 6 4
 
a A =  3 2 0
 4 0 5
 
b The columns represent the number of the various kinds of coins each student
has.
c The rows represent the number of coins of a certain fixed value that the
students have.
d a31 = 4. It means Chaltu has four 25-cent coins in her pocket.
a23 = 0. This means Solomon has no 50-cent coins.

ACTIVITY 6.1
In each of the following matrices, determine the number of rows and
the number of columns.
1   0 − 5
1 2     
A=  , B =  0  , C =  3 4  and D = ( 0 − 6 7 ) .
3 4   29  8 6 
   

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 Unit 6 Matrices and Determinants

From Activity 6.1, you may have observed that:

 The number of rows and columns in matrix A are equal.
 The number of columns in matrix B is one.
 The number of rows in matrix D is one.
Some important types of matrices
1 A matrix with only one column is called a column matrix. It is also called a
column vector.
2 A matrix with only one row is called a row matrix (also called a row vector).
3 A matrix with the same number of rows and columns is called a square matrix.
4 A matrix with all entries 0 is called a zero matrix which is denoted by 0.
5 A diagonal matrix is a square matrix that has zeros everywhere except possibly
along the main diagonal (top left to bottom right).
6 The identity (unit) matrix is a diagonal matrix where the elements of the
principal diagonal are all ones.
7 A scalar matrix is a diagonal matrix where all elements of the principal diagonal
are equal.
8 A lower triangular matrix is a square matrix whose elements above the main
diagonal are all zero.
9 An upper triangular matrix is a square matrix whose elements below the main
diagonal are all zero.
Example 4 Give the type(s) of each matrix below.
2 0 0
 0 0 0 0 0  
a   b   c 0 3 0
 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
 
1 − 3 0 0 
   
d 0 e (− 35 0 4) f  0 −3 0 
 −2   0 0 − 3 
  
1 0
g  
0 1
Solution
a a zero matrix b It is a square, zero, diagonal and scalar matrix
c a diagonal matrix d a column matrix e a row matrix
f a scalar matrix g an identity matrix

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Mathematics Grade 11

Example 5 Decide whether each matrix is upper triangular, lower triangular or neither.
 2 0 0 3 2 1
   2 0  
a 1 4 0 b   c 0 5 4
 3 9 7  3 0 0 0 7
   
1 0 0 0
   1 2 3
 3 2 0 0 0 0  
d   e 0 f 4 6 7
 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 9
   
0 0 0 0 

Solution
a lower triangular b lower triangular c upper triangular
d upper triangular e both (notice that it satisfies both conditions)
f neither

Equality of matrices
Definition6.2
Two matrices A = (aij)m×n and B = (bij)m×n of the same order are said to be equal,
written A = B, if their corresponding elements are equal, i.e. aij = bij for all 1 ≤ i ≤ m
and 1 ≤ j ≤ n .

Example 6 Find x and y if the matrices

1 2 3 1 2 3 
   
A =  0 x + y − 1 and B = 0 0 −1  are equal.
x −7 2   1 −7 3 + y 
  
x + y = 0

Solution If A = B, then  x = 1
3 + y = 2

Solving this gives you: x = 1 and y = − 1 .

Addition and subtraction of matrices

ACTIVITY 6.2
A school book store has books in four subjects for four grade levels.
Some newly ordered books have arrived.

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 Unit 6 Matrices and Determinants

Previous Books in Newly arrived

Stock Books
Grade Level Grade Level
7 8 9 10 7 8 9 10
Biology 101 89 72 75 Biology 60 65 54 45
Physics 62 58 70 43 Physics 27 35 50 27
Chemistry 57 65 71 94 Chemistry 55 66 65 44
Mathematics 81 87 91 93 Mathematics 75 68 70 51

How many of each kind do they have now?

Definition 6.3
Let A = (aij)m×n and B = (bij)m×n be two matrices. Then the sum of A and B, denoted by
A + B, is obtained by adding the corresponding elements, while the difference of A
and B, denoted by A – B, is obtained by subtracting the corresponding elements i.e.,
A + B = (aij + bij)m×n and A – B = (aij – bij)m×n.

 5 2 2  3 1 4
   
4 4 1  5 0 3
Example 7 Let A =  and B =  .
6 0 3 6 0 2
   
3 6 0  4 0 4
   
Find the sum and difference of A and B, if they exist.
 5 2 2  3 1 4  5 + 3 2 + 1 2 + 4   8 3 6
       
 4 4 1   5 0 3   4 + 5 4 + 0 1 + 3   9 4 4
Solution A + B = + = =
6 0 3   6 0 2   6 + 6 0 + 0 3 + 2  12 0 5 
       
 3 6 0   4 0 4   3 + 4 6 + 0 0 + 4   7 6 4
       
 5 2 2  3 1 4  2 1 − 2
     
4 4 1  5 0 3  −1 4 − 2
A–B=  –  = 
6 0 3 6 0 2 0 0 1 
     
3 6 0  4 0 4  −1 6 − 4
     
1 2 3  2 1 3  3 4
Example 8 Let A =   , B =   and C =   .
 6 5 4 0 7 9  2 5
Find A – B and B + C, if they exist.
−1 1 0 
Solution A – B =   , but since B and C have different orders, they
 6 − 2 − 5
cannot be added together.

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Mathematics Grade 11

ACTIVITY 6.3
1 2   6 − 3  7 − 3  0 0
Let A =   , B =   , C =   and 0 =   . Find
3 4 − 2 1  2 5   0 0
a (A + B ) + C, b A + (B + C) c A–A
d A+0 e A+B f B+A
From Activity 6.3, you can observe the following properties of matrix addition.
1 A + B = B + A (Commutative property)
2 (A + B) + C = A + (B + C) (Associative property)
3 A + 0 = A = 0 + A (Existence of additive identity)
4 A + (−A) = 0 (Existence of additive inverse)

Multiplication of a matrix by a scalar

ACTIVITY 6.4
The marks obtained by Nigist and Hagos (out of 50) in their
examinations are given below.
Nigist Hagos
English 37 31
Mathematics 46 44
Biology 28 25
If the marks are to be converted out of 100, then find the marks of Nigist and Hagos in
each subject out of 100.
From Activity 6.4, you may have observed that given a matrix, you can get another
matrix by multiplying each of its elements by a constant.

Definition 6.4
If r is a scalar (i.e. a real number) and A= (aij)m×n is a given matrix, then rA is the
matrix obtained from A by multiplying each element of A by r. i.e rA=(raij)m×n

5 − 2 − 2  1
Example 9 If A =   , then find 5A, A and –3A.
 4 4 − 6.5  2

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 Unit 6 Matrices and Determinants

 5× 5 5 × ( − 2) 5 × ( − 2)   25 − 10 − 10 
Solution 5A =  = 
 5× 4 5× 4 5 × ( − 6.5)   20 20 − 32.5 
1 1 1 
 2 ×5 × (−2) × (−2)   5 
1 2 2  −1 −1 
A= = 2 and
2 1 1 1   
 ×4 ×4 × (−6.5)   2 2 −3.25 
2 2 2 
 (−3) × 5 (−3) × (−2) ( −3) × (−2)   −15 6 6 
−3 A =  = 
 (−3) × 4 ( −3) × 4 (−3) × ( −6.5)   −12 −12 19.5 
Example 10 Alemitu purchased coffee, sugar, wheat flour, and teff flour from a shop
as shown by the following matrix. Assume the quantities are in kg.
6
 
 11 
A =   . Find the new matrix, if
60
 
 90 
 
a she doubles her order b she halves her order
c she orders 75% of her previous order
Solution
 12  3   4.5 
     
 22  1 5.5 8.25 
a 2A = b A=  c 0.75 A = 
 120  2  30   45 
     
 180   45   67.5 

ACTIVITY 6.5
 − 1 1 − 1  1 0 1
Let A =   and B =  
 6 − 2 − 1  2 −1 3 
If r = −7 and s = 4, then find each of the following:
a r(A + B) b rA + rB c (rs)A d r(sA)
e (r + s) A f rA + sA g 1A h 0A
Properties of scalar multiplication
If A and B are matrices of the same order and r and s are any scalars (i.e., real numbers),
then:
a r(A + B ) = rA + rB b (r + s) A = rA + sA
c (rs)A = r(sA) d 1A = A and 0A = 0

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Mathematics Grade 11

Exercise 6.1
 8 2 4.23 − 4 
 
 9 2 1 3 
1 If A =  , then determine the values of the following:
7.5 51 2 4 
 
 0 9 3 6 

a a21 b a33 c a42 d a32
2 What is the order of each of the following matrices?
0 0
 2 − 3 1 4 7  
a   b   c 1 2
1 0   5 − 6 3 0 3
 
d (1 2 3) e (7)
3 What are the diagonal elements of each of the following square matrices?
 0 1 3 1
1 0 0  
   − 4.5 1 8 2
a 3 − 4 7 b  54
0 7 1 1 71 3 
   
 2 1 5 4 

4 Construct a 3 × 4 matrix A = (aij), where aij = 3i − 2j.
1 0 − 2 − 4 2 0
5 Given A =   and B =   , find each of the following.
1 2 3   −1 1 3 
a A+B b A – B c 3B + 2A
d B+A e 2A + 3B
1 2 − 3 3 −1 2
   
6 Given A =  5 0 2  and B = 4 2 5  , find matrices C that satisfy the
3 − 1 1  2 0 3 
 
following condition:
a A+C=B b A + 2C = 3B
7 Graduating students from a certain high school sold cinema tickets on two
different occasions, in two kebeles, in order to raise money that they wanted to
donate to their school. The following matrices show the number of students who
attended the occasions.

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 Unit 6 Matrices and Determinants

1st occasion 2 nd occasion

kebele 1 kebele 2 kebele 1 kebele 2
Boys  175 221  Boys  120 150 
   
Girls  199 150  Girls  199 181 
a Give the sum of the matrices.
b If the tickets were sold for Birr 2.50 a piece on the 1st occasion and Birr 3.00
a piece on the second occasion, how much money was raised from the boys?
from the girls? In kebele 1. What is the total amount raised for the school?

Multiplication of matrices
To study the rule for multiplication of matrices, let us define the rule for matrices of
order 1 × p and p × 1.
 b11 
 
b21
Let A = (a11 a12 ... a1 p ) and B =   .
⋮ 
 
 bp1 
Then the product AB in the given order is the 1 × 1 matrix given by
 b11 
 
b21
AB = (a11 a12 … a1 p )   = (a11b11 + a12b21 + a13b31 + .... + a1pbp1)
⋮ 
 
 bp1 
 2
 
Example 11 If A = (1 2 3) and B =  −3  , find AB.
 1
 
 2 
 
Solution AB = (1 2 3)  − 3  = (1 × 2) + (2 × (–3)) + (3 × 1) = −1.
 1 
 

Note:
 The number of columns of A = The number of rows of B = p.
 The operation is done row by column in such a way that each element of the row
is multiplied by the corresponding element of the column and then the products
are added.

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Mathematics Grade 11

Notation:
 a11 a12 … a1n 
 
a21 a22 … a2 n 
Let A =  .
… … … … 
 
 am1 am2 … amn 

Then you denote the ith row and the jth column of A by Ai and Aj, respectively.
 1 2 3
 
Example 12 Let A =  0 4 1  . Then A1 = (1 2 3), A2 = (0 4 1) ,
 −3 5 6 
 
1   2 3
  2  
1 3  
A3 = (–3 5 6), A =  0  , A =  4  and A = 1  .
 −3  5  6
     

ACTIVITY 6.6
5 3 3
 3 2 0  
Given A =   and B =  2 4 2  , find:
 2 1 1  2 1 2
 
a A1B 1 b A1B 2 c A1B 3
d A2B 1 e A2B 2 f A2B 3
 A1 B1 A1 B 2 A1B 3 
The matrix 
 A B1 A B 2 A B 3 
in Activity 6.6 is the product of A and B, denoted by AB.
 2 2 2 
In general, you have the following definition of multiplication of matrices.

Definition 6.5
Let A =(aij) be an m × p matrix and B = (bjk) be a p × n matrix such that the number
of columns of A is equal to the number of rows of B. Then the product AB is a matrix
C= (cik) of order m × n, where cik = AiBk, i.e. cik = ai1 b1k + ai2 b 2k + ai3b3k + ... + aipb pk

2 3   2 5 − 4
Example 13 Let A =   and B =   . Then find AB
 2 − 1 3 2 6 
 Α1B1 A1 B 2 A1B 3 
AB = 
 A B1 A B 2 A B3 
Solution
 2 2 2 

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 Unit 6 Matrices and Determinants

  2 5  −4  
 ( 2 3)   (2 3)   (2 3)   
 3 2  6   13 16 10 
AB =  =  
  2  5  −4    1 8 −14 
 ( 2 −1)   ( 2 −1)   ( 2 −1)   

  3  2  6 

ACTIVITY 6.7
 1 2  − 2 0  3 − 4
Let A =   , B =   and C =   . Find:
 − 1 3  4 5 0 1 
a A(BC) b (AB)C c A(B + C)
d AB + AC e (B + C)A f BA + CA
Properties of Multiplication of Matrices
If A, B and C have the right order for multiplication and addition i.e., the operations are
defined for the given matrices, the following properties hold:
1 A (BC) = (AB) C (Associative property)
2 A (B + C) = AB + AC (Distributive property)
3 (B + C) A = BA + CA (Distributive property)

1 2   1 1
Example 14 Let Α =   and B =   . Find AB and BA.
3 4  1 1
3 3  4 6
Solution: ΑΒ =   and BA =  .
 7 7  4 6
From Example 14, you can conclude that multiplication of matrices is not commutative.

Transpose of a matrix
Definition 6.6
The Transpose of a matrix Α = ( aij ) m×n , denoted by AT, is the n × m matrix
found by interchanging the rows and columns of A. i.e., ΑT = B = ( b ji ) of
order n × m such that b ji = aij .

 1 2 3
Example 15 Give the transpose of the matrix A =   .
 4 5 6

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Mathematics Grade 11

 1 4
T
 
Solution A =  2 5 .
 3 6
 

ACTIVITY 6.8
1 0
1 2 3  
Given Α =   and B = 1 3  , find:
0 1 4 2
 0 
T
a A b (AT)T c 3AT
d (3A)T e (AB)T f B TA T
Properties of transposes of matrices
The following are properties of transposes of matrices:
a (AT)T = A
b (A + B)T = AT + BT, A and B being of the same order.
c (rA)T = rAT, r any scalar
d (AB)T = BT AT; provided AB is defined

Definition 6.7
A square matrix A is called a symmetric matrix if AT = A.

1 2 3 
 
Example 16 Show that A =  2 4 − 5  is symmetric.
3 − 5 6 
 
1 2 3 
T
 
Solution A =  2 4 − 5  = A. So, A is symmetric.
3 − 5 6 
 
Example 17 Which of the following are symmetric matrices?
a d dc
1 2 − 2     1 7 0
  d k ml  
A =2 − 2 4 , B=  and C =  − 3 −1 0
c l w a  1
 −2 4 3 
  
d
  0 5 
 m a x 
Solution A and B are symmetric while C is not.

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 Unit 6 Matrices and Determinants

Exercise 6.2
1 Find the products, AB and BA, whenever they exist.
 1 5
3 1   2 1 − 3  
a A =   , B =   b A = (2 2 ) , B =  − 2 3 
 3 −1 3 1 6   0 4
 
 −1 2  10 3 2  3
  1 − 2 − 5    
c A =  1 4 , B =   d A =  −8 − 5 9 , B =  − 1
 − 3 0 3 4 0  − 5 7 7 1
     
 2 −1 3 1 − 4
   
2 Let A =  1 − 1 0  and B = 2 3 
 0 0 3 4 0 
   
a What is the order of AB? b If C = AB, then find C32, C11 and C21.
3 For the matrices in question 2 above, find −4AB, AA, and A(AB).
4 The first of the following tables gives the point system used in soccer (football) in
the old days and the point system that is in use now. The second table gives the
overall results of 4 teams in a game season.

Points Win Draw Loss

Old New
A 5 2 2
system system
Teams

Win 2 3 B 3 6 0
Draw 1 1 C 4 4 1
Loss 0 0 D 6 0 3
5 2 2
   2 3
3 6 0  
Let T =  and P =  1 1  . Answer the following questions:
4 4 1 0 0
   
6 0 3 

a Find the product TP. Which system is better to rank the teams-the old or the
new?
b Which team stands first? Which stands last?

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Mathematics Grade 11

3 2 2 
 3 − 1  
5 If A =  4  and B = T T
 2 4 − 2  , then find A + A and B + B . Check
0   −1 0 1 
 3  
whether or not the resulting matrices are symmetric.
 cos θ − sin θ  1 0
6 If A =   , then show that AAT = ATA =  
 sin θ cos θ  0 1
7 Show that, if A is a square matrix of order n, then A + AT is a symmetric matrix.
(Hint: Show that (A + AT)T = AT + A)
8 A square matrix A is called skew-symmetric, if and only if A + AT = 0. Verify that
the following matrices are skew-symmetric:
 0 −1 4  0 a −b
   
a A=  1 0 7 b B = − a 0 − c
 − 4 − 7 0  b c 0 
   
9 If A is a square matrix, show that A – AT is a skew-symmetric matrix.
10 If A is a skew-symmetric matrix, show that the elements in the main diagonal are
all zero.

6. 2 DETERMINANTS AND THEIR PROPERTIES

The determinant of a square matrix is a real number associated with the square matrix.
It is helpful in solving simultaneous equations. The determinant of a matrix A is
associated with A according to the following definition.

Determinants of 2 × 2 matrices
Definition 6.8

1 The determinant of a 1 × 1 matrix A = (a) is the real number a.

a b
2 The determinant of a 2 × 2 matrix A =   is defined to be the number ad – bc.
c d 
The determinant of A is denoted by det(A) or |A|.
a b
Thus, A = = ad − bc.
c d

1 2
Example 1 Find |A| for A =   .
6 4
1 2
Solution A = = 1 × 4 − 2 × 6 = 4 − 12 = − 8
6 4

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 Unit 6 Matrices and Determinants

Note:
 |A| denotes determinant when A is a matrix; the same symbol is used for absolute
value of a real number. It is the context that decides the meaning.
a b  a b
   denotes a matrix, while denotes its determinant. The determinant
c d  c d
is a real number.

ACTIVITY 6.9
−3 2  5 1
Let A =   and B =   .
 1 − 1 3 2
1 Calculate
a |A| b |B| c |AT |
2 Calculate and compare |AB| and |A| |B|.
3 Calculate and compare |A + B| and |A| + |B|.

Determinants of 3 × 3 matrices
To define the determinant of a 3 × 3 matrix, it is useful to first define the concepts of
minor and cofactor.
Let A = (a ij)3×3. Then the matrix Aij is a 2 × 2 matrix which is found by crossing out the
ith row and the jth column of A.
 0 1 2
3 5  0 1 
Example 2 If A =  −2 3 5  , then A11 =   and A23 =  .
 4 7 18   7 18  4 7
 

Definition 6.9
 a11 a12 a13 
Let A =  a21 a22 a23  . Then Mij =Aij is called the minor of the element
a a 
 31 32 a33 
i+j
a ij and cij =(−1) Aij is called the cofactor of the element aij.

 a11 a12 a13 

 
Example 3 Let A =  a21 a22 a23  . Give the minors and cofactors of a11, a23 and a32.
a a a 
 31 32 33 

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Mathematics Grade 11

a 22 a 23
Solution The minor of a11 = M11 = . It is found by crossing out the first
a 32 a 33
row and the first column as in the figure.

a22 a23
Thus, the minor of a11 = M11 = = a22a33 − a23a32
a32 a33
a 22 a 23
The cofactor of a11 = c11 = ( − 1)1+1M11 =
a 32 a 33

a11 a12 a11 a12

The minor of a 23 = M23= , while c23 = ( − 1)2+3M23 = − .
a 31 a 32 a 31 a 32
a11 a13 a11 a13
M32 = and c32 = − M32 = − .
a 21 a 23 a 21 a 23
Example 4 Find the minors and cofactors of the entries a22, a33 and a12 of the matrix
 − 3 4 − 7
 
 1 2 0 .
 − 4 8 11 
 
Solution
−3 −7 −3 −7
M22 = = −61 and c22 = (−1)2+2M22 = = (−3)(11)− (−4)(−7) = −61
− 4 11 − 4 11
−3 4 −3 4
M33 = = −10 and c33 = (–1)3+3M33 = = (–3) (2) – (1)(4) = –10
1 2 1 2
1 0 1 0
M12 = = 11 and c12 = (–1)1+2M12 = – = –11
− 4 11 − 4 11

Note:
Note that the ‘sign’ (−1)i + j accompanying the minors form a chess board pattern with
 + − +
 
‘+’ s on the main diagonal as shown :  − + − 
 + − +
 

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 Unit 6 Matrices and Determinants

You can now define the 3 × 3 determinant (determinant of order 3) as follows:

Definition 6.10
 a11 a12 a13 
 
Let A =  a21 a 22 a 23  . Then the determinant of A along any row i or any column j
a 
 31 a32 a33 
is given by one of the formulas:
ith row expansion: |A|= ai1ci1+ai2ci2+ai3ci3, for any row i (i = 1,2 or 3), or
jth column expansion: |A|= a1jc1j+a2jc2j+a3jc3j, for any column j (j = 1,2 or 3).

Note:
Note that the definition states that to find the determinant of a square matrix:
 choose a row or column;
 multiply each entry in it by its cofactor;
 add up these products.
Example 5 Find the determinant of the following matrix A first by expanding along
the 1st row and then expanding along the 2nd column, where
 2 1 0
 
A =  1 1 4
 − 3 2 5
 
Solution
Along row 1:
1 4 1 4 1 1
A = a11c11 + a12c12 + a13c13 = 2 (−1) 2 + 1 (−1) 3 + 0 (−1) 4
2 5 −3 5 −3 2
= 2(1 × 5 − 2 × 4) + ( −1)(1× 5 − 4 × (−3)) + 0(1× 2 − 1× ( −3))
= 2( − 3) − 1 (17 ) + 0 (5) = −6 −17 = −23
∴ A = − 23
Along Column 2:
1 4 2 0 2 0
A = a12c12 + a22 c22 + a32c32 = 1(−1) + 1 (1) + 2(−1)
−3 5 −3 5 1 4
= − 1 (1× 5 − 4 × ( − 3)) + 1 ( 2 × 5 − 0 × ( −3)) − 2 ( 2 × 4 − 0 × 1)
= −1(17) + 1(10) −2(8) = −17 + 10 – 16 = − 23
∴ A = − 23,
Both methods give the same result.

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Mathematics Grade 11

Group Work 6.1

1 3 2
 
For the matrix A =  4 1 3  do each of the following in groups:
 2 5 2
 
1 a Calculate |A | and |AT|
b What can you conclude from these results?
2 Let B be the matrix found by interchanging row 1 and row 3 of matrix A, i.e.,
 2 5 2
 
B =  4 1 3
1 3 2
 
a Find |B|
b Compare it with |A |. What relationship do you see between |B | and |A |?
3 Let C be the matrix found by multiplying row 2 by 5. i.e.,
 1 3 2   1 3 2
   
C =  5 × 4 5 ×1 5 × 3  =  20 5 15 
 2 5 2   2 5 2 

a Find |C|
b Compare it with |A |. What relationship do you see between |C| and |A|?
4 Let D be the matrix found by adding 10 times column 1 on column 3. i.e.,
1 3 2 + 10 ×1  1 3 12 
   
D =  4 1 3 + 10 × 4  =  4 1 43 
 2 5 2 + 10 × 2   2 5 22 
   
a Find |D|
b Compare it with |A |. What relationship do you see between |D | and |A|?
Properties of determinants
The following properties hold. All the matrices considered are square matrices:
1 |A | = |AT|
Verify this property by considering a 2 × 2 matrix.
a b  T a c 
i.e., if A =   , then A =  
c d  b d 
a b a c
Hence, |A| = = ad – bc. Also, |AT| = = ad – bc
c d b d
Therefore, |A| = |AT|.

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 Unit 6 Matrices and Determinants

2 If B is found by interchanging two rows (columns) of A, then |B| = − |A|.

3 If B is found by multiplying one row (one column) of A by a scalar r, then |B| = r|A|.
4 If B is a matrix obtained by adding a multiple of a row (column) of A to another
row (column) of A, then |B| = |A|.
5 If A has a row (or a column) of zeros, then the determinant of A is zero.
6 If A has two identical rows (or columns), then the determinant of A is zero.
We omit the proofs of the above properties; however, we shall illustrate these
properties with examples.
 4 0 − 5
 
Example 6 Compute the determinant of  10 0 7 
 − 14 0 1 
 
Solution By expanding using the 2nd column, we get
4 0 −5
10 7 4 −5 4 −5
10 0 7 =–0 +0 –0 =0
− 14 1 − 14 1 10 7
−14 0 1

a x p
Example 7 If b y q = 2, give the values of each of the following.
c z r

p x p p x a a b c
a q y q b q y b c x y z
r z r r z c p q r

p x 0 4a 12 x 4 p a x p
d q y 0 e b 3y q f b y q
r z 0 c 3z r 3b+c 3y + z 3q + r
Solution:
a 0 (1st column and 3rd column are the same.)
b –2 (Column interchange results in change of sign.)
c 2 (A matrix and its transpose have the same determinant.)
d 0 (0 column.)
e 24 (factor 4 out and then 3; 12 × original determinant.)
f 2 (Adding a constant multiple of a row on another row gives the same
result.)

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Mathematics Grade 11

Exercise 6.3
1 Compute each of the following determinants:
1 3 3
1 5 a −b a
a b 0 2 −1 c
7 3 a a+b
2 1 2

2 Solve each of the following equations:

2 −2 1 x +1 2 1
2x x
a =0 b x 1 0 =1 c 1 1 2 =0
4 x
3 1 2 x −1 1 x

3 For the given matrix A, calculate the cofactor of the given entry:

1 2 3 
 
A =  9 −1 3 
 0 3 −1 
 
a a32 b a22 c a23
1 x y
4 a Compute the determinant 1 a b
1 c d

b Verify that the equation of a straight line through the distinct points (a, b)
1 x y
and (c, d) is given by 1 a b = 0
1 c d

5 Verify that each of the following statements is true. (Assume that all letters
represent non-zero real number).
x t+w x t x w a + rb b a b
a = + b =
y s+u y s y u c + rd d c d

1 a b+c
c 1 b c+a =0
1 c a +b

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 Unit 6 Matrices and Determinants

6. 3 INVERSE OF A SQUARE MATRIX

ACTIVITY 6.10
−3 2   6 2 1 0 
Let A =   , B =   and I 2 =   . Find:
 1 − 1  3 1  0 1
a AI2 b I2A
c Find a matrix C(if it exists) such that AC = I2
d Is there a matrix D so that BD = I2?
From Activity 6.10, the matrix C obtained in (c) is called the inverse of matrix A.

Definition 6.11
A square matrix A is said to be invertible or non-singular, if and only if there is a
square matrix B such that AB = BA = I, where I is the identity matrix that has the
same order as A.

Remark
The inverse of a square matrix, if it exists, is unique.
Proof: Let A be an invertible square matrix. Suppose B and C are inverses of A.
Then AB = BA = I. and AC = CA = I (by definition of inverse)
Now, B = BI = B (AC) = (BA) C = IC = C.
Hence, the inverse of A is unique.
Note:
 Only a square matrix can have an inverse.
 The inverse of matrix A, whenever it exists, is denoted by A−1.
 A and A−1 have the same order.
 A matrix that does not have an inverse is called singular.
Example 1
3 1  2 − 1
a Show that   and   are inverses of each other.
5 2 −5 3 
1 1  −1
b Given A =   , find A (if it exists.)
 2 3 
Solution
 3 1   2 − 1  2 − 1  3 1   1 0 
a     =     =   .
5 2  − 5 3   − 5 3  5 2 0 1
Thus, they are inverses of each other.

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Mathematics Grade 11

a b −1
b Suppose A−1 =   . Then AA = I 2 .
c d 
 1 1 a b   1 0  a +c b + d  1 0
⇒   = ⇒  2a + 3c 2b + 3d  =  0 1  .
 2 3  c d   0 1     
a + c = 1 b + d = 0
⇒  and 
2a + 3c = 0 2b + 3d = 1
Solving these gives you, a = 3, b = − 1, c = − 2 and d = 1.
 3 − 1
Hence A−1 =  
 −2 1 
In the above example, you have seen how to find the inverses of invertible matrices.
Sometimes, this method is tiresome and time consuming. There is another method of
finding inverses of invertible matrices, using the adjoint.

Definition 6.12
The adjoint of a square matrix A = (aij) is defined as the transpose of the matrix
C = (cij) where cij are the cofactors of the elements aij. Adjoint of A is denoted by
adj A, i.e., adj A = (cij)T.

1 0 1 
 
Example 2 Find adj A if A =  2 3 −1 .
4 0 0 
 
3 −1 2 +1 2 −1
Solution c11 = (−1)1+1 = 0, c12 = ( −1) = −4,
0 0 4 0
2 3 0 1
c13 = (−1)1+3 = −12 , c21 = (−1)2+1 = 0,
4 0 0 0
1 1 1 0
c22 = (−1)2+ 2 = −4 , c23 = (−1) 2+3 = 0,
4 0 4 0
0 1 1 1
c31 = (−1)3+1 = −3 , c32 = (−1)3+ 2 = 3,
3 −1 2 −1
1 0
c33 = (−1)3+3 = 3.
2 3
T
 0 −4 −12   0 0 −3 
Then matrix C =  0 −4 0  and, adj A = C =  −4 −4 3 
  T 
 −3 3 3   −12 0 3 
  

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 Unit 6 Matrices and Determinants

ACTIVITY 6.11
a b   d − b
1 Show that adj   =   .
 c d  − c a 
a b  a b a b 1 0
2 Show that   × adj   =  .
c d  c d  c d  0 1 
 5 − 3
3 If A =   , then
4 2 
a find A-1. b find adjA.
1
c find |A|. d compare A−1 and adj A .
A
From Activity 6.11, you may have observed that for a 2 × 2 matrix A,
A(adjA) = A I 2 = (adjA) A .
1
If A ≠ 0, then A adj A = I 2
A
1
Therefore, A−1 = adj A
A

Theorem 6.1
A square matrix A is invertible, if and only if |A | ≠ 0. If A is invertible, then
1
A −1 = adj A.
A

 1 −2 3 
 
Example 3 Find the inverse of A =  0 2 1 
 −4 5 2 
 
Solution First find adjA.
2 1 0 1 0 2
1+1 1+2
c11 = (−1) 5 2 = −1; c12 = (−1) − 4 2 = −4; c13 = + =8
−4 5
−2 3 1 3 1 −2
c21 = − = 19; c22 = + =14; c23 = − =3
5 2 −4 2 −4 5
−2 3 1 3 1 −2
c31 = + = −8; c32 = − = −1; c33 = + =2
2 1 0 1 0 2

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Mathematics Grade 11

 − 1 19 − 8 
 
Thus, adj A =  − 4 14 − 1 
 8 3 2 

Next, find |A|.
|A| = a11c11 + a12c12 + a13c13 = (−1)( −1) + (−2)( −4) + (3)(8) = 31. Since
A ≠ 0, , then A is invertible and

 −1 19 −8
 
 − 1 19 − 8   31 31 31 
1 1   −4 14 −1 
A−1 = adj( A) =  − 4 14 − 1  = 
A 31  31 31 31 
 8 3 2   8 3 2 
 
 31 31 31 
1 − 2
Example 4 Show that   is not invertible
 3 − 6
1 −2
Solution = (1)( −6) – (3)( −2) = 0. Thus, the inverse does not exist.
3 −6
Theorem 6.2
If A and B are two invertible matrices of the same order, then
(AB)−1 = B−1A−1.

Proof:
If A and B are invertible matrices of the same order, then | A | ≠ 0 and | B | ≠ 0.
⇒ | AB| = | A || B | ≠ 0
Hence, AB is invertible with inverse (AB)–1. On the other hand,
( AB )( B −1 A −1 ) = A ( BB −1 ) A −1 = A ( I ) A −1 = AA −1 = I and similarly

( B −1 A −1 ) ( AB ) = I .

Therefore B −1 A−1 is an inverse of AB and inverse of a matrix is unique.

−1
Hence B −1 A −1 = ( AB ) .

Example 5 Verify that (AB)−1 = B−1A−1, for the following matrices:

 4 2  − 3 2
A =   and B =  
 5 3  3 1
Solution |A| = 2 and |B| =−9. To find adj(A), interchange the diagonal elements
and take the negatives of the non-diagonal elements. Thus,

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 Unit 6 Matrices and Determinants

 3 − 2  1 − 2
adj(A) =   and adj(B) =  
− 5 4   − 3 − 3
 3 
−1 
1 1 3 − 2   2
It follows that, A−1 = adj A =   =  , while
2  − 5 4   5
2 
A
−
 2 
 1 2
1 1  1 − 2  − 9 9 
B−1 = adj B = −   =  
B 9  − 3 − 3  1 1 
 
 3 3
 1 2 3   13 5 
 −   −1   − 18 9 
9 9 2
This gives us B−1A−1 =    =  
 1 1   −5 2   −1 1
    
 3 3  2   3 3
 4 2   − 3 2  − 6 10 
On the other hand, AB =     =   , so that
 5 3  3 1  − 6 13
13 − 10 
|AB| = −18 and adj(AB) =  .
6 − 6 
 13 5
1 13 − 10   − 18 9
(AB)−1 = −   = .
18  6 −6   −1 1
 
 3 3
Therefore, (AB)−1 = B−1A−1.

Exercise 6.4

 1 0 2  − 11 2 2
   
1 Show that  2 − 1 3  and  − 4 0 1  are inverses of each other.
 4 1 8  6 − 1 − 1
   
2 Find the inverse, if it exists, for each of the following matrices:
 2 3 4 1 2 − 1
 4 5    
a   b 4 3 1 c −1 1 2
 2 3  1 2 4  2 −1 1 
   

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Mathematics Grade 11

3 − k 6 
3 Show that the matrix A =   is singular when k = 0 or k = 7. What is
 2 4 − k 
the inverse when k = 1?
 cos θ sin θ 0 
 
4 Given A =  − sin θ cos θ 0  , show that A-1 = AT.
 0 0 1 

 2 3  1 2
5 Using A =   and B =   , verify that (AB)-1 = B-1A-1.
1 4  −1 1
6 Prove that if A is non-singular, then AB=AC implies B=C. Does this necessarily
hold if A is singular? If not, try to produce an example to the contrary.

6. 4 SYSTEMS OF EQUATIONS WITH TWO OR

THREE VARIABLES
Matrices are most useful in solving systems of linear equations. Systems of linear
equations are used to give mathematical models of electrical networks, traffic flow and
many other real life situations.

Definition 6.13
An equation a1 x1 + a2 x2 + ... + an xn = b, where a1 , a2 ,..., an , b are constants and
x1 , x2 ,..., xn are variables is called a linear equation. If b = 0, then the linear equation
is said to be homogeneous.
A linear system with m equations in n unknowns (variables) x1, x2,…, xn is a set of
equations of the form
 a11 x1 + a12 x2 + ........+ a1n xn = b1
 a x + a x +.......+ a x = b
 21 1 22 2 2n n 2
 (*)
 ⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯
 am1 x1 + am 2 x2 + .......... + amn xn = bm

The system of equations (*) is equivalent to AX = B , where

 x1   b1 
   
 x2  b
A = (aij ) m×n , X = and B =  2  .
…  … 
   
 xn   bn 
Matrix A is called the coefficient matrix of the system and the matrix

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 Unit 6 Matrices and Determinants

 a11 a12 … a1n b1 

 
 a21 a22 … a2n b2 
( A / B) = is called the augmented matrix of the system.
… … … … … 
 
 am1 am2 … amn bm 
Example 1 Which of the following are systems of linear equations?
5 x − 23 y = 6 5 x 2 − 23 y = 6  5 x − 23 y + z = 6
a  b  c 
 x + 14 y = 12  x + 14 y = 12  x + 14 y − 4 z = 18
Solution a and c are systems of linear equations. b is not a linear equation because
the first equation in the system is not linear in x.
Example 2 Give the augmented matrix of the following systems of equations.
 2x − y + z = 3  x+ y =0
2 x + 5 y = 1  
a  b 3 x − 2 y + 8 z = −24 c 2 x − y + 3 z = 3
3 x − 8 y = 4  x + 3 y + 4 y = −2  x − 2y − z = 3
 
Solution
2 −1 1 3  1 1 0 0
2 5 1    
a   b  3 − 2 8 − 24  c  2 −1 3 3
 3 − 8 4 1 3 4 − 2  1 − 2 −1 3
   

Elementary operations on matrices

ACTIVITY 6.12
Solve each of the following systems of linear equations.
x + y = 5 2 x − y = 4 3 x − 5 y = − 5
a  b  c 
x − y = 1  − x + y = −1 x + 2y = 2
From Activity 6.12, equations in a and b have the same solution set. You have the
following definition for equations having the same solution set.

Definition 6.14
Two systems of linear equations are equivalent, if and only if they have exactly the
same solution.

To solve systems of linear equations, you may recall, we use either the substitution
method or the elimination method. The method of elimination is more systematic than
the method of substitution. It can be expressed in matrix form and matrix operations
can be done by computers. The method of elimination is based on equivalent systems of
equations.

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Mathematics Grade 11

To change a system of equations into an equivalent system, we use any of the following
three elementary (also called Gaussian) operations.
Swapping Interchange two equations of the system.
Rescaling Multiply an equation of the system by a non-zero constant.
Pivoting Add a constant multiple of one equation to another equation of the system.

Note:
 In the elimination method, the arithmetic involves only the numerical coefficients.
Thus it is better to work with the numerical coefficients only.
 The numerical coefficients and the constant terms of a system of equations can be
expressed in matrix form, called the augmented matrix, as shown below in
Example 3.

Elementary row operations

Swapping Interchanging two rows of a matrix
Rescaling Multiplying a row of a matrix by a non-zero constant
Pivoting Adding a constant multiple of one row of the matrix onto another row

Elementary column operations

Swapping Interchanging two columns of a matrix
Rescaling Multiplying a column of a matrix by a non-zero constant
Pivoting Adding a constant multiple of one column of the matrix onto another column.

Definition 6.15
Two matrices are said to be row (or column) equivalent, if and only if one is
obtained from the other by performing any of the elementary operations.

Note:
 Since each row of an augmented matrix corresponds to an equation of a system of
equations, we will use elementary row operations only.
 We shall use the following notations:
• Swapping of ith and jth rows will be denoted by: Ri ↔ Rj
• Rescaling of the ith row by non-zero number r will be denoted by: Ri ⟶ rRi
• Pivoting of the ith row by r times the jth row will be denoted by: Ri ⟶Ri + rRj

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 Unit 6 Matrices and Determinants

Example 3 Solve the system of equations given below by using the augmented matrix.
 x − 2y + z = 7

 3x + y − z = 2
2 x + 3 y + 2 z = 7

Solution

Write the 1 − 2 1 7
  The objective is to get as many zeros as
augmented  3 1 −1 2 possible in the coefficients.
matrix 2 3 2 7 

1 − 2 1 7  A zero is obtained in the a21 position.
 
R2 ⟶ R2 + −3R1  0 7 − 4 − 19  Note that the other elements of row 2
2 3 2 7  are also changed.

1 − 2 1 7  A zero is obtained in the a31 position.
 
R3 ⟶ R3 + −2R1  0 7 − 4 − 19  Note that the other elements of row 3
0 7 0 − 7  are also changed.

1 − 2 1 7  A zero is obtained in the a32 position.
 
R3 ⟶R3 + −1.R2  0 7 − 4 − 19 Note that the other elements of row 3
0 0 4 12  are also changed.

The last matrix corresponds to the system of equation:
x − 2 y + z = 7

7 y − 4 z = −19
 4 z = 12

Since this equation and the given equation are equivalent, they have the same
solutions. Thus by back- substituting z = 3 from the 3rd equation into the 2nd, we
get, y = −1 and back-substituting z = 3 and y = −1 in the 1st equation, we get x = 2.
The solution set is {(2, −1, 3)}.

Definition 6.16
A matrix is said to be in Row Echelon Form if,
1 a zero row (if there is) comes at the bottom.
2 the first nonzero element in each non-zero row is 1.
3 the number of zeros preceding the first non-zero element in each non-zero row
except the first row is greater than the number of such zeros in the preceding row.

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Example 4 Which of the following matrices are in echelon form?

 1 −2 −4  0 0 1 2   1 −2 1 7  2 3 1 2 
      
A = 0 1 −2 , B = 2 3 0 −2 , C = 0 7 −4 −19 , D = 0 0 0 0

       
0 0 0   3 3 6 −9   7   
    2 3 2  3 3 −6 −9 
Solution
A is in echelon form.
B is not in echelon form because the number of zeros preceding the first non-zero
element in the first row is greater than the number of such zeros in the second
row. C is not in echelon form for the same reason. D is not in echelon form
because the zero row is not at the bottom.
z = 2

Example 5 Solve the system of equations  2 x + 3 y = − 2

3 x + 3 y + 6 z = − 9
Solution
0 0 1 2 
Write the   The objective is to get as many zeros
augmented  2 3 0 − 2 as possible in the coefficients.
matrix  3 3 6 − 9
 
3 3 6 − 9
 
R1 ↔ R3 2 3 0 − 2 More zeros moved to last row.
0 0 1 2 

1 1 2 − 3 A leading entry 1 is obtained in row 1.
1  
R1 ⟶ R1 2 3 0 − 2 Note that the other elements of row 1
3 0
 0 1 2  are also changed.

1 1 − 3
2 A zero is obtained at the a21 position.
 
R2 ⟶ R2 + −2R1 0 1 −4 4  Note that the other elements of row 2
0 0 1 2  are also changed.

1 0 − 7
6 A zero is obtained at the a12 position.
 
R1 ⟶R1 + −1R2 0 1 −4 4  Note that the other elements of row 1
0 0 1 2  are also changed.

The last matrix corresponds to the system of equation:
 x + 6 z = −7

 y − 4z = 4
 z=2


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 Unit 6 Matrices and Determinants

Since this last equation and the given equation are equivalent, we get the solution:
x = –19, y = 12 and z = 2.
The solution set is {(−19, 12, 2)}. The system has exactly one solution.
The last matrix we obtained is said to be in reduced-echelon form, as given in the
following definition:

Definition 6.17
A matrix is in Row Reduced Echelon form, if and only if,
1 it is in echelon form
2 the first non-zero element in each nonzero row is the only non-zero element in
its column.

x + 2 y = 0

Example 6 Solve the system of equations  2 x + y = 1
 x− y = 2

Solution

1 2 0
Augmented  
2 1 1
matrix 1 −1 2
 

1 2 0
R2 ⟶ R2 + −2R1  
0 − 3 1
R3 ⟶ R3 + −1R1 0 − 3 2
 

 1 2 0
 
R3 ⟶ R3 + −1R2  0 − 3 1
 0 0 1
 
1 2 0 
  Notice that this matrix is in Row
1
R2⟶ − R 2  0 1 −1  Echelon Form.
3  3
0 0 1 
 
In the last row, the coefficient entries are 0, while the constant is 1. This means
that 0x + 0y = 1. But, this has no solution.

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Mathematics Grade 11

x + 2 y = 0

Thus,  2 x + y = 1 has no solution.
 x− y = 2

i.e., The solution set is empty set.

Note:
When the augmented matrix is changed into either echelon form or reduced-echelon
form and if the last non-zero row has numerical coefficients which are all zero while
having non-zero constant part, then the system has no solution.
Example 7 Solve the following system of equations
x − 2 y − 4z = 0

− x + y + 2 z = 0
3 x − 3 y − 6 z = 0

Solution

 1 − 2 − 4 0
Augmented  
 −1 1 2 0
matrix  3 − 3 − 6 0
 
1 − 2 − 4 0
R2 ⟶ R2 + R1  
 0 −1 − 2 0
R3 ⟶ R3 + −3R1 0 3
 6 0 
1 − 2 − 4 0
 
R2 ⟶ −1R2 0 1 2 0
0 3 6 0 

1 0 0 0
R3 ⟶ R3 + −3R2   The matrix is now in reduced-echelon
0 1 2 0 form.
R1 ⟶ R1 + 2R2 0 0 0 0
 
x =0
The last matrix gives the system 
 y + 2z = 0
This has solution x = 0, y = −2z.
The solution set is {(0, −2z, z) | z a real number}.
Notice that the solution set is infinite.

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 Unit 6 Matrices and Determinants

Note:
When the augmented matrix is changed into either echelon form or reduced-echelon
form and if the number of non-zero rows is less than the number of variables, then the
system has an infinite solutions.
The method of solving a system of linear equations by reducing the augmented matrix
of the system into Reduced-Echelon form is called Gaussian Elimination Method.
Note that the Examples 3 - 7 above give all the possibilities for solution sets of systems
of linear equations.

Case 1: There is exactly one solution−such a system of linear equations is

called consistent.

Case 2: There is no solution−such a system of linear equations is called

inconsistent.

Case 3: There is an infinite number of solutions−such a system of linear

equations is called dependent.
Example 8 Give the solution sets of each of the following system of linear
equations. Sketch their graphs and interpret them.

4 x − 6 y = 2 5 x − 4 y = 6  3x − y = 2
a  b  c 
4 x − 6 y = 5  x + 2 y = −3 6 x − 2 y = 4
Solution
a

 4 − 6 2 y
Augmented matrix   5
 4 − 6 5
4
3
4x – 6y = 2
2
1
R2 ⟶ R2 + -1.R1  4 − 6 2 x
 
 0 0 3 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5
−1
−2 4x – 6y = 5

The system has no solution. As you can see from the figure, the two lines are
parallel i.e., the two lines do not intersect.

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Mathematics Grade 11

5 − 4 6  y
Augmented   5
matrix  1 2 − 3 4
3 5x – 4y = 6
 1 2 − 3 2
R1 ↔ R2   1
5 − 4 6  x
−3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5
−1
x + 2y = −3
1 2 − 3 −2
R2 → R2 + -5R1  
 0 − 14 21  −3
−4

3
Here by back-substitution, y = − and x = 0. You can see that the lines intersect
2
 3
at exactly one point  0, −  , which is the solution.
 2
c

y
5
 3 −1 2
Augmented matrix   4
3x – y = 2
 6 − 2 4 3
2
6x – 2y = 4
1
x
 3 − 1 2 −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5
R2 → R2 + -2.R1   −1
 0 0 0 −2
−3

The system has infinite solution. In echelon form, there is only one equation,
having two variables. In the graph, there is only one line, i.e., both equations
represent this same line.

Exercise 6.5
1 State the row operations you would use to locate a zero in the second column of
row one.
 5 3 − 1
  1 −1 1 5
a  −1 1 0  b  
0 1 4  4 8 1 6
 

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 Unit 6 Matrices and Determinants

2 Reduce each of the following matrices into echelon form.

 5 0 − 1 1 − 1 3 − 6
   1 − 1 1 5  
a  −1 1 0  b   c 5 3 − 2 4 
0 1 4  4 8 1 6 1 3 4 11 
  
3 Reduce each of the following matrices into reduced - echelon form.
 3 5 −1 − 4 1 2 1 
   
a  2 5 4 − 9 b −1 0 2 
 − 1 1 − 2 11   2 1 − 3
   
 ax + by = e
4 a Write  in the form AX = B , where
cx + dy = f
a b x e
A=  , X =   and B =   .
c d   y f
b If A is non-singular, show that X = A−1B is the solution.
 2x + 3 y = 4
c Using a and b above, solve 
5 x + 4 y = 17
5 Solve each system of equations using augmented matrices.
 x 3y
 2 x − 2 y = 12  2x − 5y = 8 3 + 5 = 4
a  b  c x y
− 2 x + 3 y = 10 6 x + 15 y = 18  − = −3
6 2
 x − 3 y + z = −1  4 x + 2 y + 3z = 6
 
d 2 x + y − 4 z = − 1 e  2x + 7 y = 3z
6 x − 7 y + 8 z = 7  −3 x − 9 y + 13 = −2 z
 
6 Find the values of c for which this system has an infinite number of solutions.
 2x − 4 y = 6

− 3 x + 6 y = c
7 For what values of k does
 x + 2 y − 3z = 5

 2 x − y − z = 8 have a unique solution?
kx + y + 2 z = 14

8 Find the values of c and d for which both the given points lie on the given straight
line.
cx + dy = 2; (0, 4 ) and (2, 16)
9 Find a quadratic function y = ax2 + bx + c, that contains the points (1, 9), (4, 6)
and (6, 14).

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Mathematics Grade 11

6. 5 CRAMER’S RULE
Determinants can be used to solve systems of linear equations with equal number of
equations and unknowns.
The method is practicable, when the number of variables is either 2 or 3.
 a x + b1 y = c
Consider the system  1 .
a 2 x + b2 y = d

 a1b2 x + b1b2 y = b2 c Multiplying the 1st equation by b2 and the 2 nd equation by


b1a2 x + b1b2 y = b1d b1.

(a 1b2 – b 1a2)x = b 2c-b1d Subtracting the first equation from the second.
a1 b1 c b1
x= Expressing the above equation in determinant notation.
a2 b2 d b2

a1 b1 c b1 a1 b1
Let D = and Dx = . Then, if ≠ 0,
a2 b2 d b2 a2 b2

c b1 a1 c
d b2 Dx a2 d Dy
x= = . A similar calculation gives: y = =
a1 b1 D a1 b1 D
a2 b2 a2 b2
The method is called Cramer’s rule for a system with two equations and two
unknowns.

Note:
 Dx and Dy are obtained by replacing the first and second columns by the constant
column vector, respectively.
 Under similar conditions, the rule holds for three unknowns too.
 a1 x + b1 y + c1 z = d

The system of equations  a2 x + b2 y + c2 z = e has exactly one solution, provided that
a x + b y + c z = f
 3 3 3

the determinant of the coefficient matrix is non-zero. In this case the solution is:

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 Unit 6 Matrices and Determinants

d b1 c1 a1 d c1 a1 b1 d
e b2 c2 a2 e c2 a2 b2 e
f b3 c3 Dx a3 f c3 Dy a3 b3 f Dz
x= = , y= = and z = =
a1 b1 c1 D a1 b1 c1 D a1 b1 c1 D
a2 b2 c2 a2 b2 c2 a2 b2 c2
a3 b3 c3 a3 b3 c3 a3 b3 c3

3x − 4 y = 2
Example 1 Use Cramer’s rule to find the solution set of 
7 x + 7 y = 3
3 −4
Solution D= = 49 ≠ 0.
7 7

2 −4 3 2
D 3 7 26 D 7 3 5
Thus, by Cramer’s Rule, x = x = = and y = y = =−
D 49 49 D 49 49
26 5
The solution of the system is x = , y =−
49 49
2 x − 2 y + 3z = 0

Example 2 Using Cramer’s Rule solve the following system:  7 y − 9z = 1
5 x − 2 y + 6 z = −2

2 −2 3
Solution D = 0 7 − 9 = 33 ≠ 0.
5 −2 6
Using Cramer’s Rule:
0 −2 3 2 0 3
1 7 −9 0 1 −9
Dx −2 −2 6 4 Dy 5 −2 6 13
x= = = , y= = =−
D 33 11 D 33 11
2 −2 0
0 7 1
Dz 5 −2 −2 34
z= = =−
D 33 33
4 13 34
Therefore, the solution of the system is x = , y =− , z =−
11 11 33

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Example 3 One solution of the following system is x = y = z = 0 (which is known as

the trivial solution). Is there any other solution?
2 x − 2 y + 3z = 0

 7 y − 9z = 0
5 x − 2 y + 6 z = 0

2 −2 3
Solution As shown in the previous example, D = 0 7 − 9 = 33 ≠ 0.
5 −2 6
Thus, the system has a unique solution. But we already have one solution,
namely, x = 0, y = 0, z = 0. So, it is the only solution.

Remark
In the previous sections, you have seen that the determinant of a matrix can be used to
find the inverse of a non-singular matrix. Now you will use it in finding the solution set
of a system of linear equations when the number of equations and the number of
variables are equal.
Consider the linear system (in matrix form), AX = B
If A ≠ 0 , then A is invertible and A−1 ( AX ) = A−1B

( )
⇒ A−1 A X = A−1 B
⇒ IX = A−1B
⇒ X = A−1 B
Therefore, the system has a unique solution.
x + y = 7
Example 4 Solve the system 
 2 x + 3 y = −3
 1 1  x   7 
Solution The system is equivalent to    =  
 2 3  y   −3 
 1 1 1 1
The coefficient matrix is   with = 3− 2 =1
 2 3 2 3

 1 1  3 −1 
⇒  is invertible with inverse  
 2 3  −2 1 
 x   3 −1  7   24 
Hence the solution is:   =    =   ,i.e. x = 24 and y = −17
 y   −2 1  −3   −17 

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 Unit 6 Matrices and Determinants

Exercise 6.6
1 Use Cramer’s Rule to solve each of the following systems.
− 3 x + 5 y = 4 4 x + y = 0
a  b 
 7x + 2y = 6 x − 6 y = 7
 3x + 2 y − z = 5 2 x + 3 y = 5
 
c  x − y + 3z = −15 d  x + 3z = 6
2 x + y + 7 z = −28  5 y − z = 11
 
2 Use Cramer’s Rule to determine whether each of the following homogeneous
systems has exactly one solution (namely, the trivial one):
3x + 2 y − z = 0
− 3 x + 5 y = 0 
a  b 2 x + y + z = 0
 7x + 2 y = 0 5 x − 2 y − z = 0


Key Terms
adjoint elementary row operations scalar matrix
augmented matrix inconsistent singular and non-singular
matrix
cofactor inverse skew-symmetric matrix
column matrix order square matrix
consistent minor symmetric matrix
dependent reduced-echelon form transpose
determinant row triangular matrix
diagonal matrix scalar zero matrix
echelon form

Summary
1 A matrix is a rectangular array of entries arranged in rows and columns.
2 The size or order of a matrix is written as rows × columns.
3 A matrix with only one column is called a column matrix (column vector).
4 A matrix with only one row is called a row matrix (row vector).
5 A matrix with the same number of rows and columns is called a square matrix.

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6 A matrix with all entries 0 is called a zero matrix.

7 A diagonal matrix is a square matrix that has zeros everywhere except possibly
along the main diagonal.
8 The identity (unity) matrix is a diagonal matrix where all the elements of the
diagonal are ones.
9 A scalar matrix is a diagonal matrix where all elements of the diagonal are equal.
10 A lower triangular matrix is a square matrix whose elements above the main
diagonal are all zero.
11 An upper triangular matrix is a square matrix whose elements below the main
diagonal are all zero.
12 Let A = (aij)m×n and B = (bij)m×n be two matrices. Then,
A + B = (aij + bij)m×n and A – B = (aij − bij)m×n.
13 If r is a scalar and A is a given matrix, then rA is the matrix obtained from A by
multiplying each element of A by r.
14 If A=(a ij) is an m × p matrix and B = (bjk) is a p × n matrix, then the product AB
is a matrix C= (Cik) of order m × n, where
Cik = aij b1j + ai2 b 2j + ai3b3j + ... + a ipb pj..
15 The transpose of a matrix A is the matrix found by interchanging the rows and
columns of A. It is denoted by AT.
a b
16 = ad − bc .
c d
17 A minor of aij, denoted by Mij, is the determinant that results from the matrix
when the row and column that contains aij are deleted.
18 The cofactor of aij is (−1)i+jMij. Denote the cofactor of aij, by Cij.
 a11 a12 a13 
 
19 Let A =  a21 a22 a23  . Then we can expand the determinant along any row i or
a 
 31 a32 a33 
any column j. Thus we have the formulae:
ith row expansion: |A| = ai1Ci1+ai2Ci2+ai3Ci3, for any row i (i = 1,2 or 3). or
jth column expansion: |A| = a1jC1j+a2jC2j+a3jC3j, for any column j (j = 1,2 or 3).
20 The adjoint of a square matrix A = (aij) is defined as the transpose of the
matrix C = (Cij) where Cij are the cofactors of the elements aij. Adjoint of A is
denoted by adj A.

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 Unit 6 Matrices and Determinants

1
21 When A is invertible or non-singular, then A−1 = adj ( A) .
| A|
22 Elementary Row operations:
Swapping: Interchanging two rows of a matrix.
Rescaling: Multiplying a row of a matrix by a non-zero constant.
Pivoting: Adding a constant multiple of one row of a matrix on another row.
23 A matrix is in echelon form, if and only if
a the leading entry (the first non-zero entry) in each row after the first is to
the right of the leading entry in the previous row.
b if there are any rows with no leading entries (rows having zeros entirely)
they are at the bottom.
24 A matrix is in reduced-echelon form, if and only if
a it is in echelon form
b the leading entry is 1.
c every entry of a column that has a leading entry, is zero (except the leading
entry).
a1 b1  a x + b1 y = c
25 If ≠ 0, the solutions of  1 are given by
a2 b2 a 2 x + b 2 y = d
c b1 a1 c
d b2 Dx a2 d Dy
x= = , y= = .
a1 b1 D a1 b1 D
a2 b2 a2 b2

a1 b1 c1 a1 x + b1 y + c1 z = d

26 If a 2 b2 c 2 ≠ 0 , then the solutions of a 2 x + b2 y + c 2 z = e are
a3 b3 c3 a x + b y + c z = f
 3 3 3

d b1 c1 a1 d c1 a1 b1 d
e b2 c2 a2 e c2 a 2 b2 e
f b3 c3 Dx a3 f c3 Dy a 3 b3 f D
x= = , y= = and z = = z .
a1 b1 c1 D a1 b1 c1 D a1 b1 c1 D
a2 b2 c2 a2 b2 c2 a 2 b2 c 2
a3 b3 c3 a3 b3 c3 a3 b3 c 3

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Mathematics Grade 11

Review Exercises on Unit 6

 a 6  2 6 
   
1 If 10 d  = 10 − 1 , find a, d , and e.
 e 0  3 0 
   
 2 3 4 3 0 5
   
2 If A =  0 4 6  and B =  5 3 2  , find 5A−2B.
5 8 9 0 4 7
   
 3 3 5 3 5 
     4 5  7
3 Given A =  0 − 1 2  , B =  2 − 3 , C =   , X=   , find where possible:
4 2 1 0 2   − 2 0  8
   
a AB b BA c BC d CB e CX
f XTCCT g B TA – 2B h XTX i BTB + 4C
4 Sofia sells canned food produced by four different producers A, B, C and D. Her
monthly order is:

A B C D
Beef Meat 300 400 500 600

Tomato 500 400 700 750

Soya Beans 400 400 600 500

Find her order, to the nearest whole number, if

a she increases her total order by 25%.
b she decreases her order by 15%.
5 Kelecha wants to buy 1 hammer, 1 saw and 2 kg of nails, while Alemu wants to
buy 1 hammer, 2 saws and 3 kg of nails. They went to two hardware shops and
learned the prices in Birr to be:

Hammer Saw Nails

Shop 1 30 35 7

Shop 2 28 37 6

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 Unit 6 Matrices and Determinants

a Write the items matrix I as a 3 × 2 matrix.

b Write the prices matrix P as a 2 × 3 matrix.
c Find PI.
d What are Kelecha’s cost at shop1 & Alemu’s cost at shop 2?
e Should they buy from shop 1 or shop 2?
 0 − 3 − 4
 
6 If  m 0 8  is a skew-symmetric matrix, what is the value of m?
 4 −8 0 
 

A + AT A − AT
7 a For any square matrix A, check that is symmetric, while is
2 2
skew-symmetric.
b Using a above, show that any square matrix A is expressible as the sum of a
symmetric matrix and a skew-symmetric matrix.
8 Compute the determinants of each of the following matrices
 0 1 4
 4 3.5   
a   b − 7 0 5
 − 7 − 20 − 2 5 8
 
a b 
9 If A =   , show that det(rA) = r2.det(A).
c d 
a+b c c
10 Prove that a b+c a = 4abc
b b c+a
11 In each of the following, find x, if
3x −1 3 −3 − x
a = b = 15
x −3 2 3x 4

 2 4 2
 
12 Find the inverse of the following matrix:  3 1 1 
1 0 1
 

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Mathematics Grade 11

0 −1 5 
 
13 Reduce the matrix A = 1 3 − 2  to reduced-echelon form.
2 1 4 

14 Determine the values of a and b for which the system
3 x − ay = 1

bx + 4 y = 6
a has only one solution;
b has no solution;
c has infinitely many solutions.
15 Determine the values of a and b for which the system
3x − 2 y + z = b

5x − 8 y + 9 z = 3
2 x + y + az = − 1

a has only one solution;
b has infinitely many solutions;
c has no solution.
16 For what values of k does the following system of equations have no solution?
 x + 2 y − z = 12

 2x − y − 2z = 2 .
 x − 3 y + kz = 11

17 Solve each of the following.
 5 2 1   x  8
     2 + β − β   x   5
a  3 2 0   y = 5 b     =  
1 0 2   z  3  − β 1+ β   y  0
    
18 Use Cramer’s Rule to solve each of the following.
− x + 4 y − z = 1
 2x + y = 7 
a  b  2x − y + z = 0
3 x − 2 y = 0  x + y + z =1

19 Solve the above by first finding A−1 and then using X = A−1B.

264