LECTURE SERIES ONE

WHY DO WE TEACH MATHEMATICS IN SCHOOL?

Lesson Objectives
By the end of this unit, it is expected of you to answer the following questions.
1. What is mathematics?
2. Explain the importance of mathematics to the upper primary teacher
3. How does mathematics relate to the society?
4. What does it mean to learn and teach mathematics?

Area of concentration
2.1 Definitions Mathematics
2.2 The relationship between mathematics and science
2.3 Importance of mathematics teaching and learning
2.4 Mathematics role in the society
2.5 The meaning of mathematics learning and teaching
2.6 Mathematical terms
2.7 Mathematical operations

WHAT IS MATHEMATICS?
Mathematics is one of the oldest of all field of study. It is often referred to, as used, praised,
and disparaged and has long been one of the most central components of human thought.
Mathematics is a word whose meaning has varied widely from time to time and from person
to person. There is no general agreement on precisely what mathematics is. Definition of
mathematics is vary in relation to the type of investigation of the definer.
Each definition indicates the aspect of mathematics which the investigator favors. This
implies that our ideas of mathematics depend so much on our own experiences and our own
knowledge of subject. Some may think of calculations involving addition, subtraction,
multiplication and division. Some may want to include topics like algebra, geometry, and
trigonometry. Others fell it involves logical thinking. From all these mathematics is seen as
been used in finding answers to questions and problems, which arise, in every life and trades
and professions.
This session discusses some definitions of mathematics.

Objectives
By the end of the session you should be able to:
a) Explain definition of mathematics; and
b) Explain the nature of mathematics

According to James and James Dictionary of Mathematics, ‘’Mathematics is a logical study

of shapes, arrangement, quantity and many related concept’’. It is divided into three fields:
algebra, analysis and geometry. No clear division can be made since branches have become
thoroughly intermingled. Algebra involves numbers and their abstractions, analyses involve
continuity and limits, and geometry is concerned with space and related concepts.
Technically, mathematics is postulational science in which necessary conclusions are drawn
from specified premises.
Mathematics is regarded as science of quantity and space where symbols forms are used to
express them. It is a science of making general conclusion about quantity and space. Quantity
refers to arithmetic and computations. Space covers geometry, spatial relationship and
theories including the science of measurement. Dedicative science using axioms and

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 definitions and arguments .General conclusion lead to observation about patterns,
assumptions, dedications and conclusions.
Mathematics can be seen as the servant of many field while been of great importance in it
own right. Mathematics thus, is of international form. The nature of mathematics there fore
depends on the people who do it. It is regarded as the ‘queen’ of sciences because it gives
ideas of extension in science.

Morris Kline declared that mathematics is a creative or inventive process, deriving ideas and
suggestions from real problems. The process is base upon intuition and contraction, with the
life’s sources of this process coming from real problems. The abstractions are to be extracted
from the real problems and would have definite meaning in terms of the situation. Kline sees
the physical world as the wellspring for the development for the abstract notion.
It is clear that the greatest of our mathematics creations is the material universe itself and the
true nature of mathematic is, it is physical in nature. Mathematics is a symbolic representation
of physical reality. Mathematics requires intelligence and the ability to learn. It is a product
of intelligence creating or discovering a way to successfully represent physical reality with
symbols.

Richard Skemp described mathematics as the most abstract and so the most powerful of all
theatrical systems. It is therefore potentially the most useful, and scientists particular, and also
economists, navigators, businessmen and engineers, it indispensable ‘tool’ (data processing
tool) for their work. The main problem with mathematics lie in its great abstractness and
generality achieved by successive generation of particular intelligent individuals each of whom
have been abstracting from or generalizing concept of earlier generations.

An eminent English mathematician philosopher, Bertrand Russell regarded mathematics as

the subject in which we never know what we are talking about nor weather what we are saying
is true; We normally use undefined terms to begin explanations or discoveries e.g. point, line,
etc and we try to define other object in terms of this undefined terms and later make
prepositions. Mathematics relies on logic and creativity, and it pursued both for variety of
practical purposes and for its intrinsic interest. For some people the essence of mathematics
lies in its beauty and its intellectual challenge. For others, the chief value of mathematics is
how it applies to their own work. Because mathematics plays such a central role in modern
culture, some basic understanding of the nature of mathematics is prerequisite for scientific
literacy. To achieve this, student need to perceive mathematics as part of the scientific
endeavor, comprehend the nature of mathematical thinking, and becoming familiar with the
key mathematical ideas and skills (Science for all Americans).

It is evident that mathematics is applicable to many entities. Mathematics is many- sided

science. It is an outstanding achievement of human thought. It can not be uniquely defined in
a few sentence or paragraphs. But the outsider can gradually develop rich senses of the nature
of mathematics by examining it from various perspectives and by doing some of the things that
the insiders do. It called for teachers to involve their student in doing mathematics.
Mathematics is a way of organizing our experiences of the world. It enriches our understanding
and enables us to communicate and make sense of our experiences. It also gives as enjoyment.
By doing mathematics we can solve a range of practical tasks and real-life problems. We use
it in many areas of our lives. In mathematic we use ordinary language and special language of
mathematics .We need to teach student to use both languages. We can work on problems within
mathematics and we can work on the problems that use mathematics as a tool, such as problem
in science, economies, geography, etc

Mathematics can be describe and explained but it can also predict what might happen. That is
why mathematics is important.

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 Exercise 1.1
1. Discuss the assertion that mathematics is an abstract subject.
2. What is mathematics? include ideas related to
(a ) Its definition:
Mathematics is the study of any patterns or relationship, whereas natural science is
concerned only with those patterns that are related to the observable world. Although
Mathematics began long ago in practical problems, it soon focused on abstractions from
the material world, and then on even more abstract relationship among this abstraction. In
this session, we shall learn about the common feature shared by mathematics and science.

Objectives
By the end of the session you should be able to explain the main features shared between
mathematics and science.
(b) Is it being a creation or a discovery.
Illustrate your answer with specific mathematical ideas and symbols.

MATHEMATICS AND SCIENCE

Mathematics share many of the features of science, such as the believe in underlying order ,the
ideas of honest and openness in reporting research, the importance of criticisms by colleagues
in judging the value of new work, and essential role play by imagination.
Mathematics is also like science in that it incorporates both finding answers to the fundamental
questions and solving practical problems.
Through mathematics, people are able to think about the world of object and happenings and
to communicate those thought in ways that reveal unity and order. The numbers, lines, angles,
shapes, dimensions, averages, probabilities, ratios, operations, cycles, correlation, etc. that
make up the world of mathematics enable people to make sense of a universe that otherwise
might seem to be hopelessly complicated. Mathematical patterns and relationship have been
develop and refined over countries, and the process is still ongoing vigorously. Perhaps that is
because today mathematics is use in more fields of endeavor than ever before it has becoming
more essential in every day life.

As a practical matter, mathematics is a science of patterns and order. Its domain is numbers,
chance, form, algorithms and change. Mathematics relies on logic rather than on observation
as it stands of truth, yet employs observation, simulation and even experimentation as the
means of discovering the truth.(Mathematical Science Educational Board, 1989p. 31)
Mathematics plays a special role in education as a consequence of its universal applicability.
Results of mathematics-theorem and theories-are significant and useful. Through theorems,
mathematics offers science both a foundation of truth and a standard of certainty. Thus the
Language of mathematics for the formulation of laws physics is a wonderful gift. Mathematics
has made in an indelible imprint on part of modern science. Whether planned or unplanned,
there is cross-fertilization between science and mathematics in problems, theories and
concepts. This has never been greater than it is now. All students should have experience of
discovering for themselves that an idea can be represented in different but analogous ways.
One line of research on how people learn and emphasizes the helpfulness of making multiple
representations of the same idea and translating from one to another. When a student can begin
to represent relationship in tables in graphs and symbols and in words, one can be confident
that the student has really grasped its meaning. The way student learn to make those
representations and translations is to see them and practice them in contexts in which they care
about what the answer is. Students engaged in this king of activity will eventually get the idea
of the connectedness in mathematics.

As in other sciences, simplicity is one of the highest values in mathematics. Some

mathematicians try to identify the smallest set of rules from which many others propositions
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 can be logically derived. Theories and applications in mathematical work influence each
other. Sometimes a practical problems lead to the development of new mathematics theories;
often mathematic developed for it own sake turns out to have new practical applications.
Much of mathematics is done because of it intrinsic interest, without regard to its usefulness.
Still most mathematics does have applications and much work in mathematics is stimulated
by applied problems. Science and technology provide a large share of such application and
stimulants. In doing their work, scientist and engineers may attempt to do some useful
mathematics themselves, or many called mathematicians for help. The help may be to
suggest some already-completed mathematics that will suffice or to develop some new
mathematics to do the job. On the one hand, there have been some remarkable cases of
finding new use for centuries-old mathematics. On the other hand, the needs of natural
science or technology have often led to the formulation of new mathematics.
In school practice science and technology should contribute to understanding the value of
mathematics, and mathematics should help in doing science and engineering. The usefulness
of mathematics in science and technology will be clear to students if they experience it often
in simple and later sophisticated forms.
Science and technology are rich and especially important contexts in which to learn value
of mathematics and to develop mathematical problem-solving skills. But they are not the
only ones. Art, music, social studies, history, physical education and sports, driver
education, home economies, and other school subjects are appropriate place to learn, as use,
mathematics.

Execise1.2
1. Identify and explain three features that mathematics share with other science.
2. Explain how others disciplines like music, home economies, driver education, and social
sciences also create context for student to lean the value of mathematics.

CYCLE OF INVESTIGATION
We have learnt about how mathematics share many features with science. In this session we
shall learn more about one other characteristic of mathematics as a cycle of investigation.

Learning how to solve certain kinds of well-defined mathematics is important for student but
does not automatically lead them to the broad understanding of how mathematical
investigations are carried out. Mathematics can be characterized as a cycle of investigation
that is intended to lead to the development of valid mathematical ideas. It is true that
mathematical investigations involve certain processes, but the order is not fixed and the
emphasis place on each process varies greatly. There are three components of the cycle –
representation, manipulation, and validation. Each of the three parts of the cycle should be
studied in its own right as part of what constitutes leaning mathematics. Students should have
the chance to use the entire cycle in carrying out their own mathematical investigations. The
purpose of this experience is to produce not professional mathematicians but adults who are
familiar with mathematical inquiry.

3.1 Representation.
The process of representing something by a symbol or expression is taken by many students to
refer only to ‘’real things.’’ ‘Let A stand for the area of the floor in this room’’ is easier for
young student to grasp than ‘Let Y equal the area of any rectangle.’’ First student have to be
convinced that substituting abstract symbols for actual quantities is worth the effort. Then they
need to work their way toward realization that using symbols to represent abstraction, also pays
off in solving problems. Perhaps this means bringing students to see that in the world of
mathematics numbers, shapes, operations, symbols and symbols that summarize sets of
symbols are ‘’real’’ as blocks, cattle, and cedis, dollars and pound.

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 3.2 Manipulation
As to manipulation, student should bear in mind that there if always a set of rules that must be
strictly adhered to and the rules can be made up. That is where the rigor and game-playing
spirit of mathematics meet. Imagine some qualities, assign them properties, select some
operations, represent everything by symbols, set a problem and then, following the rules of
logic that have been adopted, move the symbols around to see what solutions emerge. This
process aids finding solutions to real life problems.

3.3 Validation
Validation deals with how good the solutions are. Students are use to working mathematical
problems in which the producers are predetermined and ‘’correct’’ answers are expected. But
in real mathematical investigations, a good solution is one that results in new mathematical
discoveries or that lead to practical out comes in science, medicine, engineering, business, or
elsewhere. Thus validation in mathematic is a matter of judgment, not authority.
For practical purposes, the cycle of investigation employs heavily the use of concrete material.
Concrete object should be employed routinely to help student discover and explain symbolic
relationship. Student should come to see that numbers and shapes can be use to describe many
things in the world around them. Eventually they should to realize that just as letters and words
make up a language in reading and writing numbers and shapes make up a language in
mathematics. The routine line use of concrete object continues to be essential to help student
connect real things and event with their abstract representations. The ability to picture and do
things in their heads will be enhanced by frequent reference to real-world applications. Students
should be encouraged to describe all sorts of things mathematically-in terms of numbers,
shapes, and operations.
Exercise 1.3
1. Identify and explain the components of the cycle of investigation.
2. Why should teachers engage student in routine use of concrete materials?

ROLE OF MATHEMATICS IN THE SOCIETY

Mathematics As An Invention And As A Discovery

We have seen mathematics is science and is often characterized by a cycle of investigation in

which our student must be engaged. In this session we shall lean about the view of
mathematics as a creation of the human mind and as a discovery.

Objectives
By the end of the session you should able to:
a) Explain why mathematics is viewed as an interventions: and
b) Identify the aspect of mathematics that is discovered.

The basic concepts of mathematics are abstractions from experience e.g whole number and
fractions were suggested by physical counterparts. Many others are creations of the human
mind with or without partial help from experience .For example, the irrational number,√2,
was invented by mathematician to represent the hypotenuse of a right angle triangle with both
arms one unit long. Others are negative numbers, variables to represent changing physical
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phenomena like temperature,!# , etc. Numbers and numerals have been created or invented by
the Babylonians and Egyptians. The Romans and Mayans invented their own numerals. The
numerals vary from one group of people to another, but the structure, which shows the
relationship between these numerals is there already though, cannot be handled physically.
The structures need to be discovered and this lead to discovery nature of mathematics, but
proofs, operations, numerals etc. invented and so are creation of the human mind.

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 Reality is something that can exist, it is inherent truth about existence of an object, e.g areas,
perimeter, etc all exist in reality. The human mind is to play a great role in the discovery of
all these .For example, Galois discovered the group theory; Leibnitz and others are
associated with the discovery of Calculus, Newton with mechanics etc.
One school of thought believe that mathematics exists in nature, just as certain laws of
physics exists in nature, and that mathematicians discover elements and laws of
mathematics. Other school feels that mathematics is more like the work of art, a painting
that does not exist until the artist; in this case the mathematician creates it. Mathematics
regarded as an art because we use a lot of imagination in mathematics as we do in art. We
create beauty in mathematics, using patterns like painter or a poet, but mathematical beauty
is more lasting than that of art because unlike the poet of painter, the mathematician’s
patterns are made of ideas and ideas wear less with time than words

Exercise 1.4
1. Explain why mathematics is regarded as
a) A creation of human mind:
b) A discovery.

IMPORTANCE OF MATHEMATICS

1. Math is good for the brain

A study done by Dr. Tanya Evans at Stanford University proved that the students who solve
math problems in their daily life have higher logical skills than those students who don’t solve
the problems. Apart from that, the students also solve math problems for their brain exercise.
To make our bodies stay fit, we do exercise. In the same way, to stay our brain healthy and
active, we need to do brain exercise. There are plenty of ways to do brain exercise but the most
effective and robust way to do brain exercise.

2. Math helps you with your finances

Math is also helpful with your finance. With the help of math, you can easily make your
financial budget. You can calculate how much money you have and how you can spend your
money. Almost every single human in the world uses math for their finance. The salaried
person uses math to calculate their expenses and salaries. On the other hand, the businessman
uses math to calculate their profit and loss. They also use it to calculate their loans and many
more. It emerges the importance of business mathematics and also playing a crucial role in
business accounting.

3. Math makes you a better cook

Math is quite useful for the cook. Because in almost every recipe, there is a need to put the
ingredients. Such as one teaspoon turmeric, a tablespoon of garlic powder. As well as the half-
cup of flour is the same thing as eight tablespoons of flour. Therefore to make anything
delicious, the cook needs to know the perfect measurements of the ingredients. Apart from that,
if the cook needs to cook food for many people. Then they need to know how much ingredients
are required to cook food for those number of people. Most of the recipes are created to serve
4 or 6 people, but only math can help you to calculate the ingredients to cook food for more
than six or more people.

4. Better problem-solving skills

Problem-solving is one of the most important factors in our life. Math is one of the most
effective ways to increase your analytical thinking. As I mentioned earlier, it also helps us to
improve our logical thinking. Both this analytical thinking and logical thinking help us to
become better problem solvers. In this way, we enhance our ability to solve the problem more

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effectively. The more we solve mathematics problems, the better we solve the real-life
problems.

5. Every career uses math

There is no profession in the world that doesn’t use math. We know that mathematicians and
scientists rely on mathematical principles to perform their basic work. Engineers also use math
to perform their daily tasks. From blue-collar factory workers to the managerial level white-
collar professionals, everyone uses math in their work. The use of math may vary for them;
likewise, the blue-collar workers use the basic arithmetic to operate efficiently in the assembly
lines. On the other hand, blue-collar professionals use advanced math to make managerial
decisions. The importance of mathematics also becomes crucial in the time of salary getting
paid to the employees.

6 Great career options

Mathematics offers a great career opportunity for students. In most careers, employers want to
hire employees who can solve complex problems. If you are good at math and have a keen
ability to solve complex problems, then you are at the top positions for applying for many jobs.
Finance analysis and cost estimation is part of every business. Therefore there are excellent
career options for the students to get math-related jobs. The importance of mathematics is not
just limited to the mathematician, even a fashion designer, a chef, a tailor, a barber all these
careers require the knowledge of mathematics.

7 Math for Fitness

Math is quite useful to stay fit and healthy. With the proper understanding of math, we can
calculate how much food we require in our daily life. How much calorie intake we expect to
stay fit. Apart from that, when it comes to food choice, we can calculate which food will give
us how much calories and fat. Thus we can make the right decision about which food we should
eat to get healthy. Besides, when it comes to gyming, we also calculate how much reps we
should do to pump our body and get it into shape. From calorie intake to calorie burning, you
can calculate almost everything with the help of math. It helps you to get better statistics of
your fitness.

8. Helps you understand the world better

Do you know that everything in nature is based on math? Even the math offers us the golden
ratio formula, which allows us to get the beauty of anything. If you want to judge the beauty
of something, then you can perform the golden ration on that thing to declare it beautiful or
not. Apart from that, you can also find the mathematical figure in the real world, likewise the
hexagonal bee combs, spider webs, triangle mountains, and many more. Every single part of
nature is based on math. You can also put the math calculation to understand nature creations.

9. Time management
Time is the key to success for everyone. Therefore we have to be more calculative for time
management. Math helps us to do better time management. The importance of math is reflected
in time management tasks. With the help of math, you can make a wise decision on how you
can spend your time effectively.
Suppose that you want to reach somewhere, and you have a few minutes, then you can calculate
the minimum time that you are going to require to reach the destination with various modes of
transportation. On the other hand, if you are doing your homework, then you can also calculate
how much time will require to finish the homework. Especially during your mathematics
exams, you can calculate the time that will take to solve the particular question. Time
management is also emerging the importance of mathematics in society.

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10. To Save Money
As mentioned earlier, math helps calculate your finance. But do you know that it also helps
you to save your money? Most of the time, we spend money on unwanted stuff. Math helps us
to calculate how much money we will lose to buy that stuff. Apart from that, life is all about
risks. Almost every single person in the world takes the financial risk to become rich. But only
a few get success. Math helps you to calculate the risk before investing money in some financial
scheme.

WHAT DOES IT MEAN TO ‘’DO MATHEMATICS’’?

In the previous session, we learnt mathematics as a discovery or human creation. In this session
we shall discuss the traditional view of school mathematics and what doing mathematics really
entails. Recognize that doing mathematics is engaging in the science of pattern and order.

Discussions Questions:
Ponder over the following questions of a few minutes
a) Distinguish between traditional and modern view of school mathematics; and
b) How would you describe what you are doing when you are doing mathematics?
c) Write a few sentences about what it means to know and do mathematics based on your
experiences.

5.1 Traditional View of School Mathematics

Ø Teacher represents the sources of all that is to be known in mathematics.
Ø Teacher review previous knowledge and move on to explain the new ideas of the lesson.
Ø Teacher demonstrates to the student how they are to do assigned exercise.
Ø Even with hands on activities using manipulative, teacher tell students exactly how to use
the materials in the prescribed way.
Ø Students’ attention is mainly on the teacher’s direction and not on mathematical ideas. The
focus is on getting answers and teacher determines if an answer is correct.
Ø Student emerge with the view that mathematics is a series of arbitrary rule handed
down by the teacher, who in turn get it from a ‘’reliable source’. Student role is largely
passive. They accept what they are told and attempted to master each new rule. The danger
is student always have to check the teacher for correctness of answers.

As students progress, many refuse to attempt a problem that has not first been explained by
the teacher. Saying ‘’you haven’t shown us how to do this.’’ Student accept that every problem
has a predetermined solution and only one way to solve any problem and that the teacher most
show the way first. This is describe as ‘’follow-the –rules, computation-dominated, answer-
oriented view of mathematics’’ it distorts what mathematic is really about. This tradition
system rewards the leaning of rules but offer little opportunity actually to do mathematic.
Students are involved mainly in listening, copying, memorizing and drills.

Modern View of Mathematics

Mathematics is a science of pattern and order. This definition challenges the popular social
view of mathematics as a discipline dominated by computation and rules without reasons.
Science is a process of figuring things out or making sense of things. It beings with problematic
situations. Mathematics is a science of things that have a pattern of regularity and logical order.
Finding and exploring this regularity or order and then and making sense of it is what is doing
mathematics is all about. Even every young pupil can and should be involve in the science of
pattern and order. Notice that (i) 6+7, 5+8 and 4+9 are the same, why? What is pattern? Is
there any relationship?

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(ii) When two odd numbers are multiplied the product is odd but when they added or subtracted
the result is even why? Any logic behind?

Pattern is not just in numbers, but in everything in the world in which we live. Pattern and order
are in buildings, in music, in commerce, in science, medicine manufacturing and sociology.
Mathematics discovers this order, makes sense of it, and uses it in multitude of fascinating
ways improving our lives and expanding our knowledge. School mathematics must help
student with this processing of discovery. Students should be able to count accurately, know
the basic fact of operations, compute whole numbers, fractions and decimals using efficient
methods, finding gradients, do differentiation and integration, state geometric ratios, etc. But
repetitive drill of the bits pieces is not ‘doing mathematics’ and will never result in
understanding. There is a time for drill and practice but should never come before
understanding. Drill may produce short term result on traditional test, but long term effects
have produce citizen happy to admit they can’t do mathematics. More mastery of skills is not
doing mathematics. Doing mathematics is engaging science of pattern and order

Most student think of mathematics as an old dull subject that was invented hundreds or
thousands of years ago. But mathematics is alive and constantly changing. In fact, outstanding
problems in mathematics are quit recently solved and others are yet to be solved. The common
believe is that mathematics is to be pursued only in a clear-cut, logical fashion. This belief is
perpetuated by the way mathematics is presented in most textbooks (and so how it is taught).
It is often reduce to a series of definitions, method to solve various type of problems and
theorems. These theorems are justified by means of proofs and deductive reasoning. Proofs
give mathematics its strength but the power of imagination is as important as the power of
deductive reasoning.

Textbook rarely show the long history of development of a concept or any of the blind alleys
that were taken. The mathematician seeks out relationships in single cases, looks for patterns,
and only then tries to generalize. It is usually not until much later that the generalization is
proved and finds it way into the textbook. It is therefore important for students to:
1. Understand in what sense that mathematics is the study of pattern and relationship
2. Become familiar with some of it patterns and relationship
3. Learn to use them in daily life

The latter two of these general goals should be sought in parallel rather than sequentially. For
the most part, leaning mathematics in abstract before seeking to use it has not proven to be
effective. Thus, teachers should arrange instruction so that student encounter any given
mathematical pattern or relationship in many different contexts before, during, and after its
introduction in mathematics itself. Learning skills and remembering fact in mathematics are
important but they are only means to an end. Fact and skills are not important in themselves.
They are important when need them to solve a problem. Students will remember fact and skills
easily when they use them to solve real problems. As well as using mathematics to solve real
life problems, student should also be taught about the different part of mathematics, and how
they fit together. Mathematics can be taught using step-by-step approach to a topic but it is
important to show that many topics are linked and that mathematics is done all over the world.
Exercise 1.5
1. State two disadvantage of employing the traditional approach to teaching mathematics.
2. Why should mathematics teachers engage their students in the science of pattern and
order?
3. Explain two reasons why mathematics is important.

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 LECTURE SERIES TWO

PHILOSOPHIES GUIDING THE TEACHING AND LEARNING OF MATHEMATICS

Lesson Objectives:
1. Explain the following terms: beliefs, attitude and values in relation to mathematics
teaching and learning
2. Identify at least five attitudes commonly displayed by teachers towards the teaching
of mathematics
3. Explain the implication of these attitudes towards the teaching and learning of
mathematics
4. Identify pupils/learners attitude, beliefs and values in studying mathematics and
explain its implication to the teacher.

Area of concentration
2.1 Definitions and interpretations of the concepts: Beliefs, attitudes and values
2.2 Implication of teacher attitudes on pupil’s learning of mathematics
2.3 pupils attitude and its Implication to teachers’ teachings
DEFINITON OF PHILOSOPHY OF MATHEMATICS
A philosophy is regarded as an explanation, which attempts to make some kind of sense out of
the natural disorder of set of experiences. A philosophy amounts to a process of refining and
ordering experiences and values; it seeks relation among things, which are normally felt to be
disparate, and finds important differences between things normally confused as the same; it is
the description of a theory concerning the nature of something. In particular, a philosophy of
mathematics essentially amounts to an attempted reconstruction in which “chaotic” mass of
mathematical knowledge accumulated over the ages is given a sense of order. A philosophy is
function of time and so may become out dated or have to be altered in the light of additional
experiences. This session discusses some definitions of philosophy of mathematics.

Philosophy of mathematics is the branch of mathematics that studies the philosophical

assumptions, foundations, and implications of mathematics. It aims at providing an account of
the nature and methodology of mathematics and to understand the place of mathematics in
people’s lives. The logical and structural nature of mathematics itself makes this study both
broad and unique among its philosophical counterparts.

Philosophy of mathematics is also regarded as branch of the philosophy of science. However,

because of its subject matter, the philosophy of mathematics occupies a special place in the
philosophy of science. Natural science investigate entities that are located in space in time. But
methods of investigation of mathematics differ significantly from the methods of investigation
in the natural sciences. Science acquires general knowledge using inductive methods, while
mathematical knowledge appears to be acquired through deduction from basic principles.
Secondly, theories of the natural science appear to be less certain and more open to revision
than mathematical theories. For these reasons, mathematics poses problems of a quite
distinctive kind for philosophy.

Philosophy of mathematics in one sense is concerned with problems that are closely related
to central problems of metaphysics and epistemology. Mathematics appears to study abstract
entities. This raises questions about what the nature of mathematical entities is how we can
acquire knowledge of mathematical entities. It becomes difficult to believe if mathematical
objects can somehow belong to the concrete world after all.

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Philosophy of mathematics, in another sense, has turned out that to some extent it is possible
to bring mathematical methods to bear on philosophical questions concerning mathematics.
The setting in which this has been done is that of mathematical logics when it is broadly
conceived as comprising proof theory model theory, set theory , etc. Philosophy of
mathematics is concerned with two major questions: one concerning the meanings of ordinary
mathematics sentences and the other concerning the issue of whether abstract objects exist. The
first is a straightforward question of interpretation: what is the best way to interpret standard
mathematical sentences and theories such as “ is prime,” “1+1=2,” and “There are infinitely
many prime numbers.”? The main task of the philosophy of mathematics therefore is to
construct a semantic theory for the language of mathematics. Semantics is concerned with what
certain expressions mean in ordinary discourse.

Philosophers interested in the question concerning meaning because 1) it is not at all obvious
what the right answer is , and 2)the various answers seem to have deep philosophical
implications. More specifically, different interpretation of mathematics seem to produce
different metaphysical views about the nature of reality. The are sentence of arithmetic, which
seem to make straightforward claims about certain objects. For instance,”7 is odd” is a sentence
which appears to be simple subject-predicate sentence of the form “P is Q”. The sentence “7
is odd” seems to make it simple and direct claim about the number 7 .This however is where
the puzzle is. First, it is not clear what the number 7 is supposed to be. Second, what can of
thing is the number? Some ‘antirealist philosophers felt there are simply no such things as
numbers. Others (realists)think that there are such things as numbers (as well as other
mathematical).

Even among the realists, there are several different views of what kind of thing a number is.
Some realists think that numbers are mental objects(something like ideas in people,s heads).
Other realists claim that numbers exist outside of people,s heads, as features of the physical
word. There is, however, a third view of the nature of numbers, known as Platonism of
mathematical Platonism that has been more popular in the history of philosophy who believed
that numbers are abstract objects, both nonphysical and non-mental.

However, many philosophers do not believe in abstract object. The question of whether abstract
objects exist is one of the oldest most controversial questions of philosophy. The view that
such things do exist goes back to Plato, and serious resistance to the view can be traced back
at least to Aristotle.This on-going controversy has survived for more than 2,000 years.

A mathematical object is an abstract object arising in philosophy of mathematics and

mathematics. Commonly encountered mathematic objects include numbers, permutations,
partitions matrices, sets, functions, and relations. Geometry as a branch of mathematics has
such object as hexagons, points, line, triangles, circle, spheres, polyhedral, topological spaces
etc. Another branch- Algebra, has groups, rings, etc. Philosophy of mathematics is also
concerned with the question:”Do abstract objects exist?” a question deeply related to the
semantic question about how the sentence and theories of mathematics should be interpreted.
Thus if sentence such as “7 is odd” are true, then it would seem natural to endorse the view
that abstract object exist.

Exercise 6.1
1. What is a mathematical object?
2. Identify and explain two definitions of philosophy of mathematics.
3. State two ways philosophy of mathematics differs from philosophy of science.
4. Identify two main questions that philosophy of mathematics is concerned with.
5. State the views held by each of the following philosophies about mathematical
objects. (a) Realists (b) Antirealists
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 PLATONISM
Before pupil’s perceptions of the subject of mathematics can be analysed, the nature of
mathematics itself must be examined, interestingly, there may not be just one mathematics.
Lerman (1983) identified two alternative conceptions of the nature of mathematics, which he
called absolutist and fallibilist views. (Grouws, (1992), and Copes (1979 )proposed four types
of conceptions; absolutism, multiplism, relativism, and dynamism. Three major philosophies
of mathematics, which dominated the foundations of mathematics, are Platonism, Formalism
and Constructivism. This session deals with the beliefs of Platonism.

Platonism or mathematical Platonism has been more popular in the history of philosophy.
They hold the view that numbers are abstract objects, where an abstract object is both
nonphysical and non-metal. According to Platonists, abstract object exist but not anywhere in
the physical world or in people’s minds. In fact, they do not exist in space and time at all.
Notable among the Platonists were plato (1941), Thom (1971). Mathematical Platonism,
formally defined, is the view that (a) there exist abstract objects; objects that are wholly non-
spatiotemporal, nonphysical, and non-metal, and (b) there are true mathematical sentences that
provide true descriptions such objects.

In defining what an abstract object is, Platonists hold a consensus view that the true defining
trait of an abstract object is non-spatiotemporality. That is, abstract objects are not located
anywhere in the physical universe, and they are also entirely non-metal, but they have always
existed and they always will exist. This does not preclude having mental ideas of abstract
objects. Platonist believes that one have these mental ideas. For example, one might have
mental ideas of the number7. This does not however mean that the number 7 is just a mental.
What Platonists mean about the number 7 being an abstract object, is that it is a real and
objective thing, just like the moon and stars, existing independently of people and their thinking
but, unlike the moon or stars, it is nonphysical.

Platonist also holds the view that abstract objects are also unchanging and entirely non-causal.
Because abstract objects are not extended in space and made of physical matter, they cannot
enter into cause-and –effect relationships with other objects. Another view held by Platonist is
that mathematical theorems provide true descriptions of such objects. For example, using the
sequence of positive integers: 1,2,3, …..,the theory of arithmetic says what this sequence of
abstract objects is like. mathematicians have discovered interesting facts about this sequence.
For instance, Euclid prove more than 2000 years ago that there are infinitely many prime
numbers among the positive integers. Thus, according to Platonists, the sequence of positive
integers is an object of study, just like the solar system is an object of study for astronomers.
Number is not the only kind of mathematics object that exist. There are many different kinds
of mathematical objects, such as functions, sets, vectors, circles, etc, which are all abstract
objects. Platonists also believe that there are such things as set-theoretic hierarchies and that
set theory describes these structures. This is so also for all the various branches of mathematics.
Platonists thus defined mathematics as the study of the nature of various mathematical
structures, which are abstract in nature.

Platonism is over two million years old. It has been one of the most popular views among
philosophers of mathematics. Yet, for the most of the history of philosophy. mathematical
Platonism was stagnant. In the late 19th century a German, Gottlob Frege, who founded modern
mathematical logic, developed what is widely thought to be the most powerful argument in
favor of Platonism; but he did not alter the formulation of the view. Likewise, in the 20th
century the Austrian Kurt Godel and William Van Orman Quine of the United States
introduced hypotheses in an attempt to explain how human beings could acquire knowledge of
abstract objects. They too did not alter the Platonist view itself.
Platonists believe that mathematical objects exist and their existence is an objective fact quite
independent of our knowledge of them. The objects are real and definite with definite
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properties, some known and some unknown. Every mathematical question has an answer
(whether we can determine it or not). The mathematician does not invent anything because it
is already there. He can only discover. Based on these values, the main aim for mathematics
education is the transmission of mathematical knowledge as good in itself. It is good because
it trains the mind not because it is used in everyday lives.

Self-Assessment QUESTIONS
1. Identify and explain three major views held by Platonists.
2. List five personalities associated with Platonism.
3. What is the name of the German who is known to have founded modern mathematical
logic?.
4. To the Platonists, the main aim for mathematics education is……….

FORMALISM
Formalism describes an emphasis on form over content or meaning in the arts, literature, or
philosophy. A practitioner of formalism, or a person who belongs to the school of formalism,
is called a formalist. A formalist, with respect to some discipline, holds that there is no
transcendent meaning to that discipline other than the literal content created by a practitioner.
Formalists within a discipline are completely concerned with “the rules of the game,” with the
belief that no other external truth exists that can be achieved beyond those given rules. In this
session, we shall discuss Formalism as a philosophy of mathematics, their main beliefs and
criticism against formalism.

What is Formalism?
Advocates of formalism in mathematics claim that mathematics is no more than the symbols
written down by the mathematicians, which is based on logic and a few elementary rules alone.
Non-formalists, within that mathematics hold an opposing view that there are some things
inherently true ,and are not, necessarily, dependent on the symbols within mathematics so much
as a greater truth. Formalism thus lends itself well to disciplines based upon axiomatic systems.
Formalists do not believe in the existence of mathematical objects. They believe that
mathematics consists of axioms, definitions and theorems. Mathematics is concerned with
formal symbolic systems mathematics is regarded as a collection of such abstract
developments, in which the terms are mere symbols. Mathematics is viewed as devoid of
concrete content and contains only ideal symbolic elements. (They are teachers of rules and
formulae and instrumental learning).

In the foundations of mathematics, formalism is associated with a certain rigorous

mathematical method. In common usage, formalism means the out- turn of the effort towards
formalization of a given limited area. In other words, matters can be formally discussed once
captured in a formal system. Formalism also more precisely refers to a certain school in the
philosophy of mathematics, which stresses axiomatic proofs through theorems, specifically
associated with David Hilbert. Other formalists, such as Rudulf Carnap, Alfred Tarski and
Haskell Curry, considered mathematics to be the investigation of formal axiom systems.

Formalism is a theory that holds that mathematic statements and logic statements can be
thought of as statements about the consequences of certain string manipulation rules. We can
see Euclidian geometry as a game played by moving around certain strings of symbols called
axioms according to a set of rules called of inference to generate new strings. This game can
be used to prove that the Pythagorean Theorem is valid because the string representing the
Pythagorean Theorem can be constructed using only the stated rules.

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Formalism states that the truths expressed in logic and mathematics are not about numbers,
sets, or any other subject matter. They are not really about anything at all. Their shapes and
locations have no meaning unless they are given an interpretation.

Deductivism is one version of formalism. In deductivism, the Pythagorean Theorem is not an

absolute truth, but a relative one. This is to say, that if you interpret the strings in such a way
that rules of the game become true then you have to accept that the theorem, or, rather, the
interpretation of the theorem you have given it must be a true statement.
Under deductivism, the same view is held to be true for all other statements of formal logic and
mathematics. Thus, formalism needs not means that these deductive sciences are nothing more
than meaningless symbolic games. It is usually hoped that there exists some interpretation in
which the rules of the game hold.

A major early proponent of formalism was David Hilbert, who first attempted to make a
complete and consistent axiomatization of all of mathematics. Hilbert really is not considered
a strict formalist as formalism is defined today. He thought there was some meaning and truth
in mathematics, which is precisely why he was trying to prove the consistency of number
theory. If number theory turned out to be consistent, then there had to be some sort of truth in
it. Strict formalists consider mathematics apart from its semantic meaning. They view
mathematics as pure syntax: the manipulation of symbols according to certain rules. They then
attempt to show that this set of rules is consistent, much like Hilbert attempted to do.

Godel’s incompleteness theorem means that you cannot prove consistency within any
axiomatic system rich enough to include classical arithmetic. In one case, you need to use only
the formal language chosen to formalize this axiomatic system; secondly, it is impossible to
prove the consistency of this language in itself. Godel’s work very much frustrsted Hilbert’s
goal to completely formalize everything in number theory. However, Godel did not feel that
he contradicted everthing about Hilbert’s formalist point of view.
The proof theory still had some use; the only difference is that it could not be used to prove the
consistency of all of number theory as Hilbert had hoped.

Criticism of Formalism
Three of the criticism raised against Formalism are as follows:

Godel indicated one of the week points of formalism by addressing the question of consistency
in axiomatic systems. More recent criticisms lie in the assertion of formalists that it is possible
to computerize all of mathematics. These criticisms bring up the philosophical question of
whether or not computers are able to think. Humans can create several ways to prove the same
result,even if they might find it challenging to articulate such methods. Since creativity requires
thought having a sematic foundation, a computer would not not be able to say that these other
ways of solving problems exist simply because they have not been formalized.

Another critique of formalism state that the actual mathematical ideas that occupy
mathematicians are far removed from the string manipulation games. Formalism is thus silent
to the question of which axiom systems ought to be studied, as none is more meaningful than
another from a formalistic point of view.

Exercise 6.3
1. The main philosopher behind formalism is called…
2. Identify and explain the main beliefs of Formalism.
3. What does Godel’s incompleteness theory means?
4. Explain two criticisms leveled against Formalism.

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 CONSTRUCTIVISM AND INTUITIONISM
In the previous discussions, we learnt about what philosophy of mathematics is and two main
philosophies of mathematics-platonism and Formalism .In this session, we shall learn about
two other important philosophies of mathematics namely, Constructivism and Intuitionism.

Objectives
By the end of this session you should be able to:
a) Explain the major beliefs held by constructivists; and
b) Explain the major beliefs held by intuitionists.

Constructivism is a theory of knowledge that argues that humans generate knowledge and
meaning from an interaction between their experiences and their ideas. During infancy, it was
an interaction between human experiences and their reflexes or behavior-patterns, a system of
knowledge Jean Piaget referred to as schemata. Proponents of constructivism include John
Dewey, Maria Montessori, Wladyslaw Strzeminski, Jean Piaget, Lev Vygotsky, Heinz Von
Foerster, George Kelly, Jerome Bruner, Herbert Simon, Paul Watzlawick, Ernst Von
Glasersfeld, Edgar Morin, and Humberto Maturana.

Formalization of the theory of constructivism is generally attributed to Jean Piaget, Who

articulated mechanisms by which knowledge is internalized by learners. He suggested that
through processes of accommodation and assimilation, individual construct new knowledge
from their experiences. The central idea of Constructivism is that human learning is
constructed, that learners build new knowledge upon the foundation of previous learning. This
is in contrast with the view in which learning is the passive transmission of information from
one individual to another, where the key idea is reception, not construction.

The first important notion about constructed knowledge is that learners construct new
understandings using what they already know. There is no tabula rasa on which new
knowledge is etched. Learners come to learning situations with knowledge gained from
previous experience, and that prior knowledge influences what new or modified knowledge
they will construct from new learning experiences.

The second notion is that learning is active rather than passive. Learners confront their
understanding in light of what they encounter in the new learning situation. If what learners
encounter is inconsistent with their current understanding, their understanding can change to
accommodate new experience. Learners remain active throughout this process: they apply
current understandings, note relevant elements in new learning experiences, judge the
consistency of prior and emerging knowledge, and based on that judgment, they can modify
knowledge.

Constructivist believe that mathematics does not grow through a number of established
theorems, but by finite constructive methods on intuitively given sequence of natural numbers.
To the constructivists, the very base of mathematics lies a primitive intuition, which allows us
to conceive a single object, then one more, then one more, and so on endlessly e.g. the natural
numbers. Any mathematical object must be built in a purely constructive manner employing a
finite number of steps or operations. According to Lakatos (1962) mathematics is not infallible.
It grows from criticism and correction of theories, which are never free of ambiguity, or the
possibility of error. Starting with a problem, there is a search for proofs and counter examples.
New proofs explain old counter examples; new counter examples undermine old proofs.

Radical constructivism emphasizes knowledge with experience. It is an unconventional

approach to the problem of knowledge and knowing. It starts from the assumption that
knowledge, no matter how it is defined how it is defined, is in the heads of the persons, and

15
that the thinking subject has no alternative but to construct what he or she knows on the basis
of his/her own experience.
Intuitionism

INTUITIONISM
Intuitionism is a philosophy of mathematics that was introduced by the Dutch mathematician
L.E.J. Brouwer (1881-1966). The philosophy is based on the idea that mathematics is a
creation of the mind. The truth of a mathematical statement can only be conceived via a mental
construction that proves it to be true and the communication between mathematicians only
serves as a means to create the same mental process in different minds.

Intuitionism shares a core part with most other forms of constructivism. Constructivism is
generally concerned with constructive mathematical objects and reasoning. From constructive
proofs one can, at least in principle, extract algorithms that compute the elements and simulate
the constructions whose existence is established in the proof. Most forms of constructivism are
compatible with classical mathematics, as they are in general based on a stricter interpretation
of the quantifiers and the connectives and the constructions that are allowed, while on
additional assumptions are made. The logic accepted by almost all constructive communities
is the same, namely intuitionistic logic.

This view on mathematics has far reaching implications for the daily practice of mathematics.
The dependence of intuitionism on time is essential: statements can become provable in the
course of time and therefore might become intuitionistically valid while not having been so
before. Although intuitionism has never replaced classical mathematics as the standard view
on mathematics, it has always attracted a great deal of attention and is still widely studied
today. Brouwer not only refined the philosophy of intuitionism but also reworked mathematics
especially the theory of the continuum and the theory of sets, according to these principles. His
philosophy was considered awkward by many, but treated as a serious alternative to classical
reasoning by some of the most famous mathematicians of his time, even when they had a
different view on the matter. Kurt Godel, for instance, who was a Platonist all his life, was one
of them.

The life of Brouwer was laden with conflicts, the most famous one being the conflict with
David Hilbert. This conflict shook the mathematical society at the beginning of the 20th century
and that emerged as a result of the appearance of paradoxes and highly nonconstructive proofs
in mathematics. Philosophers and mathematicians were forced to acknowledge the lack of an
epistemological and ontological basis for mathematics. Brouwer’s intuitionism is a philosophy
of mathematics that aims to provide such a foundation. Brouwer describes mathematics as a
laugaugeless creation of the mind. Time is the only a prior notion. He distinguishes two acts of
intuitionism:

The first act deals with completely separating mathematics from mathematical language and
hence from the phenomena of language described by theoretical logic, recognizing that
intuitionistic mathematics is an essentially languageless activity of the mind having its origin
in the perception of a move of time. The first act of intuitionism gives rise to the natural
numbers but implies a severe restriction on the principles of reasoning.

The second act is concerned with admitting two ways of cresting new mathematical entities:
firstly in the shape of more or less freely proceeding infinite sequences of mathematical entities
previously acquired ….; secondly in the shape of mathematical species, i.e. properties
supposable for mathematical entities previously acquired, satisfying the condition that if they
hold for a certain mathematical entity, they also hold for all mathematical entities which have
been defined to be “equal” to it. The two acts of intuitionism from the basis of Brouwer’s
philosophy. From these basic principles it can be concluded that intuitionism differs from
16
Platonism and Formalism, because neither does it assume a mathematical reality outside of us,
nor does it hold that mathematics is a play with symbols according to certain fixed rules. In
Brouwer’s view, language is used to exchange mathematical ideas but the existence of the latter
is independent of the former. The distinction between intuition and other constructive views
on mathematics according to which mathematical objects and arguments should be
computable, lies in the freedom that the second act allows in the construction of infinite
sequences.

Thus Brouwer’s intuitionism stands apart from other philosophies of mathematical; it is based
on the awareness of time and the conviction that mathematics is a creation of the free mind,
and it therefore is neither Platonism no Formalism. It is a form of constructivism, but only so
in the wider sense many constructive do not accept all the principles that Brouwer believed to
be true.
Self-Assessment Questions
Exercise 6.4
1. Explain the two important notions around constructed knowledge.
2. Identify five mathematicians associated with Constructivism.
3. Explain the main views held by intuitionists.
4. Who was the main brain behind the philosophy of intuitionism?

ABSOLUTISM AND FALLIBILISM

In this session we shall learn about two seemingly opposing philosophies – Absolutism and
Fallibilism.

Objectives
By the end of this session you should be able to:
a) explain the major beliefs held by proponents of Absolutism; and
b) explain the major beliefs held by proponents of Fallibilsm

ABSOLUTISM
The absolutists view mathematics as a body of knowledge whose truths appear to everyone to
the necessary and certain. The whole system rests on certain assumptions which are held to be
self-evident. Indeed, strict absolutists hold that mathematics is almost independent of
humankind, existing as it does in its government of nature, binding the universe together with
its unfailing consistency across time and space. This consistency has been, to the absolutists,
one of mathematics’ most powerful appeals. No one can resist the simple demonstration of an
apple being dropped repeatedly and taking the same amount of time to hit the ground in every
case. Thus for several thousand years the nature of mathematics went largely unquestioned.
Axioms provided the basis for all mathematical knowledge. On these were built, using logic,
the theorems and proofs which constituted the subject itself. Mathematics was widely regarded
as value- free, at least partly because the laws of nature were not allow for the questioning of
basic mathematical principles or the means by which they were derived. In a more up-to-date
setting, two other educational ideologies may be grouped under the banner of absolutists. These
are those of the industrial trainer and the old humanists. Implicit in, and fairly central to,
their pedagogical styles, is the role of the teacher as authoritarian and the pupil asempty vessel,
The absolutists view mathematics as an objective, absolute, certain and incorrigible body of
knowledge, which rests on the firm foundations of deductive logic. Absolutist philosophies of
mathematics are not descriptive philosophies, but are concerned with the epistemological
project of providing rigorous systems to warrant mathematical knowledge absolutely. Many of
the claims of absolutism follow from the identification of mathematics with rigid logical
structure introduced for epistemological purposes. Thus according to absolutism mathematical
knowledge is timeless, although we may discover new theories and truths to add; it is
17
superhuman and ahistorical, for the history of mathematics is irrelevant to the nature and
justification of mathematical knowledge;it is pure isolated knowledge, which happens to be
useful because of its universal validity; it is value-free and culture-free, for the same reason.
Absolutism appears to suggest a philosophically sanctioned image of mathematics as
rigid,fixed,absolute,inhuman,cold,objective,pure,abstract,remote and ultra-rational. If teachers
view mathematics this way, then they are likely to communicate the same image to their
students in school. Their influence give rise to situations where in school students are mainly
given unrelated routine mathematical tasks and asked to apply learnt procedures. Such teachers
emphasise that every mathematical task has a unique, fixed objective right answer .We can
liken Absolutism and Platonism.

FALLIBILISM
The fallibillist view has been developed more recently and may be seen to be partly a reaction
to absolutism in general noting that the earlier concept of a universally accepted, infallible
body of reasoning is a grand illusion. It is also partly a new wave of thought in its own right.
The root of this philosophy may spring from this realization that there are no authoritative
sources of knowledge , and no ‘source’ is particularly reliable; we are all fallible. The fallibilists
regard mathematics as an essentially human pursuit, invented by humans, and therefore prey
to human fallibility. They do not subscrible to a belief system based on incontrovertible truths
in the unconditional way that absolutists do,

Instead, fallibilists argue that we should honestly admit mathematical fallibility.

Fallibilist phyilosopies of mathematics propose a different and opposing image of mathematics
as human, corrigible, historical and changing. Fallibilism views mathematics as the outcome
of social processes. They view mathematical knowledge to be eternally open to revision, both
in terms of its proofs and its concepts. This view embraces the practices of mathematicians, its
history and applications the place of mathematics in human culture, including values and
education as legitimate philosophical concerns. The fallibilist view does not reject the role of
logic and structure in mathematics, just the notion that there is a unique fixed and permanently
enduring hierarchical structure. Instead it accepts the view that mathematics is made up of
many overlapping structures which, over the course of history , grow, dissolve, and then grow
anew, like trees in a forest.

Fallibilism opposes the absolutist image of mathematics as a body of pure and perfect abstract
knowledge existing in a superhuman, objective realm. They see mathematics as associated with
sets of social practices, each with its history, persons, institutions and social locations, symbolic
forms, purposes and power relations. Ethnomathematics, school mathematics and academic
research are some of such practices.

Fallibilists argue that although mathematical knowledge is a contingent social construction, so

long as it remains accepted by the mathematical community it is fixed and should be
transmitted to learners in this way, and that questions to school mathematics are uniquely
decidable as right or wrong with reference to its conventional corpus of knowledge.
These philosophies, the absolutist and the fallibilist, are expressed from the mathematician’s
standpoint. However, there is a trickle-down effect to school mathematics and the way it is
presented. Different philosophies of mathematics have widely differing outcomes in terms of
educational practice. There are many classroom experiences of both teachers and students that
confirm the absolutist image of mathematics as cold, absolute and inhuman, an image which is
quite often associated with negative attitudes to mathematics.

Exercise
1. Identify and explain the main beliefs held by Fallibilism philosophy of mathematics.
2. Identify and explain the main beliefs held by Absolutism philosophy of mathematics.

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 CONSTRUCTIVISM AND MATHEMATICS EDUCATION
In the foregoing sessions, we discussed Platonism, Formalism, Intuitionism, Constructivism,
absolutism and Fallibilism as philosophies of mathematics. There is a strong link between
philosophies of mathematics and mathematical practices. It is widely claimed that a link exists
between philosophy and pedagogy. Philosophies of mathematics (in the large or in part) contain
ideas, orientations or germs for theories on the teaching and learning of mathematics.
There is no doubt that all mathematical pedagogy, even if scarcely coherent, rests on a
philosophy of mathematics. Teaching approaches in mathematics incorporate assumptions
about the nature of mathematics, and any philosophy of mathematics has classroom
consequences. Teacher’s views, beliefs and preferences about mathematics do influence their
instructional practice. However, classroom consequences are not in general strictly logical
implications of a philosophy, and additional values, aims and other assumptions are required
to reach such conclusions. Because the link is not one of logical implication, it is theoretically
possible to consistently associate a philosophy of mathematics with almost any educational
practice or approach.

Constructivism represents one of the big ideas in education. Its implications for how teachers
teach and learn to teach are enormous. Efforts in reforming education for all students can
succeed, if we focus on students. The present cry for focus on student-centered learning is a
very important contribution of constructivism. In this session we shall learn about how
constructivism influences classroom practices.

We noted that constructivism is not a specific pedagogy, although it is often confused with
constructionism, an educational theory developed by Seymour Papert, inspspired by
constructivist and experiential learning ideas of piaget. Piaget’s theory of constructivist
learning has had wide ranging impact on learning theories and teaching methods in education
and is an underlying theme of many education reform movements.
Various approaches in pedagogy derive from constructivism theory. They usually suggest that
learning is accomplished best using a hands-on approach. Learners learn by experimentation,
and not by being told what will happen, and are left to make their own inferences, discoveries
and conclusions.

Constructivism as a teaching philosophy is based on the concept that learning (cognition) is

the result of ‘mental construction where students construct their own understanding by
reflecting on their personal experiences, and by relating the new knowledge with what they
already know. Each student creates his or her own schema or mental- models to make sense of
the world, and accommodates the new knowledge (learns) by adjusting them.
One of its main principles is that learning is a search for meaning, therefore, to be effective, a
teacher must help the student in discovering his or her own meaning.
Although based on cognitive psychology research, its history goes back to the ancient Greece,
the Socratic Method.

Piaget indicated the when individuals assimilate; they incorporate the new experience into an
already existing framework without changing that framework. This may occur when
individuals’ experiences are aligned with their internal representations of the world. It may also
occur as a failure to change a faulty understanding; for example, they may not notice events
may misunderstand input from others, or may find an event unimportant as information about
the world. In contrast, when individual’s experiences to fit their internal representations.
Accommodation is the process of reframing one’s mental representation of the external world
to fit new experiences. Accommodation can be understood as the mechanism by which failure
leads to learning: when we act on the expectation that the world operates in one way and it
violate our expectations, we often fail, but by accommodating this new experience and
reframing our model of the way the world works, we learn from the experience of failure, or
others’ failure. Constructivism is often as associated with pedagogic approaches that promote
19
active learning, or learning by doing or by discovery though there are many critics of “learning
by doing “ as an instructional strategy.

Implications for Teaching

Constructivism has important implications for teaching.
1. First, teaching cannot be viewed as the transmission of knowledge from enlightened to
unenlightened; constructivist teachers do not take the role of the “ who provide students
with opportunities to test the adequacy of their current understandings.
2. Second, if learning is based on prior knowledge , the teachers must note that knowledge
and provide learning environments that exploit inconsistencies between learners’
current understandings and the new experiences before them. This challenges teachers;
for they cannot assume that, all children understand something in the same way.
Further, children may need different experiences to advance to different levels of
understanding.
3. Third, if students must apply their current understandings in new situation in order to
build new knowledge, then teachers must engage students in learning, bringing
students’ current understandings to the forefront. Teachers can ensure that learning
experiences incorporate problems that are important to students, not those that are
primarily important to teachers and the educational system. Teachers can also
encourage group interaction, where the interplay among participants helps individual
students become explicit about their own understanding by comparing it to that of their
peers.
4. Fourth, if new knowledge is actively built, then time is needed to build it. Ample time
facilitates student reflection about new experiences, how those experiences line up
against current understandings, and how a different understanding might provide
students with an improved (not necessarily correct) view of the world.

Implications for professional Development

Because learning is a constructive process and instruction must be designed to provide
opportunities for such construction, teacher professional development may have to take the
following into consideration.

1. First, there is the need to recognize that construction in learning is not just the domain
of children but of learners, all learners. Constructivist professional development must
give teachers time to make explicit their understandings of learning as a constructive
process; of teaching (i.e. teacher as a facilitator), and what the teacher’s understanding
of content is; and of professional development (e.g., teacher’s own learning best
approached through a constructivist orientation). Furthermore, such professional
development provides opportunities for teachers to test their understandings and build
new ones. Such a training should a be systematic, long-term development practice and
reflection on that practice.
2. It should also focus on the educator’s maxim, Teachers teach as they are taught, not as
they are told to teach. Thus, trainers in constructivist professional development sessions
model learning activities that teachers can apply in their own classrooms. It is not
enough for trainers to describe new ways of teaching and expect teachers to translate
from talk to action; it is more effective to engage teachers in activities that will lead to
new actions in classrooms.
3. The contemporary approach to learning in that knowledge and cognitive strategies are
actively constructed by the learner. Students are to construct knowledge for themselves
by reconstructing their internal cognitive structures .
4. Teacher and students are viewed as active meaning makers who continually give
contextually based meaning to each other ‘ words and actions as they interact.
Mathematics structures are constructed by reflectively abstracting from and re-
organising sensori-motor and conceptual activity. What teacher can thus not be a
20
 transmitter of knowledge but a facilitator. But the teacher need to know much about
“the terrain”, how the student learns if he has to lead student attain mathematical
knowledge ; he interpret it, puts structure on it and assimilates in the light of his own
framework .

Thus practices in a constructivist classroom should include:

a) Teacher and students negotiating meanings of actions and words as they interact.
b) Learners being encouraged to verbalize mathematical thinking, to explain and justify
mathematical solutions and to learn to resolve complicating points of view. Teachers are to
encourage students to talk about their work and also to pose and solve their own problems.
c) By focusing on the ways and processes by which students construct their own mathematics.
By this, constructivism attempts to demystify mathematic and make it more accessible to
all students.
d) Students being encouraged to pose and solve mathematics problems in social contexts and
to discuss mathematics embedded in their own lives and environments. Scholl mathematics
must be embedded in students’ cultures and the reality of their situation.
e) Students must be allowed to work in groups and generate mathematical problems.
Cooperative learning should be encouraged.
f) Education officers (Inspectors) are to provide support for teachers to enable them teach
better rather than simply pass, evaluative judgments on teachers’ work.
g) Students should be allowed to assess (appreciative counseling ) themselves and have
regular dialogue with the teacher-they feel free to comment on why they have not achieved
a particular goal.
h) Alternative assessment procedures which encourage the use of a variety of instruments to
be used such as writing of journals by teachers and discussing students’ performance with
them.

In Ghana, attempts to encourage mathematics teachers to switch from the transmission approach to
activity- based approaches had little success. The difficulties include:
1.Counteracting the effect of examination.
2.The system encourages rote learning and recall of facts.
3.Lack of expertise among teacher of mathematics
4.Teacher resistance to change which is mainly from their lack of content and pedagogic
content knowledge in mathematics.

Exercise
1. Distinguish between assimilation and accommodation.
2. Identify and explain three implications of constructivism for teaching.
3. Explain two considerations that must go into teacher professional development for a
constructivist.
4. Outline the main practices observable in a constructivist classroom.

21
 LECTURE SERIES THREE

TEACHER BELIEFS IN MATHEMATICS AND ITS IMPLICATION TO TEACHING

Lesson Objectives:
5. Explain the following terms: beliefs, attitude and values in relation to mathematics
teaching and learning
6. Identify at least five attitudes commonly displayed by teachers towards the teaching
of mathematics
7. Explain the implication of these attitudes towards the teaching and learning of
mathematics
8. Identify pupils/learners attitude, beliefs and values in studying mathematics and
explain its implication to the teacher.

Area of concentration
2.4 Definitions and interpretations of the concepts: Beliefs, attitudes and values
2.5 Implication of teacher attitudes on pupil’s learning of mathematics
2.6 pupils attitude and its Implication to teachers’ teachings

Beliefs play great role in mathematics learning and teaching. The learning outcomes of students
are strongly related to their beliefs and attitudes about mathematics (Furinghetti & Pehkonen,
2000). Thus assessing or evaluating of students’ mathematical knowledge must be made in
awareness of their beliefs. During the last twenty years the research area about beliefs and
attitudes has grown considerably, and many different countries have been included in the
research - the work of Erkki Pehkonen who has made several investigations in Finland; Peter
Kloosterman from United States of America, Günter Törner from Germany, Gilah C. Leder
from Australia, and many others. They have been looking for answers to several different
questions. For example, Kloosterman asked (2002): “What do students think mathematics is
and how does one learn mathematics?”; Pehkonen & Törner (2004) asked: “How well does
information from different methodological sources and using different methodological tools to
investigate teachers’ beliefs of mathematics fit together?” and “Which method is best suited to
which aspect?”

Mathematics teacher competency

Mathematics teacher competency is ‘an integrated set’ or ‘a combination’ of skills, knowledge,
values, and beliefs of the mathematics teacher. While Blömeke and Delaney , states that
teachers competency consists of cognitive abilities: professional knowledge and
affective-motivational characteristics: professional beliefs, motivation and self-regulation.
Teachers’ beliefs are part of the teacher's competency. Teachers’ beliefs and teacher's
knowledge are inseparable. In other words, teachers’ beliefs also have a crucial role to teaching
practice and student achievement.

Definition of beliefs
Belief is defined as a person's conception or personal ideology. According to Philipp and Skott,
beliefs are mentally an understanding of basic thoughts, understandings, or individual
propositions that assumes to be true. The influence of teachers' beliefs in mathematics
teaching practice occurs because of teachers' beliefs are able to guide teachers' thinking,
interactions in the classroom and instructional innovations applied in the classroom.

22
Leder and Forgasz claimed that In everyday language, the term “belief” is often used loosely
and synonymously with terms such as attitude, disposition, opinion, perception, philosophy,
and value. Because these various concepts are not directly observable and have to be inferred,
and because of their overlapping nature, it is not easy to produce a precise definition of beliefs.
(Leder & Forgasz, 2002, p. 96).

Different researchers associate belief with motivation and conception. Kloosterman (2002)
sees the direct connection between belief and effort. ‘Student’s belief is something the student
knows or feels that affects effort – in this case effort to learn mathematics’ (p. 248). Moreover,
Kloosterman (2002) argues that student’s choices are on one hand based on beliefs and on the
other hand on personal goals. Thus, there is a close connection between beliefs and choices.
But sometimes the personal goals and the beliefs are at variance. One major example is the
learning of mathematics. Many students believe that mathematics is boring, and strong effort
is needed to learn it, but still find it important for life. This is a paradox. The reason for seeing
mathematics as important can be practical – needs for a better profession and to some degree
for a better life. ‘Most youngsters know, as an empirical and sociological fact, that
mathematical competence – even if for unclear reasons – is a key to attractive education and
job opportunities’ (Niss, 1994, p. 377). Jens Højgaard Jensen has marvellously expressed this
idea in one sentence ‘Mathematics is useless to me, but at the same time I know that I am
useless without mathematics’ (Niss, 1994, p. 377).

Relationship between beliefs and knowledge

The two parts of the individual – the affective domain and the cognitive domain - are
inseparable and in complex connection. ‘The main difficulty has been the inability to
distinguish beliefs from knowledge, and the question is still unclarified’ (Pehkonen, 1994, p.
27). Thompson (1992) points out two ways to distinguish knowledge from belief – ‘degree of
conviction’ (p. 129) and consensus. Firstly, beliefs can be held weakly or strongly. One can
claim: “the new mathematics teacher is nice but she has not assessed us still so it can be
changed” or “I know that the test in mathematics will be hard”.

Beliefs can compartmentalize as something uncertain or certain, important or not so important.

But one cannot say that one knows the fact weakly or strongly. Water starts boiling at a hundred
degrees Celsius at sea level, and that’s it! Secondly, it is possible to believe something despite
the awareness that the others do not agree with it and think about it differently. For example,
“I believe gold can be found in North Pole”. Underhill (1991) uses the word ‘knowing’ and
takes the position that ‘knowing is believing’ (p. 20). Whatever one knows or does not know
is simply the same that one believes and does not believe. A. whenever we say we know
something, we are simply asserting that we believe something, whether it is about quality called
“red” or the being called “God” or the relationship “3+4=7”; B. whatever we do not know, we
may not know passively (we have no belief; we have never been exposed to it!), or negatively
(we believe it’s opposite or some anti-belief or substitute belief; we believe something other
than that); C. all that we know reflects our beliefs based on empirical data or reason or faith;
these might be thought to exist continuum. (ibid, p. 21) Saying that “the delta parameter of the
option price shows how quickly the option price changes when the asset price is changing”
only means that there is general belief in that. It can be because some trustable person (expert)
has said so or because it has worked very well before, and why should it not work now
(importance of the long experiences), or one does not believe that there is something else that
will work better. Most scientific discoveries have started from the point that somebody believes
in its validity and universality. If one does not believe in what one wants to prove then it is
impossible to do that. We think the belief in rightness of doing research is one of the basic
components of being scientist. To constructivists ‘knowledge without belief is contradictory’
(Confrey, 1990, p. 111). One does not have to evaluate or justify the beliefs, it is something
which belongs to the person. But there is definitely a need to explain the ideas related to
knowledge because without justification it will not be accepted as knowledge. If one starts to
23
justify beliefs then, according to Plato, the result will be the knowledge. ‘Knowledge is justified
true belief’ (Mc Dowell, 1987, p. 94, and, in Furinghetti & Pehkonen, 2002, p. 42)

Definition and Conceptualization of Teacher Beliefs

Beliefs may be classified according to the content areas to which they apply. In the school
context, for example, Calderhead ( 1996 ) distinguished five main areas of teacher
beliefs:
1. beliefs about teaching and learning,
2. belief about instruction,
3. about the subject,
4. about learning to teach,
5. and about the self.

Woolfolk Hoy et al. ( 2006 ) more recently extended this categorization and classified teacher
beliefs according to the level of the system to which they apply. At the first level, teachers have
certain beliefs about the self— for example, about
(1) their own abilities as a teacher or
(2) the role of the teacher. At the next level, they hold beliefs about the immediate context of
teaching and learning . For mathematics teachers, these beliefs can be subdivided into
(3) beliefs about mathematical knowledge (epistemological beliefs) and
(4) beliefs about mathematics teaching and learning. At a broader, more global level, they have
beliefs about the educational policy system and the social context, including
(5) beliefs about cultural diversity in schools.

Epistemological Beliefs Epistemological beliefs are conceptualized as individuals’ beliefs

about the nature of knowledge and the nature of knowing.

Beliefs About Mathematics Teaching and Learning

In addition to beliefs about the nature of knowledge, teachers also tend to have firm beliefs
about how students learn and how they should be taught (Handal 2003 ; Thompson
1992 ). According to Kuhs and Ball ( 1986 ), it is possible to distinguish three
approaches to teaching mathematics:
1. a learner-focused approach,
2. a content-focused approach with an emphasis on conceptual understanding, and
3. a content-focused approach with an emphasis on performance.

Teachers with learner-focused beliefs see mathematical learning as an active process of

constructing knowledge in learning communities. Two types of content-focused beliefs
can be distinguished, depending on whether the teacher’s focus is more on fostering a
conceptual understanding of the content covered or on developing students’ ability to apply
mathematical rules and procedures. Other authors have distinguished teachers who focus on
school knowledge from those who focus on child development (Renne 1992 ).

Teachers classified within the school knowledge dimension believe that the purpose of teaching
is to impart knowledge to learners, who should be able to reproduce this knowledge. For these
teachers, it is particularly important that their students meet curriculum requirements.

Teachers classified within the child development dimension, in contrast, give more
consideration to students’ individual needs and characteristics in their teaching decisions. Their
primary aim is to help students develop a conceptual understanding of mathematical content.
In summary, researchers have distinguished very different facets and components of both
epistemological beliefs and beliefs about teaching and learning. These detailed taxonomies are
helpful and necessary when it comes to addressing theoretical questions about specific
24
components or painting a coherent picture of belief systems. However, it remains unclear
whether the facets identified have differential relationships with teachers’ instructional practice
and, in turn, students’ learning outcomes or whether they can be integrated at a higher level
within more parsimonious models.

Open image in new

window
Fig. 1
The TMA model

The arrows in the schema have a crucial role: TMA takes into account the relationship among
the three dimensions. These relationships appeared clearly in the students’ narratives.

Student Self-efficacy Beliefs

Bandura (1997) defined perceived self-efficacy as “beliefs in one’s capabilities to organize
and execute the courses of action required to produce given attainments” (p. 3). Self-efficacy
tends to be conceptualized as a context-specific evaluation of one’s competence to perform a
specific task and it differs conceptually and psychometrically from other related beliefs such
as outcome expectations, self-concept, and perceived control.

Self-efficacy indices focus on cognitive beliefs which are created and altered through the
interpretation one makes during four types of experiences. Mastery experiences are the most
influential sources since they are predicated on the outcomes of personal experiences. In
educational settings previous success develops students’ self-efficacy while failure undermines
it. Vicarious experiences depend on an observer’s appraisals of capabilities in relation to others
and outcomes attained by a model. Verbal persuasion has a more limited impact on students’
self-efficacy since outcomes are described and not directly experienced. Last, students’
psychological reactions such as stress, tiredness, and other emotions are often interpreted as
indicators of physical incapability (Bandura 1986; Zimmerman 2000).

Collective efficacy is defined by Bandura as “a group’s shared belief in its conjoint capabilities
to organize and execute the courses of action required to produce given levels of attainment”
(p. 102). While self-efficacy and collective efficacy beliefs are closely related, collective
efficacy is more than the sum of the combined group self-efficacy since it is developed when
a group works together.

Implications
Belief system on the part of both students/pupils and teachers in the learning and teaching of
mathematics have implications for the professional ethics of mathematics education.

1. Beliefs system is relevant with teachers’ teaching practices (Watson and

DeGeest, 2005). The research on beliefs focuses on the relationships among
changes in beliefs and practices (Warfield et al., 2005).
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 2. It helps the teachers’ abilities in creating meaningful classroom activities (Beswick,
2007) can be traced back to the three dimension of mathematics beliefs that
include beliefs in the nature of mathematics, beliefs in teaching mathematics
and beliefs in learning mathematics (Evans, 2003). Cooney and Lin (2001)
commented that whatever the teachers did in the classroom was a product of
their beliefs.

3. life experience is a major contributor in shaping teachers’ beliefs. Therefore

teachers must live and exampliary life to serve as role models for their learners. Their
teaching experiences are practical indicator about how teachers facilitated the
changes that worked for their future development ).

4. How teachers used instructional strategies would give them an idea of what
they could do when they became teachers. This process was continued when
they were admitted to the teachers training program.

5. During the process of learning to teach, the beliefs would be embedded in these
pre-service teachers and they would also be affected by the social factors in the
educational institutions. Stipek et al. (2001) commented that teachers held their
beliefs coherently, which in turn shaped their teaching practices

There is the distinction between knowledge, beliefs and attitudes. Knowledge is the cognitive
outcome of teacher education, and beliefs and attitudes represent the affective outcome (for
simplicity the slender but significant cognitive aspect of beliefs is ignored). The cognitive goals
of teacher education, namely the acquisition of knowledge, may be addressed relatively directly
as the content of instructional and learning experiences (but more of this later). The affective
goals, namely the development of beliefs and attitudes, cannot be treated in this way as the
content of instruction, to any significant extent. The acquisition of models of teaching and
learning mathematics will largely occur through the modes of instruction experienced and
witnessed.

26
 LECTURE SERIES FOUR

THE MATHEMATICS CURRICULUM AND INCLUSSIVE CLASSROOM PRACTICES

Lesson Objectives:
1. Explain the following terms: beliefs, attitude and values in relation to mathematics
teaching and learning
2. Identify at least five attitudes commonly displayed by teachers towards the teaching
of mathematics
3. Explain the implication of these attitudes towards the teaching and learning of
mathematics
4. Identify pupils/learners attitude, beliefs and values in studying mathematics and
explain its implication to the teacher.

Area of concentration
2.1 Beliefs underlying the current trend of upper primary mathematics curriculum
implementations
2.2 Inclusive curriculum practices
2.3 Nature of Upper primary mathematics curriculum
2.4 Implication of classroom practices relating to the inclusion and equity from a reflective
perspective
2.5 Connections between teacher beliefs and practices
2.6 Developing mathematical task
2.7 Difficulties in mathematics thinking: dyscalculia
2.8 Developing mathematical task
2.9 Implication to teaching and learning

RATIONALE FOR UPPER PRIMARY MATHEMATICS

Mathematics forms an integral part of our everyday lives. is a universal truth that development
is hinged on Mathematics is the backbone of social, economic, political and physical
development of a country. It is a never-ending creative process which serves to promote
discovery and understanding. It consists of a body of knowledge which attempts to explain and
interpret phenomena and experiences. Mathematics has changed our lives and is vital to
Ghana’s future development.

To provide quality Mathematics education, teachers must facilitate learning in the Mathematics
classroom. This will provide the foundations for discovering and understanding the world
around us and lay the grounds for Mathematics and Mathematics related studies at higher levels
of education. Learners should be encouraged to understand how Mathematics can be used to
explain what is occurring, predict how things will behave and analyse causes and origins of
things in our environment. The Mathematics curriculum has considered the desired outcomes
of education for learners at the basic level. Mathematics is also concerned with the development
of attitudes. It is important for all citizens to be mathematically and technologically literate for
sustainable development. Mathematics therefore ought to be taught using hands-on and minds-
on approaches which learners will find as fun and adopt as a culture.

Teaching Philosophy
Ghana believes that an effective mathematics education needed for sustainable development
should be inquiry-based. Thus mathematics education must provide learners with opportunities
to expand, change, enhance and modify the ways in which they view the world. It should be
27
pivoted on learner-centred mathematics teaching and learning approaches that engage learners
physically and cognitively in the knowledge-acquiring process in a rich and rigorous inquiry-
driven environment.

Learning Philosophy
Mathematics learning is an active contextualised process of constructing knowledge based on
learners’ experiences rather than acquiring it. Learners are information constructors
who operate as researchers. Teachers serve as facilitators by providing the enabling
environment that promotes the construction of learners’ own knowledge, based on their
previous experiences. This makes learning more relevant to the learner and leads to the
development of critical thinkers and problem solvers.

GENERAL AIMS
The curriculum is aimed at developing individuals to become mathematically literate, good
problem solvers, have the ability to think creatively and have both the confidence and
competence to participate fully in Ghanaian society as responsible local and global citizens.

SUBJECT AIMS
The mathematics curriculum is designed to help learners to:
1. recognise that mathematics permeates the world around us;
2. appreciate the usefulness, power and beauty of Mathematics;
3. enjoy Mathematics and develop patience and persistence when solving problems;
4. understand and be able to use the language, symbols and notation of Mathematics;
5. develop mathematical curiosity and use inductive and deductive reasoning when
solving problems;
6. become confident in using mathematics to analyse and solve problems both in school
and in real-life situations;
7. develop the knowledge, skills and attitudes necessary to pursue further studies in
Mathematics; and
8. develop abstract, logical and critical thinking and the ability to reflect critically upon
their work and the work of others.

INSTRUCTIONAL EXPECTATIONS
9. Guide and facilitate learning by generating discourse among learners and challenging
them to accept and share responsibility for their own learning, based on their unique
individual differences.
10. Select Mathematics content, adapt and plan lessons to meet the interests, knowledge,
understanding, abilities and experiences of learners.
11. Work together as colleagues within and across disciplines and grade levels to develop
communities of Mathematics learners who exhibit the skills of mathematical inquiry
and the attitudes and social values conducive to Mathematics learning.
12. Use multiple methods and systematically gather data about learner understanding and
ability to guide Mathematics teaching and learning, with arrangements to provide
feedback to both learners and parents.
13. Design and manage learning environments that provide learners with the time, space
and resources needed for learning mathematics

Core Competencies
The core competencies for studies describe a body of skills that teachers in Mathematics at all
levels should seek to develop in their learners. They are ways in which teachers and learners
in Mathematics engage with the subject matter as they learn the subject. The competencies

28
presented here describe a connected body of core skills that are acquired throughout the
processes of teaching and learning.

Critical Thinking And Problem Solving (Cp)

This skill develops learners’ cognitive and reasoning abilities to enable them analyse and solve
problems. Cri tical thinking and problem-solving skill enables learners to draw on their own
experiences to analyse situations and choose the most appropriate out of a number of possible
solutions. It requires that learners embrace the problem at hand, persevere and take
responsibility for their own learning.

Creativity And Innovation (Ci)

Creativity and Innovation promotes entrepreneurial skills in learners through their ability to
think of new ways of solving problems and developing technologies for addressing the problem
at hand. It requires ingenuity of ideas, arts, technology and enterprise. Learners having this
skill are also able to think independently and creatively.

Communication And Collaboration (Cc)

This competence promotes in learners the skills to make use of languages, symbols and texts
to exchange information about themselves and their life experiences. Learners actively
participate in sharing their ideas. They engage in dialogue with others by listening to and
learning from them. They also respect and value the views of others

Cultural Identity And Global Citizenship (Cg)

This competence involves developing learners to put country and service foremost through an
understanding of what it means to be active citizens. This is done by inculcating in learners a
strong sense of social and economic awareness. Learners make use of the knowledge, skills,
COMPETENCIES and attitudes acquired to contribute effectively towards the socioeconomic
development of the country and on the global stage. Learners build skills to critically identify
and analyse cultural and global trends that enable them to contribute to the global community.

Personal Development And Leadership (Pl)

This competence involves improving self-awareness and building self-esteem. It also entails
identifying and developing talents, fulfilling dreams and aspirations. Learners are able to learn
from mistakes and failures of the past. They acquire skills to develop other people to meet their
needs. It involves recognising the importance of values such as honesty and empathy and
seeking the well-being of others. Personal development and leadership enables learners to
distinguish between right and wrong. The skill helps them to foster perseverance, resilience
and self-confidence. PL helps them acquire the skill of leadership, self-regulation and
responsibility necessary for lifelong learning.

Digital Literacy (Dl)

Digital Literacy develop learners to discover, acquire, and communicate through ICT to
support their learning. It also makes them use digital media responsibly.

LEARNING DOMAINS (EXPECTED LEARNING BEHAVIORS)

A central aspect of this curriculum is the concept of three integral learning domains that should
be the basis for instruction and assessment. These are
1. -Knowledge, Understanding and Application
2. - Process Skills
3. - Attitudes and Values

Knowledge, Understanding And Application

29
Under this domain, learners may acquire some knowledge through some learning experiences.
They may also show understanding of concepts by comparing, summarising, rewriting etc. in
their own words and constructing meaning from instruction. The learner may also apply the
knowledge acquired in some new contexts. At a higher level of learning behaviour, the learner
may be required to analyse an issue or a problem. At a much higher level, the learner may be
required to synthesize knowledge by integrating a number of ideas to formulate a plan, solve a
problem, compose a story, or a piece of music. Further, the learners may be required to
evaluate, estimate and interpret a concept. At the last level, which is the highest, learners may
be required to create, invent, compose, design and construct. These learning behaviours
“knowing”, “understanding”, “applying”, “analysing”, “synthesising”, “evaluating” and
“creating” fall under the domain “Knowledge, Understanding and Application”.

In the mathematics curriculum for upper primary, learning indicators are stated with action
verbs to show what the learner should know and be able to do. For example, the learner will be
able to describe something. Being able to “describe” something after teaching and learning has
been completed means that the learner has acquired “knowledge”. Being able to explain,
summarise, and give examples etc. means that the learner has understood the concept taught.
Similarly, being able to develop, defend, etc. means that the learner can “apply” the knowledge
acquired in some new context. You will note that each of the indicators in the curriculum
contains an “action verb” that describes the behaviour the learner will be able to demonstrate
after teaching and learning has taken place. “Knowledge, Understanding and Application” is a
domain that should be the prime focus of teaching and learning in schools. Teaching in most
cases has tended to stress knowledge acquisition to the detriment of other higher level
behaviours such as applying knowledge. Each action verb in any indicator outlines the
underlying expected outcome. Each indicator must be read carefully to know the learning
domain towards which you have to teach.

The focus is to move teaching and learning from the didactic acquisition of “knowledge” where
there is fact memorisation, heavy reliance on formulae, remembering facts without critiquing
them or relating them to real world – surface learning – to a new position called – deep learning.
Learners are expected to deepen their learning by knowledge application to develop critical
thinking skills, explain reasoning, and to generate creative ideas to solve real life problems in
their school lives and later in their adult lives. This is the position where learning becomes
beneficial to the learner. The explanation and the key words involved in the “Knowledge,
Understanding and Application” domain are as follows:

Knowing: The ability to remember, recall, identify, define, describe, list, name, match, state
principles, facts, concepts. Knowledge is the ability to remember or recall material already
learned and this constitutes the lowest level of learning.

Understanding: The ability to explain, summarise, translate, rewrite, paraphrase, give

examples, generalise, estimate or predict consequences based upon a trend. Understanding is
generally the ability to grasp the meaning of some material that may be verbal, pictorial, or
symbolic.

Applying: This dimension is also referred to as “Use of Knowledge”. Ability to use knowledge
or apply knowledge, apply rules, methods, principles, theories, etc.
to situations that are new and unfamiliar. It also involves the ability to produce, solve, plan,
demonstrate, discover etc.

Analysis: The ability to break down material/information into its component parts; to
differentiate, compare, distinguish, outline, separate, identify significant points etc., ability to
recognise unstated assumptions and logical fallacies; ability to recognise inferences from facts
etc. Synthesising: The ability to put parts together to form a new whole. It involves the ability
30
to combine, compile, compose, devise, plan, revise, organise, create, generate new ideas and
solutions etc.

Evaluating: The ability to appraise, compare features of different things and make comments
or judgment, compare, contrast, criticise, justify, support, discuss, conclude, make
recommendations etc. Evaluation refers to the ability to judge the worth or value of some
material based on some criteria.

Creating: The ability to use information or materials to plan, compose, produce, manufacture
or construct other products. From the foregoing, creation is the highest form of thinking and
learning skill and is therefore the most important behaviour. This unfortunately is the area
where most learners perform poorly. In order to get learners to develop critical thinking and
behavioural skills beginning right from the lower primary level, it is advised that you do your
best to help your learners to develop analytic and application skills as we have said already.

SKILLS AND PROCESSES

The mathematical method is the means by which a mathematician solves problems or seeks to
gain information about events. Learners should be exposed to situations that challenge them to
raise questions and attempt to solve problems. The more often they are faced with these
challenges, the more likely they are to develop a positive attitude toward mathematics, and the
more likely they are to develop the relevant process skills. Details of each sub-skill in the
“Values, Attitudes and Process Skills” dimension are as
follows:

Observing: This is the skill of using our senses to gather information about objects or events.
This also includes the use of instruments to extend the range of our
senses.
Classifying This is the skill of grouping objects or events based on common characteristics
Comparing This is the skill of identifying the similarities and differences between two or more
objects, concepts or processes.
Communicating/ This is the skill of transmitting, receiving and presenting information in
concise, clear and accurate forms verbal, written, pictorial, tabular or
Reporting - graphical
Predicting This is the skill of assessing the likelihood of an outcome based on prior knowledge
of how things usually turn out.
Analysing This is the skill of identifying the parts of objects, information or processes, and the
patterns and relationships between these parts.

Generating / This is the skill of exploring all the options, possibilities and alternatives beyond
the obvious or preferred one. Possibilities

Evaluating: This is the skill of assessing the reasonableness, accuracy and quality of
information, processes or ideas. This is also the skill of assessing the quality and feasibility of
objects.

Designing: This is the skill of Visualizing and drawing new objects or gargets from
imagination

Measuring: This is the skill of using measuring instruments and equipment for measuring,
reading and making observations

31
 Interpreting This is the skill of evaluating data in terms of its worth: good, bad, reliable,
unreliable; making inferences and predictions from written or graphical data; extrapolating and
deriving conclusions. Interpretation is also referred to as “Information Handling”.

Recording This is the skill of drawing or making graphical representation boldly and clearly,
well labelled and pertinent to the issue at hand.

Generalising: This is the skill of being able to use the conclusions arrived at in an experiment
to what could happen in similar situations Designing of This is the skill of developing
hypotheses; planning and designing of experiments; persistence in the execution of
experimental activities; Experiments modification of experimental activities where necessary
in order to reach conclusions. Learners therefore need to acquire positive attitudes, values and
psychosocial skills that will enable them participate actively in lessons and take a stand on
issues affecting them and others.
ATTITUDES
To be effective, competent and reflective citizens, who will be willing and capable of solving
personal and societal problems, learners should be exposed to situations that challenge them to
raise questions and attempt to solve problems. Learners therefore need to acquire positive
attitudes, values and psychosocial skills that will enable them participate in debates and take a
stand on issues affecting them and others. The mathematics curriculum thus focuses on the
development of attitudes and values.

The mathematics curriculum aims at helping learners to acquire the following:

(i) Commitment: determination to contribute to national development.
(ii) Tolerance: willingness to respect the views of others.
(iii) Patriotism: readiness to defend the nation.
(iv) Flexibility in ideas: willingness to change opinion in the face of more plausible evidence.
(v) Respect for evidence: willingness to collect and use data on one’s investigation, and also
have respect for data collected by others.
(vi) Reflection: the habit of critically reviewing ways in which an investigation or observation
has been carried out to see possible faults and other ways in which the investigation or
observation can be improved upon.
(vii) Comportment conforming to acceptable societal norms.
(viii) Co-operation the ability to work effectively with others.
(ix) Responsibility: the ability to act independently and make decisions; morally accountable
for one’s action; capable of rational conduct.
(x) Environmental Awareness: being conscious of one’s physical and socio-economic
surroundings.
(xi) Respect for the Rule of Law: obeying the rules and regulations of the land.

The teacher should ensure that learners cultivate the above attitudes and skills as basis for living
in the nation as effective citizens

VALUES:
At the heart of this curriculum is the belief in nurturing honest, creative and responsible
citizens. As such, every part of this curriculum, including the related pedagogy should be
consistent with the following set of values.

Respect: This includes respect for the nation of Ghana, its institutions and laws and the culture
and respect among its citizens and friends of Ghana.

Diversity: Ghana is a multicultural society in which every citizen enjoys fundamental rights
and responsibilities. Learners must be taught to respect the views of all persons and to see
32
national diversity as a powerful force for nation development. The curriculum promotes social
cohesion.

Equity: The socio-economic development across the country is uneven. Consequently, it is

necessary to ensure an equitable distribution of resources based on the unique needs of learners
and schools. Ghana’s learners are from diverse backgrounds, which require the provision of
equal opportunities to all, and that all strive to care for each other both personally and
professionally.

Commitment to achieving excellence: Learners must be taught to appreciate the opportunities

provided through the curriculum and persist in doing their best in whatever field of endeavour
as global citizens. The curriculum encourages innovativeness through creative and critical
thinking and the use of contemporary technology.

Teamwork/Collaboration: Learners are encouraged to be become committed to team-oriented

working and learning environments. This also means that learners should have an attitude of
tolerance to be able to live peacefully with all persons.

Truth and Integrity: The curriculum aims to develop learners into individuals who will
consistently tell the truth irrespective of the consequences. In addition, be morally upright with
the attitude of doing the right thing even when no one is watching. Also, be true to themselves
and be willing to live the values of honesty and compassion. Equally important, the ethos or
culture of the work place, including integrity and perseverance, must underpin the learning
processes to allow learners to apply skills and COMPETENCIES in the
world of work.

The action verbs provided under the various profile dimensions should help you to structure
your teaching to achieve desired learning outcomes. Select from the action verbs provided for
your teaching, for evaluation exercises and for test construction. Check the weights of the
profile dimensions to ensure that you have given the required emphasis to each of the
dimensions in your teaching and assessment.

ASSESSMENT
Assessment is a process of collecting and evaluating information about learners and using the
information to make decisions to improve their learning. In the new math curriculum, it is
suggested that assessment is used to promote learning. Its purpose is to identify the strengths
and weaknesses of learners to enable teachers ascertain their learner’s response to instruction.
Assessment is both formative and summative. Formative assessment is viewed in terms of
Assessment as learning and Assessment for learning.

Assessment as learning: Assessment as learning relates to engaging learners to reflect on the

expectations of their learning. Information that learners provide the teacher forms the basis for
refining teaching-learning strategies. Learners are assisted to play their roles and to take
responsibility of their own learning to improve performance. Learners set their own goals and
monitor their progress.

Assessment for learning: It is an approach used to monitor learner’s progress and achievement.
This occurs throughout the learning process. The teacher employs assessment for learning to
seek and interpret evidence which serves as timely feedback to refine their teaching strategies
and improve learners’ performance. Learners become actively involved in the learning process
and gain confidence in what they are expected to learn.

Assessment of learning: This is summative assessment. It describes the level learners have
attained in the learning, what they know and can do over a period of time. The emphasis is to
33
evaluate the learner’s cumulative progress and achievement. It must be emphasised that all
forms of assessment should be based on the domains of learning. In developing assessment
procedures, try to select indicators in such a way that you will be able to assess a representative
sample from a given strand. Each indicator in the curriculum is considered a criterion to be
achieved by the learners. When you develop assessment items or questions that are based on a
representative sample of the indicators taught, the assessment is referred to as a “Criterion-
Referenced Assessment”. In many cases, a teacher cannot assess all the indicators taught in a
term or year. The assessment procedure you use i.e. class assessments, homework, projects etc.
must be developed in such a way that the various procedures complement one another to
provide a representative sample of indicators taught over a period.

SUGGESTED TIME ALLOCATION

A total of ten periods a week, each period consisting of thirty minutes, is allocated to the
teaching of mathematics at the Lower Primary level. It is recommended that the teaching
periods be divided as follows:
2 periods per day (two 30-minute periods

PEDAGOGICAL APPROACHES
These include the approaches, methods, strategies, appropriate relevant teaching and learning
resources for ensuring that every learner benefits from teaching and learning process. The
curriculum emphasises the:

1. creation of learning-centred classrooms through the use of creative approaches to

ensure learner empowerment and independent learning.
2. positioning of inclusion and equity at the centre of quality teaching and learning
3. use of differentiation and scaffolding as teaching and learning strategies for ensuring
that no learner is left behind
4. use of Information Communications Technology (ICT) as a pedagogical tool
5. identification of subject specific instructional expectations needed for making learning
in the subject relevant to learners
6. integration of assessment as learning, for learning and of learning into the teaching and
learning processes and as an accountability strategy
7. questioning techniques that promote deep learning

LEARNING-CENTRED PEDAGOGY
The learner is at the centre of learning. At the heart of the national curriculum for change and
sustainable development is the learning progression and improvement of learning outcomes for
Ghana’s young people with a focus on the 4Rs – Reading, wRiting, aRithmetic and cReativity.
It is expected that at each curriculum phase, learners would be offered the essential learning
experiences to progress seamlessly to the next phase. Where there are indications that a learner
is not sufficiently ready for the next phase a compensatory provision through differentiation
should be provided to ensure that such a learner is ready to progress with his/her cohort. At the
primary school, the progression phases are KG1 to KG2 and B1 to B6.

The Curriculum encourages the creation of a learning centred classroom with the opportunity
for learners to engage in meaningful “hands-on” activities that bring home to the learner what
they are learning in school and what they know from outside of school. The learning centred
classroom is a place for the learners to discuss ideas through the inspiration of the teacher. The
learners then become actively engaged in looking for answers, working in groups to solve
problems. They also research for information, analyse and evaluate information. The aim of
the learning-centred classroom is to enable learners take ownership of their learning. It provides
the opportunity for deep and profound learning to take place.
34
The teacher as a facilitator needs to create a learning environment that:
1. makes learners feel safe and accepted
2. helps learners to interact with varied sources of information in a variety of ways
3. helps learners to identify a problem suitable for investigation through project work
4. connects the problem with the context of the learners’ world so that it presents realistic
opportunities for learning
5. organises the subject matter around the problem, not the subject
6. gives learners responsibility for defining their learning experience and planning to solve
the problem
7. encourages learners to collaborate in learning
8. expects all learners to demonstrate the results of their learning through a product or
performance
It is more productive for learners to find answers to their own questions rather than teachers
providing the answers and their opinions in a learning-centred classroom.

INCLUSION
Inclusion is ensuring access and learning for all learners especially those disadvantaged. All
learners are entitled to a broad and balanced curriculum in every school in Ghana. The daily
learning activities to which learners are exposed should ensure that the learners’ right to equal
access and accessibility to quality education is met. The Curriculum suggests a variety of
approaches that addresses learners’ diversity and their special needs in the learning process.
When these approaches are effectively used in lessons, they will contribute to the full
development of the learning potential of every learner. Learners have individual needs and
learning experiences and different levels of motivation for learning. Planning, delivery and
reflection on daily learning experiences should take these differences into consideration. The
curriculum therefore promotes:
1. learning that is linked to the learner’s background and to their prior experiences,
interests, potential and capacities.
2. learning that is meaningful because it aligns with learners’ ability (e.g. learning that is
oriented towards developing general capabilities and solving the practical problems of
everyday life); and
3. the active involvement of the learners in the selection and organisation of learning
experiences, making them aware of their importance and also enabling them to assess
their own learning outcomes.
DIFFERENTIATION AND SCAFFOLDING
Differentiation is a process by which differences (learning styles, interest and readiness to
learn) between learners are accommodated so that all learners in a group have best possible
chance of learning. Differentiation could be by content, tasks, questions, outcome, groupings
and support. Differentiation as a way of ensuring each learner benefits adequately from the
delivery of the curriculum can be achieved in the classroom through i) Task ii) Support from
the Guidance and Counselling Unit and iii) Learning outcomes.

Differentiation by task involves teachers setting different tasks for learners of different
abilities. E.g. in sketching the plan and shape of their classroom some learners could be made
to sketch with free hand while others would be made to trace the outline of the plan.
Differentiation by support involves the teacher giving needed support and referring weak
learners to the Guidance and Counselling Unit for academic support. Differentiation by
outcome involves the teacher allowing learners to respond at different levels. Weaker learners
are allowed more time for complicated tasks.

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 Scaffolding
Scaffolding in education refers to the use of variety of instructional techniques aimed at moving
learners progressively towards stronger understanding and ultimately greater independence in
the learning process. It involves breaking up the learning task, experience or concepts into
smaller parts and then providing learners with the support they need to learn each part. The
process may require a teacher assigning an excerpt of a longer text to learners to read and
engaging them to discuss the excerpt to improve comprehension. The teacher goes ahead to
guide them through the key words/vocabulary to ensure learners have developed a thorough
understanding of the text before engaging them to read the full text

Common scaffolding strategies available to the teacher are:

1. give learners a simplified version of a lesson, assignment, or reading, and then gradually
increases the complexity, difficulty, or sophistication over time
2. describe or illustrate a concept, problem, or process in multiple ways to ensure
understanding
3. give learners an exemplar or model of an assignment they will be asked to complete
4. give learners a vocabulary lesson before they read a difficult text
5. describe the purpose of a learning activity clearly and the learning goals they are
expected to achieve
6. describe explicitly how the new lesson builds on the knowledge and skills learners were
taught in a previous lesson

INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY

Information and Communication Technology (ICT) has been integrated into the mathematics
curriculum as part of the core of education, alongside reading, writing and numeracy. Thus, the
curriculum is designed to use ICT as a teaching and learning tool to enhance deep and
independent learning. For instance, the teacher in certain instances is directed to use
multimedia to support the teaching and learning process.

ICT has the potential to innovate, accelerate, enrich, and deepen skills. It also motivates and
engages learners to relate school experiences to work practices. It provides opportunities for
learners to fit into the world of work. Some of the expected outcomes that this curriculum aims
to achieve are:
1. improved teaching and learning processes
2. improved consistency and quality of teaching and learning
3. increased opportunities for more learner-centered pedagogical approaches
4. improved inclusive education practices.
5. improved collaboration, creativity, higher order thinking skills
6. enhanced flexibility and differentiated approach of delivery

The use of ICT as a teaching and learning tool is to provide learners an access to large quantities
of information online and offline. It also provides the framework for analysing data to
investigate patterns and relationships in the geographical context. Once learners have made
their findings, ICT can help them organize, edit and print the information in many different
ways.

Learners need to be exposed to various ICT tools around them including calculators, radios,
cameras, phones, television sets and computers and related software like Microsoft Office
packages - Word, PowerPoint and Excel as teaching and learning tools. The exposure that
learners are given at the primary school level to use ICT in exploiting learning will build their
confidence and will increase their level of motivation to apply ICT use in later years, both
within and outside of education. ICT use for teaching and learning is expected to enhance the
quality and competence level of learners.

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 ORGANISATION AND STRUCTURE OF THE CURRICULUM
The curriculum is organised under key headings and annotations.
Annotation
A unique annotation is used to label the class, strands, sub-strands, content standards and
learning indicators in the curriculum for the purpose of easy referencing. The annotation
is defined in figure 1:

Figure 1: Curriculum Reference Numbers

Strands are the broad areas/sections of the mathematics content to be studied. Sub-strands are
the topics within each strand under which the content is organised. Content standard refers to
the pre-determined level of knowledge, skill and/or attitude that a learner attains by a set stage
of education. Indicator is a clear outcome or milestone that learners have to exhibit in each year
to meet the content standard expectation. The indicators represent the minimum expected
standard in a year.

Exemplar – support and guidance which clearly explains the expected outcomes of an indicator
and suggests what teaching and learning activities could take to support the facilitators/teachers
in the delivery of the curriculum.

ORGANIZATION OF THE STANDARDS (B4 – B6)

The content standards in this document are organized by grade level. Within each grade level,
the contents are grouped first by strands. Each strand is further subdivided into substrands of
related indicators.
Ø Indicators are learning outcomes that define what learners should know and be able to
do.

37
 Ø Content Standards are groups of related indicators. Note that indicators from different
standards may sometimes be closely related, because mathematics is a connected
subject.
Ø Sub-strands are larger groups of related indicators (or mathematics topics to be
studied). Indicators from different sub-strands may sometimes be closely related.
Ø Strands are the main branches of the mathematics content to be studied.

The Standards are organized at the KG1 – B6 phase under four strands:
1. Number
2. Algebra
3. Geometry and Measurement
4. Data

The table below shows the scope and sequence of the strands addressed at the B4 – B6
phase. The remaining part of the document presents the details of the standards and
indicators for each grade level

The table below shows the scope and sequence of the strands addressed at the B4 – B6
phase. The remaining part of the document presents the details of the standards and
indicators for each grade level

38
39
 LECTURE SERIES FIVE

MAJOR THEORIES OF LEARNING AND TEACHING MATHEMATICS IN INCLUSIVE

CLASSROOM
Lesson Objectives:
1. Explain philosophies in mathematics education
2. Identify and explain at least five philosophies that guide the learning and teaching of
mathematics in primary education
3. Explain the role of proponents of mathematical theories
4. Give an exposition based on the implication of cognitive, behaviorism,
constructivism, intuitionism, formalism and naturalism in the teaching and learning of
mathematics
5. Explain the contributions and implications of the authors of theories by Vygotsky
skemp, Gagne, Piage, Ausebel and Dienes.

Area of concentration
2.1 Philosophies of mathematics education
2.2 Major theories of learning and teaching of primary mathematics in inclusive classroom
2.3 Mathematics philosophical proponents and their contribution to the learning and teaching
of mathematics in primary schools. E.g Lev Vygotsky, Skemp etc
2.4 Implication to teaching and learning

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 ZOLTAN DIENES’ SIX-STAGE THEORY OF LEARNING MATHEMATICS
Stage 1.

Most people, when confronted with a situation which they are not sure how to handle, will
engage in what is usually described as “trial and error” activity. What they are doing is to freely
interact with the situation presented to them. In trying to solve a puzzle, most people will
randomly try this and that and the other until some form of regularity in the situation begins to
emerge, after which a more systematic problem solving behaviour becomes possible. This stage
is the FREE PLAY, which is or should be, the beginning of all learning. This is how the would-
be learner becomes familiar with the situation with which he or she is confronted.

Stage 2.

After some free experimenting, it usually happens that regularities appear in the situation,
which can be formulated as “rules of a game”. Once it is realized that interesting activities can
be brought into play by means of rules, it is a small step towards inventing the rules in order to
create a “game”. Every game has some rules, which need to be observed in order to pass from
a starting state of things to the end of the game, which is determined by certain conditions being
satisfied. It is an extremely useful educational “trick” to invent games with rules which match
49
the rules that are inherent in some piece of mathematics which the educator wishes the learners
to learn. This can be or should be the essential aspect of this part of the learning cycle. We
could call this stage learning to play by the rules, as opposed to the free learning characteristic
of stage one.

Stage 3.

Once we have got children to play a number of mathematical games, there comes a moment
when these games can be discussed, compared with each other. It is good to teach several
games with very similar rule structures, but using different materials, so that it should become
apparent that there is a common core to a number of different looking games, which can later
be identified as the mathematical content of those games that are similar to each other in
structure, even though they might be totally different from the point of view of the elements
used for playing them. It is even desirable, at one point, to establish “dictionaries” between
games that have the same structure, so to each element and to each operation in one game,
should correspond a unique element or operation in the other game. This will encourage
learners to realize that the external material used for playing the games is less important than
the rule structure which each material embodies. So learners will be encouraged to take the
first halting steps towards abstraction, which is of course becoming aware of that which is
common to all the games with the same rule structure, while the actual physical “playthings”
can gradually become “noise”. This stage could be called the comparison stage.

Stage 4.

There comes a time when the learner has identified the abstract content of a number of different
games and is practically crying out for some sort of picture by means of which to represent that
which has been gleaned as the common core of the various activities. At this point it is time to
suggest some diagrammatic representation such as an arrow diagram, table, a coordinate
system or any other vehicle which would help fix in the learner’s mind what this common core
is. We cannot ever hope to see an abstraction, as such things do not exist in the real world of
objects and events, but we can invent a representation which would in some succinct way give
the learner a snapshot of the essence that he has extracted or abstracted through the various
game activities. Each one of the learned games can then be “mapped” on to this representation,
which will pinpoint the communality of the games. This stage can be called the representation
stage.

Stage 5.

It will now be possible to study the representation or “map” and glean some properties that all
the games naturally must have. For example it could be checked whether a certain series of
operations yields the same result as another series of operations. Such a “discovery” could then
be checked by playing it out in one or more of the games whose representation yielded the
“discovery”. An elementary language can then be developed to described such properties of
the map. Such a language can approximate to the conventional symbolic language
conventionally used by mathematicians or freedom can be exercised in inventing quite new
and different symbol systems. Be it one way or another, a symbol system can now be developed
which can be used to describe the properties of the system being learned, as the information is
gathered by studying the map. This stage can be called the symbolization stage.

Stage 6.

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The descriptions of the symbolization stage can get very lengthy and often quite redundant.
There comes a time when it becomes desirable to establish some order in the maze of
descriptions. This is the time to suggest that possibly just a few initial descriptions would
suffice, as long as we appended ways of deducing other properties of the map, determining
certain definite rules that would be allowed to be used in such “deductions”. In such a case we
are making the first steps towards realizing that the first few descriptions can be our AXIOMS,
and the other properties that we have deduced can be our THEOREMS, the ways of getting
from the initial axioms to the theorems being the PROOFS. This stage could be called the
formalization stage

1.1 Behaviorism
Behaviorism attempts to explain learning through the observable interactions of the learner
with the environment, without inferring anything that is going on inside the learner. It is based
on the stimulus-response model of Skinner, which attempts to apply the methods of science to
the study of human learning. Learning can be controlled by affecting the variables of the
situation, the behavior, and the consequences of the behavior (Bell, 1978). Behaviorism was
the prevalent theory of learning from the 1950’s through the 1970’s, giving rise to use of
empirical, quantitative studies of learning. Although the behaviorism movement has largely 1
passed from educational research (some may say proved false), von Glasersfeld (1995) notes
“its key notions are still alive and active in the minds of many educators” (p. 178).

1.2 Constructivism
Constructivism differs from behaviorism at the most fundamental question: from where does
knowledge come? Constructivists claim that a person’s knowledge is constructed by her or
himself in the setting of some environment. Piaget’s theory of learning is often referred to as a
“stage theory” in which the mental development of a child is described. This is a reference to
his observations that children demonstrate different modes of thought at different ages and that
it seems that they must pass through them in the same order. The stages are pre-operational,
concrete operational, and formal operational thinking. Generally, when a child hits adolescence
he or she is ready to move to formal operational thinking. In this light, the work of Piaget does
not seem applicable to research in undergraduate mathematics education. (Although it may
cause despair in those instances when we observe students who have remained at the concrete
operational stage.) However, this stage theory was not the theory of learning on which he spent
his life’s work. As a biologist, Piaget (1974/1980) developed a theory of evolution which
describes phenocopy as the result of establishing equilibrium on the level of the genome. As a
parallel construction, he describes cognitive epigenesis occurring through the student
establishing equilibrium through the processes of accommodation and assimilation. According
to this theory, a student can progress from one level of understanding to a higher level through
reflective abstraction. Piaget (1983/1989) also gave stages for this process as he observed intra-
, inter-, and trans-operational phases of thought in his experiments with children. The
intraoperational stage is characterized by the student’s focus on the objects of a transformation
in isolation from other objects and actions. Interoperational thought occurs as the student builds
relations between these actions through reflective abstraction. Finally, in the transoperational
stage the student reflects on these interrelations and is able to transform them as objects in a
larger system. This theory of learning is generally incorporated in an epistemological
framework in one of two ways. The framework can be built around finding descriptions of
students’ understanding which correspond to the levels of thought as described above. Another
framework may focus on the movement from one level to the next, as researchers look for the
mechanisms of transmission. While the points of view of the frameworks may differ regarding
investigations, pedagogically they tend to converge. These recognize that as students construct
their knowledge, they need to be placed in situations which allow for the movement from one
level to the next.

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 1.3 Socio-culturalism
The work of Vygotsky has gained increased recognition in the mathematics education
community. His theory states that the development of a student’s intelligence “results from
social interaction in the world and that speech, social interaction, and co-operative activity are
all important aspects of this social world” (Sutherland, 1993, p. 104). The student uses language
to build cognitive tools over which he or she has conscious control. The role of the 2 teacher
is central to this theory in that the teacher must convey the relationship between the sign and
the meaning of the sign. Vygotsky described a Zone of Proximal Development as the distance
between the level of development of a student (working on problems) and her or his level of
potential development (working with an adult). This zone allows the adult to be the “tool
holder,” that is, having conscious control of the concept, for the child until he or she is able to
internalize external knowledge. This process is referred to as scaffolding (Vygotsky, 1978,
1986). It seems well to note here two comparisons of Vygotsky and Piaget. Sutherland (1993)
notes the similarity of views in which the child has an active role in learning. Indeed,
Vygotsky’s notion the child needing to internalize external knowledge is very constructive.
However, Sutherland cites a lengthy passage from Vygotsky addressing his differences with
Piaget’s views on the role of speech. She also noted their different emphases on the role of the
teacher, implying that Piaget does not address teaching specifically. Confrey, in a three-part
article (1994, 1995a, 1995b), seeks to combine these two theories, supplementing them with
feminist scholarship in her revised theory. She describes at length both theories of learning and
itemizes their respective strengths and limitations. Confrey seems to exaggerate Piaget’s view
of the student constructing understanding for her or himself to the view that she or he must do
it in isolation. Also, while Vygotsky values the role of social interaction, his socio-cultural
perspective can limit diversity in the classroom. These authors are comparing different things.
While Sutherland looks at the theories themselves, Confrey compares implementations of the
theory.

1.4 Theory of Embodied Mathematics

Lakoff and N´u˜nez (2000) offer a view of learning mathematics based on the notion “that
conceptual metaphor plays a central, defining role in mathematical ideas within the cognitive
unconscious”. Their work extends findings in cognitive science to describe how many
mathematical concepts arise in the minds of learners through the use of metaphor and blending.
2 Epistemological Frameworks The following set of frameworks is my list of those authors
who are leaders in mathematics education research and should not be interpreted as complete.
I describe each framework briefly, giving its distinctive characteristics and theoretical
background. While there is no explicit attempt to compare and contrast frameworks, I have
categorized them into subsections.

2.1 Actions, Processes and Objects Dubinsky (1991) has developed an epistemological
framework referred to as Action-ProcessObject-Schema, or APOS. The framework considers
the development of a mathematical concept as moving from an action (intraoperational) to a
process (interoperational) via a type of reflective abstraction called interiorization. The
resulting process can be encapsulated into an object (transoperational). The framework notes
that objects constructed in this 3 manner can be de-encapsulated back to the process when
needed. Schemas are constructed by coordinating processes and actions and can also be
thematized into objects (Asiala et al., 1996). This framework results in descriptions of the
mental constructions a student makes to come to understand a concept. These descriptions are
called genetic decompositions. Instructional treatments are devised which may bring the
student to make the constructions described in the genetic decomposition. These treatments
generally involve the use of a mathematical programming language on computers, cooperative
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learning strategies, and alternatives to lecturing (Asiala et al., 1996). Sfard (1991) also employs
a framework which seeks to describe mental constructions in two ways: structurally (as objects)
or operationally (as processes). Her description of the reflective abstractions necessary to move
from process to object are interiorization, condensation, and reification. This framework posits
that objects and processes have a dual nature, rather than a dichotomous relation. Thompson
(1994a) also describes the development of concepts in terms of processes and objects. He
describes the student’s image of a concept as figural knowledge or a metaphor. He
distinguishes this image from the concept image of Vinner (discussed below) and from
schemas (although not as explicitly): Vinner’s idea of concept image focuses on the
coalescence of mental pictures into categories corresponding to conventional mathematical
vocabulary, while the notion of image I’ve attempted to develop focuses on the dynamics of
mental operations. The two notions of image are not inconsistent, they merely have a different
focus. (Thompson, 1994a, p. 231) Thompson’s framework proposes the development of
instruction which nurtures and extends students’ images in mathematics.

Concept Image and Concept Definition

Vinner (1992), along with Dreyfus and Tall, has distinguished the concept image and the
concept definition of a student. The concept image is a collection of all the objects, processes,
and schemas possessed by a student which are associated with the concept. This may include
mental pictures, misconceptions and properties (Dreyfus, 1990). The tension between this
image and the mathematical definition is the focus of the framework. By describing a student’s
concept image, one is able to help the student reorganize it into a more coherent structure which
is consonant with the concept definition (Thompson, 1994b). Tall (1989) uses a framework
based on the concept image which includes the use of generic organizers and computer
modeling. A generic organizer is an environment (or microworld) which enables the learner to
manipulate examples and (if possible) non-examples of a specific mathematical concept or a
related system of concepts.” (Tall, 1989, p. 39 [emphasis in original]) Pedagogically, this
framework allows the learner to build from cognitive bases rather than mathematical
foundations.

2.3 Multiple Representations

Kaput (1985) explores student understanding of mathematical concepts by observing the
student’s ability to represent the concept. Five uses of representation in mathematics are (a)
mental, (b) computer, (c) explanatory, (d) mathematical, and (e) symbolic—as with external
mathematical notation. Kaput (1991) extends the idea of the student’s notational system as an
architecture which organizes her or his mathematical experience. The notational system is also
used to represent the mental structures in the physical world. The analogy to architecture is
extended to say that, as an educator, one can design elegant and functional representational
systems, possibly with computer contexts, for students. He describes the existence of three
“worlds”; material, mental, and social (or consensual). The mathematics classroom is located
in the consensual world where change can take place rapidly. Thus learning takes place in the
relationship between the student representing and interpreting mathematics and in the shared
meaning with others. A related framework is that of Greeno, who also considers a conceptual
domain for mathematical thinking. It should be noted that these frameworks are not explicitly
based on any of the three theories previously given (neither is that of Schoenfeld, below).
Battista (1994) describes Greeno’s environmental/model view in which the conceptual domain
is considered an environment with spatial properties. Reasoning is accomplished by interacting
with mental models in this environment. Battista comments on the analogous nature of research
into spatial thinking as a way to see this view of Greeno.

2.4 Problem-solving Schoenfeld (1985) perceives a student’s mathematical understanding as

the ability to solve problems. He has identified four categories of knowledge which influence
this ability. The first is resources, the student’s foundation of basic mathematical knowledge.
The student also needs heuristics which are a set of broad problem-solving techniques. Third
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is control over the resources, i.e., whether or not a student selects necessary resources. Finally,
the student brings belief systems to bear on the problem situation. All four of these categories
must be taken into account when explaining a student’s behavior in mathematics.

2.5 Probl´ematique Balacheff (1990) defines a probl´ematique as “a set of research questions

related to a specific theoretical framework” (p. 258). The theoretical framework is based on
constructivism and the hypothesis that the source of mathematical knowledge is problem
situations. This epistemological framework also takes into account the role of the teacher in
the classroom and the social aspect of mathematics. Pedagogically, it proposes the use of a
didactical process of placing the student in various situations. These include situations of
institutionalization, of validation, of formulation, for decision, for communication, and for
action. The key to this framework is to bring the student to epistemological obstacles which he
or she must overcome to (re-)construct mathematical knowledge (Artigue, 1992). Sierpinska
(1995) addresses both the role of the teacher and some social aspects of learning in a discussion
of transfer of knowledge and contextual problem situations.

5 2.6 Radical Constructivism

What is radical constructivism? It is an unconventional approach to the problems of knowledge

and knowing. It starts from the assumption that knowledge, no matter how it be defined, is in
the heads of persons, and that the thinking subject has no alternative but to construct what he
or she knows on the basis of his or her own experience. What we make of experience constitutes
the only world we consciously live in. It can be sorted into many kinds, such as things, self,
others, and so on. But all kinds of experience are essentially subjective, and though I may find
reasons to believe that my experience may not be unlike yours, I have no way of knowing that
it is the same. The experience and interpretation of language are no exception. (von Glasersfeld,
1995, p. 1) Von Glasersfeld has taken the theory of Piaget and extended it. He and Steffe have
built an epistemological framework for research in mathematics education based on this view.
The framework involves using teaching experiments and cooperative learning to explore the
ways children learn. They propose building models of the students’ mathematical knowledge
in terms of schemes of actions and operations (Cobb & Steffe, 1983). 2.7 Theoretical Mixtures
Cobb (1995) has adopted the language of Vygotsky’s theory into his framework based on the
work of Steffe and von Glasersfeld. As mentioned above, Confrey (1995b) has also combined
the theories of Piaget and Vygotsky and extended them into a framework which addresses
issues of gender equity along with mathematical knowledge.

1. Constructivism
The theoretical Principles During the 1980s and 1990s, Constructivists introduced their
theory as based on two main principles: p1: knowledge is not passively received but
built up by the cognizing subject; p2: the function of cognition is adaptive and serves
the organization of the experiential world, not the discovery of ontological reality. (see
von Glasersfeld, 1995, p. 18) Principle p1 stresses constructivism‘s opposition to
teaching by transmission. Constructivism, indeed, emerged as an option against
behaviourism and its pedagogy of ―direct teachingǁ. It is in this context that Paul
Cobb remarked some twenty years ago that An abundance of research indicates that
students routinely use prescribed methods to solve particular sets of tasks on which they
have received instruction without having developed the desired conceptual knowledge.
(Cobb, 1988, p. 90) However, although historically important, the true novelty of the
constructivist perspective does not rest on the first principle. It rather rests, as von
Glaserfeld claims, on the epistemic and ontological attitudes conveyed by the
second principle and its concomitant concept of knowledge. Without necessarily
denying the existence of a pre-existent reality, and in a move coherent with Kant‘s
theory of knowledge, constructivism does not claim that the knowledge constructed
54
by the cognizing subject corresponds to such a reality; its epistemology rests precisely
on the denial of the possibility of any certain knowledge of reality (Ernest, 1991).

2. The Theory of Didactic Situations

The Theory of Didactical Situations (TDS) seeks to offer a model, inspired by the
mathematical theory of games, to investigate, in a scientific way, the problems
related to the teaching of mathematics and the means to enhance it. In the
beginning, the term ―situationǁ referred to the student‘s environment as
handled by the teacher for whom it appears as a tool in the process of teaching. Later,
the situation was enlarged

in order to include the teacher herself and even the educational system as a whole
(Brousseau, 1997a). As any theory, the TDS works on the basis of a set of principles, among
them the following epistemic ones:
p1: knowledge results as the ―optimal‖ solution to a certain situation or problem.
p2: learning is –in accordance to Piaget‘s genetic epistemology— a form of cognitive
adaptation.
As in the case of constructivism, these principles are supplemented by a conception of the
roles that teacher and students have to play in the classroom:

2.1 The role of the teacher

An essential part of the teacher‘s role is not to show the students how to solve the
problems, but rather to let the students deal with them, for ―Doing mathematics does not
consist only of receiving, learning and sending correct, relevant (appropriate) mathematical
messages‖ (Brousseau, 1997b, p. 15). Like Constructivism, the TDS is opposed to direct
teaching. The teacher‘s role is rather to find out the problems or situations that will be given
to the students and that will provoke the expected learning.

2.2 The role of the student

The student which the TDS talks about is an epistemic subject, a sort of ideal model of the
individual, conceived of as behaving (or having to behave) in a rational manner, in a way close
to the behaviour of the mathematician. Her role is to engage in mathematical problems in a
way that is coherent with the professional scientific practice. In the course of a faithful
reproduction of scientific activities, the student is required to ―produce, formulate, prove,
and construct models, languages, concepts and theories.‖ (Brousseau, 1997b, p. 22).

The roles of the teacher and the student are explained in the following passage: The modern
conception of teaching … requires the teacher to provoke the expected adaptation in her
students by a judicious choice of ―problemsǁ that she puts before them. These problems,
chosen in such a way that the students can accept them, must make the students act, speak,
think, and evolve by their own motivation. (Brousseau, 1997b, p. 30) The ―judiciousǁ choice
of problems is, of course, a delicate part of the teaching process. Its concrete possibility rests
on the following epistemological assumption: p3: for every piece of mathematical knowledge
there is a family of situations to give it an appropriate meaning. This family is called a
fundamental situation.

Brief note
Through the years, the development in learning and teaching theories has influenced on how
teacher teaches in the mathematics classroom. It starts with Behaviourism, Cognitivism,
Constructivism and the latest theory is Connectivism. Behaviourism theory is considered one
of the traditional learning theories but most of the teachers nowadays continue to apply a
behaviourist view of learning in their teaching.

55
Behaviourism emphasizes on behaviour that can be observed and leads itself naturally to rote
learning method. Behaviorism also focuses on the changes in the student behaviour whereby
stimulus-response occurs. Learning occurs when pupils response to the stimulus given by the
teacher. In supporting mathematics development in the effective classroom, teacher also needs
to build the pupils’ passion in mathematics by giving interesting examples of daily life
activities [5]. Besides, teachers nowadays like to give extrinsic motivation and as a result the
positive habits which will develop and the learning process will continue. The incorrect
behaviour that obviously be seen in the class must be warned and replaced by the correct
behaviour. In Malaysia, the mathematical culture still focuses on the ‘doing’ rather than
‘thinking’ mathematics

After the era of behaviorism theory, the learning theory shift to cognitivist learning theory.
Cognitivism stresses on the mental processing activities such as thinking, knowing and
problem solving. It also focuses on how information receives, organize, store and retrieve by
mind. Cognitive theories emphasize on making the knowledge meaningful and help the student
to organize and relate new information to existing knowledge in the memory. According to
cognitivism, teacher must arrange the teaching practice that suitable and effective for students’
cognitive structure. Besides, teacher must understand that student will have different learning
experiences that can impact the learning outcome in the classroom. So, teacher must find the
most effective manner to organize new information that related to prior knowledge and blended
with the experiences of the students.

Aside from behaviourism and cognitivism, constructivism is vital in teaching and learning
mathematics too. Basically, constructivism is a process whereby pupils construct their
knowledge and understanding through active learning in the classroom. According to
Scrivener, the main role of a teacher is to help students to learn to work at their own speed, by
encourage them to participate, talk, do thing and by not giving long explanations. Besides,
constructivism leads the pupils to find many ways in searching for new knowledge and make
the learning meaningful. Obviously, learning mathematics through constructivism involves
several factors such as pedagogical factors, individual factors and social factors.

Connectivism is considered a teaching and learning theory used in 21st century. Downes found
that experience and action of teachers and students can form by connection between group
knowledge. The group knowledge is knowledge that interactions within the network. While,
Siemens [12] defined connectivism theories as individual mind and outside the world rather
than to traditional teaching and learning paradigms that individual should what to do
(Behaviourism), how to make (Constructivism) and what to think (Cognitivism). In the
connectivism, the teachers’ roles has shift from expert “input or answer giver”, “spoon feeder”
or known as traditional mathematics practices such as repetition and memorization to
facilitator, listener, observer and organizer for the collaborative classroom.

In the mathematics classroom, students with different level of ability and intelligence learn in
different ways. The use of variety strategies helps the student to understand more on
mathematics. Different approaches in teaching and learning makes it a highly complex to the
teacher or educators. Being a good teacher, 4 components must occur such as variation in
methods in teaching, hear and skillful in questioning, lead the student on how to learn and know
the reason why the objective of teaching is achieve or not [13]. Teacher need to encourage the
student to do investigating and hands on such as group project and teamwork

56
 LECTURE SERIES SIX

CHILDREN AND THE LEARNING OF MATHEMATICS

Lesson Objectives:
1. Identify and explain at least four (4) number readiness experience you could use to
guide children explore mathematics
2.

Area of concentration
2.1 Children’s number readiness experience
2.2 Activities to suggest number readiness
2.3 Understanding size, shapes and parterns
2.4 Ability to count verbally (first, forward and then backwards)
2.5 Recognizing numerals
2.6 Identifying more and less of a quantity
2.7 Understanding one-to-one correspondence (matching sets)
2.8 Logical and psychological approaches in learning mathematics

SESSION 1: MATHEMATICAL AXIOMS

We have leant that mathematics is view from different perspectives and so is defined
differently. In this session we shall learn about mathematical axioms. Axiom form the
basis for mathematical theorems.

Objective

By the end of the session you should be able to explain mathematical axioms and illustrate
with examples in mathematics

Axioms are proposition that are assumed to be true. They are statement, which seems to be
hold for an underlying concept. They are common notion, which must be accepted due to
the nature of the logic of human thought. A mathematical axiom is a primary proposition
that is self-evident truth.
Around 300 BC Euclid was known to be a professor of mathematics at the Alexandria
University. He wrote a book called ‘Elements’. This was regarded as introductory text book
covering all elementary mathematical – arithmetic, geometry and algebra (not symbolic, but
geometrical). The element has been the most successful mathematics textbook in history
(and only the Bible is said to have had more printing). The name Euclid was associated with
truth; ‘’Euclid is truth ‘’ because he made several reasoned statements that were accepted
without argument.

Euclid’s list of axioms often referred to as Five Common Notion include;

1. Things which are equal to the same thing are equal to one another. E.g if 3+2=5 and
4+1=5, then 3+2=4+1 because each equal to 5.
2. If equal things should be added to equal things, the wholes are equal. Eg if a=b then
a+x=b+x
3. If equals be subtracted from equals, the remainders are equal. E.g a-x=b-x
4. Things which coincide with one another are equal to another. E.g 3+2=2+3. That is, things
fitted to one another are equal to one another. What Euclid apparently means by ‘fitting’
one thing to another is imaginarily picking up, for instance, triangle and placing it down
upon a corresponding triangle to see if all the points correspond to another.
57
5. The whole is greater than any of its parts.

Note that this appear to be self–explanatory and do not necessary need any proof.
Exercise 2.1
1. What is the name of the great historical book written by Euclid?
2. Euclid was a professor of mathematics at ………..university.
3. Identify and explain the five common notions propounded by Euclid.

Objectives
By the en of this session you should be able to identify and explain mathematical
operations
The term operation refers to a process that involves a change or transformation. The process
starts with an object in a particular state of affairs an operation occurs and causes a change
in the object, resulting final state of affairs. This give rise to in put –output scenario. An
operation occurs in between the input time and output stage.
A mathematical operation is a process of carrying out rules or procedure such as addition,
subtraction multiplication and division. Others are squares, cubes and higher powers; roots
such as square roots cube roots etc; differentiate, integrate, etc. each of these operations
involves manipulation of numbers, variables or some objects in mathematics. Each has a
unique underlying structure to preserve; directing what must be done.

2.1.Addition
The operation means putting together, or joining two entities. The process stipulates
that you combine the entities that are involved in the addition process. For example to
add 3 and 4 i.e 3+4, we make a representation for 3 ( as three concrete items ) and for
4 (as 4 concrete items ) and then put together and count all to get 7 concrete items. This
process is often referred to as counting all principle where the learner count the first
addend (3) the second addend (4) separately; combines and then count all before
arriving at the answer (7). Thus, x + y means to make a collection with x objects and
other with y objects, and then combining the two collections and finally counting all
the objects to get x + y objects.

At another level, 3+4, can be worked out by the counting on principle. This involves starting
with one of the addends (Often the larger number) say 4,and then just counting on 3 more
from 4 using some objects or fingers or just mentally,4; 5, 6, 7,and giving the last count, 7
as the answer.

Addition is a binary operation in that it combines only two quantities at a time. Thus in
adding three or more numbers, we combine the numbers in pairs till all the numbers are
added.

2.2 Subtraction
The subtraction operation is the process of removing a specified quantity from a given larger
collection of items. This often termed Take away aspect of subtraction. The rule or producer
in this case is taking away/ removing from. E.g. there are 9 items on the table. Jedetey takes
5 of the items. How many items are left on the table? (for 9-5=?)

A second interpretation of subtraction is termed comparing/ matching two sets. This involves
comparing items in two collection or set by matching them on a one –to-one correspondence
basis and then finding out how many are items are left over in the lager set. E.g Rukaya has
8 items and Bulera has 5 similar items. How many more items has Rukaya than Bulera?
(for 8-5=?)

58
A third interpretation of subtraction operation is refers to as Missing Addend. This requires
finding how many more items to be added to one collection to get the number of items in the
second the collection. E.g Abena has 4 books and Dogbeda has 7 books. How many more
books does abena need to get as many to get as many books as Dogbeda ? ( for 4+?=7 or 7-4
=?).
In each of the three cases, the subtraction operation requires that we look for the difference in
two given numbers.

multiplication

Multiplication can be interpreted as Mixing sets or Repeated addition of same addend.

Multiplication as mixing set requires that two sets are formed and the members of one set are
paired with every member in the second set. This is also seen as Cartesian product in which
we match, in ordered pairs, all members of one set with all members another set. E.g Mensa
has three pairs of trousers of different colors and 4 shirts also differently colored. How many
different ways can he dress for an outing? This involves pairing each pair of trousers with
each shirt, giving 12 different pairs each/combinations in all for 3×4=12.
Multiplication as repeated addition requires that the same number be added repeatedly a
required number of times. E.g. 3×4 = is interpreted as 4+4+4=12. This is often interpreted
as‘’3 lots of 4’’ thus 3x9 means 3lots of 9= 9+9+9=27

2.4 Division

The division operation is interpreted in two ways-as a measurement problem and as a

partition problem.
In a measurement problem, the total number of items is provided along with the number of
items to be put into each group. The operation requires that we find the number of groups that
can be made. This gives rise to the grouping aspect of division which leads to repeated
subtraction concept. For example, if there are 12 oranges and each pupil is to have 3 oranges,
how many pupils will receive the oranges? For 12÷3= 4.
In a partition problem, the total number of items is given and the number of groups to be made
is also given. The operation requires we find the number of items that each group will contain.
This give rise to ‘’sharing’’ aspect of division .For example ,there are 12 orange to share
equally among students. How many oranges will each student get?
The 12 orange are partitioned into group of 4.

2.5 square Root and Cube Root

The square root of a number is explain as ‘’one of the two equal factors of the given number’’.
With this interpretation of square root, we try to factorize a given number such that there are
two equals factors. Thus the square root operation requires that we find the equal factor of the
given number. For example, because 81=9x9, we say the square root of 81 (√81) is 9 and the
square of 9 is 81. This process can be done systematically by prime factorizing the given
number and then putting the factor in to two sequel groups. We then find the product of the
factors in each group as the square root. For example, to find, example of √144, the process
starts with prime factorizing 144 as√144= 2x2x2x2x3x3 =(2x2x3)x
(2x2x3)x12x12. Hence√144=12 we can extend this cube root of a given number as of
three equal factors of a given number by splitting the prime factor in to three equal groups.
*
Try for √216 =?

Exercise 2.2

1.what is an operation in mathematics?

59
2.Explain each of the following basic operation:
a) Addition;
b) Subtraction ;
c) Multiplication

d) Division
3. Explain how you would guide your students to find the:
a) Square root of 225.
b) Cube root of 1000.

MATHEMATICAL PROOF

It is quite evident that enough sources of error exist in our mathematical calculations, from
imprecise measure to misunderstanding of the formulas we use. It is thus important to make
sure that thinking doesn’t add more error. In mathematics, we usually want to be sure that
what we do is right and this is one reason why we need proofs. Proofs just mean checking
our reasoning. This session discusses what mathematical proof entails and how it is
important in mathematics.

The Greeks developed this love of certainly. They saw mathematics not just as a tool to use,
but a way to build a world of absolute truth, building one fact on another so that they knew
they were right. They originally build large part of their geometrical thinking on the
assumption that any two lines could be compared by finding some unit small enough that
both length were whole-number multiples of that unit; that is all lines were assumed to be
‘’commensurable’’. But it was discovered that the diagonal of a unit square was
incommensurable with the side of the square-that is the square root of two was irrational.
This force them to rethink their proofs and they were able to rebuild their geometry; but the
incident reinforce mathematicians’ awareness of the importance of really proving everything.

Proof of fundamental to mathematics; we do not know whether a mathematical proposition

is true or false until we have proved (or disproved) it. If you have a conjecture, the only way
that you can safely be sure that it is true, is by presenting a valid mathematical proof.

Objective
By the end of this session you should be able to identify and explain a proof in mathematics.
Now read on……………..

Definition: A mathematical proof is a process of deduction using axioms to demonstrate that

a process is true. A proof refers to a path ways or processing aimed at arrived at the truth of
a proposition. Mathematical proof has something in common with everyday argument. A
proof is an explanation which convince other mathematicians that a statement is true.
A proof also helps you to understand why it is true.

A proof is a deductive argument a mathematical statement. In the argument other argument

previously established statement, such as theorems, known can be used. In principle a proof
can be traced back to self-evident or assumed statement known as axioms. Proofs are
examples of deductive reasoning and are distinguished from inductive or empirical
arguments; a proof must demonstrated that a statement is always true (occasionally by listing
all possible cases and showing that it holes in each), rather than enumerate many
confirmatory cases.
The Harper Collins Dictionary of mathematics defined a proof as a sequence of statements,
each of which is either validly derived from those preceding it. Similarly, the Penguin
Dictionary of mathematics defines a proof as a chain of reasoning using rule of inference,
60
 ultimately based on a set of axioms that lead to a conclusion. Proofs are simply the
manipulations of symbols in our formal language starting from certain rules that we call
axioms.

To prove a statement is to establish its validity (or truth) in a convincing way, by an argument.
To disprove a statement is to reveal it falseness, perhaps by example, or by proving its
negation. Very often all it takes to disprove is to find a counterexample, i.e an example that
satisfies the condition of statement , the promises, but not its conclusion.
In mathematics, we can prove that what we do is absolutely right. That is because
mathematics is not dependent on partially know physical laws or unpredictable human
behavior ,but simply on reason. In mathematics unlike the real world, we set the rules, so we
can know every thing we need to know in order to be certain what will happen. For example,
we can define what we mean by addition and then proof that if we add (b+ a) we will always
get the same results as (a+ b)

It is important to prove things so we are not easily fooled. The fact that something is true
when ever we try is not enough certainty that it always will be. The reason we can be sure
that a + b= b + a, for example, is not that we have always seen it work that way, but that we
can understand what is happening when we add, and know that this rule is natural result of
the addition works.

Mathematical proofs offer lots of insight. Being able to write down a valid proof may indicate
that you have a thorough understanding of the problem. The effort to prove a conjecture may
sometimes requires a deeper understanding of the theory in question. One gains a great deal
of understanding and knowledge, even if the effort to prove the conjecture will end with
failure.

Example 1: For any two integers a and b, if a< b, then 𝑎, < 𝑏, . At first sight, the statement
may appear to be true, it is not. A counterexample is given by a pair, a= -1,b= o. indeed, -1<
0 as required by the conditions of the statement. But the conclusion
1= (-1), < 0, = 0 is obviously wrong. the amended statement that requires a and b to be
positive, can be shown to be correct.

Example 2: prove that if m and n are real and unequal, then 𝑚, +𝑛, > 2mn

Solution: (m-n), > 0 (by theorem (a± b), > 0 )

But (m-n), = 𝑚, - 2mn+𝑛, (Expanding)

(m- n), = 𝑚, + 𝑛, - 2mm > 0 (Associative Law of addition)

𝑚, + 𝑛, > 2mn. (Q.E.D)

Proving is usually a multistep processing. It may not be seen through right away. But
according to John Mason’’, being stuck is an honorable a state and is an essential part of
improving thinking’’, sometimes one can get stuck right the beginning, wondering were to
start. At this point it pays to believe that proving, as other kinds of problem solving, is a
manageable craft.
Here are a few guidelines to help erase the doubt from the validity of your proof.
Steps:
1.Understand that mathematics uses information that you already know especially axioms or the
results of others theorems.

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2.Write out what is given, as well as what is needed to be proven. Start with what is given, use
other axioms, theorems, or mathematics that you already know to be true, and arrive at what
you want to prove. Through understanding means you can repeat and paraphrase the problem
in at least 3 different ways: pure symbols, flowchart, and using words.
3. Ask your self questions as you move along. ‘’why is this so? ‘’ and” Is there any way
this can be false?” Back up every statement with a reason! Justify your process.
4. Make sure your proof is step-by-step. It needs to flow from one statement to the other,
with support for each statement, so that there is no reason to doubt the validity of your properly
paced progress.
5. Ask your teacher or classmate if you have questions. It’s okay to ask questions every
now and then – doing so is part of the learning process.
6. Designate the end of your proof . one way for doing this is writing Q.E.D. (quadrant
demonstrandum, which is Latin for “ which was to be shown”). Technically, this is only
appropriate when the last statement of the proof is itself the proposition to be proven
7. Remember the definition you were given .go through your notes and see if the define is
correct.
8. Take time to ponder about the proof. The goal wasn’t the proof, it was the learn ,if you only
do the proof and than move on than, you are missing out on half of the learn experience.
Think about it. Will you be satisfied with this? A mathematical proof makes every step
really obvious. Note that proof of just a good argument with every steps justified.

Exercise 2.3
1. Why should mathematics teachers and students engage in mathematical proofs?
2. Identify and explain two definition of mathematical proof?
3. What is meant by a counter example

MATHEMATICAL ALGORITHMS

We leant about mathematical proofs and how important they are in mathematics. In this
session we shall leant about mathematical algorithms. We shall discuss the problem
associated with over reliance in algorithms and how to improve upon effective use.

An algorithm is a finite set in of precise instructions for performing a computation or

solving a problem. It includes all definite procedures for solving problems. When the
term algorithm is used in mathematics, it typically refers to a set of step used to solve
a mathematical computation.

It is sep-by-step procedure designed to achieve a certain objective in a finite time, often

with several step that repeat in many times as necessary. The most familiar algorithms
are the produce for adding, subtraction, multiplication and dividing but there are many
other algorithms in mathematics.
“algorithms:
a) 3+6+7=6+10=16; (looking for 10);
b) 3+6+7=9+7=16;(Beginning from left);
c) 3+6+7=3+13=16;(Beginning from right);

Example 1: we have algorithm for addition and subtraction involving regrouping

and no regrouping. One algorithms for subtraction (not very popular) is called
“How March More Do I Add” (HMMDIA). It uses an additive component, adding

62
 to the subtrahend (number to subtracted), until you get to minuend (number from
which they are subtracting.)
For example, 137 is worked out by adding from 28 till you get to137as follow
-28
First, how much more do 1 add to 28 to get to the nearest ten,i.e. 30?
Record the answer 2
second, how march more do 1 add to 30 to get 100?
Record the answer 70
Finally, how march more do one add to 100 to get 137?
Record the answer 37.

Now add the result 2+70+37=109.

Conclude that 137 =2+70+37=109.
-28
We have algorithms for multiplication showing the systematic approach to use to
multiply one-digit, two-digit, etc. factors with or without regrouping and using
expanded form, basing on structured materials-abacus and Dienes’ blocks. Various
algorithm exist for divisions of numbers by one-digit, two-digit, etc divisors with
regrouping and no regrouping, and scaffolding.

Example 2: A step by step procedure is use in long division. A simple question like 83
divided by 3 (83÷3) would have the following algorithm:
How many times will 3 divide (go into) 8?
The answer is 2
Put the 2(tens) in front of the 3.
How many times does the 3 divided (go into) 23?
The answer is 7 with a remainder of 2.
Hence, 83÷3=27 remainder2
The step by step procedure use to do the long division computation is considered a long
division algorithm.

Example 3: another useful algorithm for multiplying polynomials in a algebra is termed

“FOIL” which stand for a” First Outside, Inside Last.” It is a handy way to remember how to
multiply two binomials. For example, to work out (a + b)(c + d), the algorithm requires we
first multiply the first terms, a x c;
Multiply the outside terms, a x d
Multiply the inside terms, b x c, and than
Multiply the last terms, b x d
Finally, fund the sum of all the results (products). (a x c) + (a x d) + (b x c) + (b x d)
This gives ac + ad + bc +bd.
Specifically, to find the product (3x + 2)(2x -7) using FOIL algorithm, we proceed thus:
First multiply the First terms,3x (2x) to get 6𝑥 , :
Multiply the Outside terms, 3x (-7) to get -21x:
Multiply the Inside terms, 2(2x) = 4x, and than
Multiply the Last terms, 2x(-7) = -14
Finally, find the sum of all the result of all the results, 6𝑥 , -21x + 4x- 14.This simplifies to
6𝑥 , – 17x – 14.

Example 4: We also talk of BEDMAS/PEDMAS which refers to a set of steps involved in

carrying out mixed operations. It is an acronym that helps individuals remembers how to
perform a set of procedure (order of operations in algebra) in mathematics. When you have
mathematics problems that require the use of different operations (Brackets or Parenthesis,
Exponents, Division, Multiplication, Addition and Subtraction) order is necessary and
mathematicians have agreed on the BEDMAS order. Each letter of BEDMAS refers to one part
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of the operation to be used. In mathematics there is an agreed upon set of procedure for the
order in which your operations are performed. Your answer is likely to be wrong if you perform
calculations out of the order. Remember to work from left to right as you use the BEDMAS
order of operations. Brackets/parenthesis always comes first and exponents come second.
When working with multiplication, dividing, you do which ever come first as you work form
left to right. If multiplication comes first, do it before dividing. The same holds true for addition
and subtraction, when the subtraction come first, subtract before you add.

When there are more than one set of parenthesis, work with the inside of parenthesis and work
your way to the outside parenthesis, the following clues are use to remember BEDMAS or
PEDMAS: Please Excuse My Dear Aunt Sally; Big Elephants Destroy Mice and Snails; and
Pink Elephant Destroy Mice and Snails. Try to device your own.

Example 5
(a) 19-[2 x (5 + 4)]
Do the inside bracket (parenthesis) first : 19-[2x(9)].
Do the remaining bracket:19-[18]= 1
Therefore ,19-[2x(5+4)= 1
(b) (7-3), – 2 x 5 + 9

Do the bracket (parenthesis) (4), – 2 x 5 + 9.

Calculate the exponent :16 – 2 x 5 + 9.
Now multiply: 16 – 10 + 9.
Now subtract : 6 + 9
Now add: 6 + 9 = 15.
Therefore , (7- 3), – 2 x 5 + 9 = 15.

BEDMAS is similar to the familiar BODMAS or BOMDAS which stands for Brackets of
Division, Multiplication , Addition and Subtraction. The widespread availability of
calculators and computers outside is changing the place of algorithms in school mathematics.
The traditional approach has been observed to fail with the traditional approach to teaching
computation. Such failures are attributed an overemphasis on procedures. Students are
burdened to carry out imperfectly understood procedures.
The traditional approach to teaching computation engenders believers about mathematics
that impede further learning.

Learning a single standard algorithm for each operation especially at an early stage, may
actually inhibit the development of students mathematical understanding. We need to
expose a student to a number of algorithms and encourage them to devise their own
algorithms. This will make student avoid the use of algorithms as substitute in thinking and
common sense. Students must guides to solve mathematics problem in more than one way.
There is the need of to use multiple algorithm approach in teaching and learning
mathematics. Different algorithms are often based on different concepts, so study several
algorithms for an operation help students to understand the operation.

In addition, presenting several alternative algorithms sends massage about mathematics

being sensible and useful of creativity. Teaching several algorithms for important operation
equips student to do mathematics outside the classroom. Knowing algorithms increase
student mathematical power, which is the goal of mathematics (NCTM, 1989). When student
develop an effective algorithms, they can use it to efficiently solve many relate problems,
without having to think through each problem from first principles.

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 Exercise 2.4
1. Explain how would use HMMDIA algorithm to work out the following:
(a) 155 (b) 116
-46 -28
2. Explain how would use the FOIL approach to find the following productions:
a) (2 x +3) (x + 5) b. (3x + 1)(2x-t5) c) (4 - 2x) (x + 5)
3. Explain how use will use the BEDMAS algorithm in solving
56- (4+), + 18 ÷3.
4. Explain how you will use division to find:
(a) 135÷4 = ? (b) 247÷5 = ?
5. Devise an algorithm for multiplying by a 2-digit number

CONJECTURES AND THEOREMS

We learnt in the previous session of this unit about axioms, operations, proof and
algorithm in mathematics. In this session, we shall learn about two other importance
mathematical tears –conjectures and theorems. By the end this session you will be able
to:
a) Identify and explain conjunctures in mathematics; and
b) Identify and explain theory in mathematic
A conjunction is a preposition that is yet to be proved or disproved. It is a statement
whose truth is unknown. It is an unproven statement that is believed to be true or
that appears to be correct. It is use to describe the instants where an inference or
judgment is base on inconclusive evidence or guesswork. To conjecture is to infer
from inconclusive evidence; to guess; to form a conclusion from uncompleted
evidence; from an opinion without proof. A conjecture is simply a proposition (as in
mathematics) before it has been proved or disproved. The main thing about
conjunction is that there is no proof to support.
Here are some examples of conjectures about prime numbers to show how guesses
can be made and improve upon. A prime number is one whose only factors are
Itself and 1.Those numbers having additional factors are composite numbers

1. Goldbach’s even number conjuncture: Any even numbers greater than 2 is the sum
of two primes e.g 4 = 2 + 2; 6 = 3 + 3; 8 = 3 + 5; 28 = 11 + 17; 48 = 5 + 43;

78 = 7 + 71 = 17 + 61 ; 102 = 5+97=19 + 83; etc…

2. The conjecture of quadratic function f (n) = 𝑛, -n + 41 for generating primes work for
the first 40 natural numbers (n) but not beyond.
3. Fermat’s numbers in generating prime number: In 1640, Fermat, a French
mathematician, who was lawyers by profession but an amateur mathematician in his
4
spare time, conjecture a form, which represented primes only. That is, 2, + 1 is a
prime. The first four are:2, + 1 = 5 ,
𝟐 𝟑 𝟒
4. 𝟐𝟐 + 1= 17 𝟐𝟐 + 1=257, and 𝟐𝟐 + 1 = 65537.

ü Hundred years later, Euler Leonhard (1707 - 1783) disapprove this by showing that the
fifth Fermat’s number 28 + 1 = 4,294, 967, 296 + 1, is not a prime. It is divisible by 641.
ü In 1971 Russian named Matsyasievich discover several explicit polynomials of this sort
that generate only primes. The lagers was 299,9: -1, discovered at Illinois University .
ü In 1971 student (March 4), Bryant Tuckerman found another prime to be 29;;:< -1.

65
ü In 1978 two student, Laura Nickel and Curt Noll found a larger prime 2,9<=9 − 1 Later
Curt found 2,:,=; - 1 as a prime.
ü Then in 1983, David Slowinski (of the Cray Research Laboratory) found 2?@,A: -1 to be
the largest known prime. This was a 3000-year – old puzzle solved. (Los Angeles Time).

The largest prime known has been an integer of the special form 2B -1, were p is also a
prime. Such primes are called Mersenne primes, After a French monk, Martin Mersenne
who studied them in 17th century. After the discovery of the first few Mersenne primes it
took more than two countries with rigorous verification to obtain 47 Mersenne primes
By mid- 1999, the largest Mersenne prime was 2:=,9:<< - 1.

Fermat’s’ two square’ theorem: - the primes may (if we ignore the special prime 2) be
arranged in two classes; the primes 5,13,17,29,37,41,…….which leave a remainder 1 when
divided by 4 ,and the primes 3,7,11,19,23,31…………which leave a remainder 3. All the
primes of the first class and none of the second, can be expressed as the sum of two integral
square thus, 5= 1, +2, ; 13=2, + 3, ; 17=1, + 4, ; 29 = 2 , + 5, .
This theorem is ranked one of the finest of arithmetic.

Verify for some more numbers in the category,

The famous Fermat’s Last theorem (Pierre de Fermat (1601-1665). “The equation 𝑥 F +
𝑦 F = 𝑧 F where x, y, z are integers is impossible when n is an integer greater than 2’’.

ü Euler, Langrange, Kummer and Riemann tried in vain to disprove it. In so doing, Eduard
Kummer (1939) created his theory of Ideal numbers. For hundred of years this remain a
conjecture. Fermat himself claimed he had proof. He is believe to have started writing the
hints in a margin but hadn’t enough space to complete it when he died.
ü A 19 year old British professor Andrew (Massachusset Institution of Technology,
Cambridge, USA) alsoclaim he had the proof but he needed 200 pages of foolscap papers
to prove it.
5. Some others are “The Twin Prime Conjecture” which state “there infinitely many
primes p such that p + 2 is also a prime,” and the “Odd perfect Numbers Conjecture”
which states “ there are no odd perfect numbers”.
6. Euclids infinity of primes:- Euclid, a Greek geometer, who live around 300 B.C
conjectured that there are infinitely primes:

Here is demonstration of its proof.

Assumed that there is a infinite number of number of primes. If this is so there must
be a greatest prime called p. then form the product of this numbers:
2 x 3 x 5 x 7 x 11 x 13 x 17x…xp + I = Q
If we divide Q by each of these primes the remainder will always be 1
Therefore, Q is not divisible by any a greater primes which leads to the conclusions
that
i) Q is a prime itself; or
ii) It is a composite divisible by any of these primes.(if Q is composite, it can be factored
into primes. How ever ,these primes cloud not be any of 2,3,5,…….,p, because non
of this are factors of Q)
In either case, the initial assumption that p is the greatest prime is a condition and
therefore, there is a greater prime greater other than p.

There can’t be a finite number of primes.

66
 The product of all previous primes plus 1 generates another prime. Systematically, we
have
2 x3x5+1=31
2 x 3 x 5 x 7 + 1 = 211
2 x 3 x 5 x 7 x 11 + 1 =
2 x 3 x 5 x 7 x 11 x 13 x……..xn + 1 = etc
Previous prime dividing another number, which is a prime, must leave a remainder

THEOREM

A Theorem is a proposition that has been proved to be true. Axioms and cannon laws of
logic are use to make deduction to arrive at the conclusions called theorems. A theorem is a
universally accepted rule or principle in mathematics. Once a conjecture has been proved, it
becomes a theorem. Three examples are as follows.

1. Prime Number Theorem

In number theory, the prime number theorem (PNT) describes the asymptotic distribution of
the prime numbers. The prime number theorem gives a general description of how the primes
are distributed among the positive integers. It formalizes the intuitive idea that prime became
less common as they become larger, The prime number theorem states that if a random
integer is selected in the range of zero to some large integer N, the probability that the selected
9
integer is prime is about IF J, where In (N) is the natural logarithmN. Consequently, a random
integer with at most 2n digits (for large enough n) is about half as likely to be prime as a
random integer with at most n digits. For example ,among the positive integers of at most
1000 digits , about one in 2300 is prime (In 109=== = 2302.6), whereas among positive
integers of at most 2000 digits ,about one in 4600 is prime (In 10,=== =4605.2).In other
words, the average gap between consecutive prime numbers among the first N integers is
roughly In(N).

2. Binomial Theorem
According to the theorem, it is possible to expand any power of x + y into a sum form
(x + y)F = KF=L𝑥 F 𝑦 M + KF9L𝑥 FN9 + KF,L𝑥 FN9 𝑦 , +……….+ KFN9F
L𝑥 9 𝑦 FN9 +KFFL 𝑥 = 𝑦 F ,
Where each KFOL is a specific positive integer known as a binomial coefficient. This formula
also refers too as the binomial formula or the binomial identity .using a summation notation,
it can be written as
F F
F
𝑛 FNO O 𝑛
(𝑥 + 𝑦 ) = S T V 𝑥 y = S T V 𝑥 O 𝑦 FNO
𝑘 𝑘
OX= OX=

The final expression follows from the previous one by the symmetry of x and y in the
expression, and comparison it follow that sequence of binomial coefficient in the formula is
symmetrical.
A simple variant of the binomial formula is obtained by substituting 1 for y, so that it
involves only a single variable. In this form ,the formula reads:
(1 + x)F = KF=L𝑥 = +KF9L 𝑥 9 + KF,L𝑥 , +…….+ KFN9
F
L𝑥 FN9 + KFFL𝑥 F

0r equivalent
(1 + x)F = ∑FOX= KFOL 𝑥 O .

3. Pythagorean Theorem
The Pythagorean theorem is a relation in Euclidian geometry among the three sides of a
right triangle. It states that the square of the hypotenuse (the side opposite the right angle

67
triangle) is equal to the sum the squares of the other sides. The theorem can be written as an
equation relating the length of the sides a, b and c, often called the Pythagorean
equation: 𝑎, + 𝑏, = 𝑐 , , were c represent the length of the hypotenuse, and a and b
represent the length of the two sides .
That is, the sum of the area of the squares on the legs c
(a and b) equals the area of the square on the hypotenuse ( c )
The theorem is named after the Greek b
a
Mathematician Pythagoras (ca. 570BC- ca. 495 BC), who by tradition is
Credited with its proof although it is often agued that knowledge of the
theorem predate him. There is evidence that Babylonian mathematician understood the
formula , although there is little surviving evidence that they use it in a mathematical
framework. Mesopotamian, Indian and Chines mathematician have all been known for
independently discoving the result, some even providing proofs of special cases.

The theorem has numerous proofs, possibly the most of any mathematical theorem. There
are both geometric proofs and algebraic proofs, with some dating back thousands of years.
The theorem can be generalized in various ways, including higher-dimensional spaces, to
spaces that are not Euclidean, to object that are not right triangle,and needed, to objects that
are not triangle at all, but n-dimensional solids. The Pythagorean theorem has attracted
interest outside mathematics as a symbol of mathematical abstruseness, mystique, or
intellectual power; popular references in literature, plays, musicals, songs , stamps and
cartoons abound.

Exercise 2.5
1. What do you understand by a mathematical conjecture?
2. Distinguish between a conjecture and a proof in mathematics.
3. Use the Mersenne prime formula, 2B - 1 to verify of these numbers are primes:
3,7,31,64, and 2047.
4. Demonstrate the proof of Euclid’s conjecture of infinity of primes.
5. State the quadratic function conjecture and disprove it.
6. State each of the following theorems:
a) The Binomial Theorem
b) The Pythagorean Theorem.

MATHEMATICAL PARADOX

In the previous session, we lent about conjectures and theorems in mathematics. We know
that conjectures are guesses that are yet to be true or false but once the truth of a conjecture
is established it becomes a theorem. In this session we shall leant about mathematical
paradoxes.

First of all, there is no mathematical definition of the world “paradox.” The definitions
have some to do with how a statement is perceived, how something is subjectively
perceived. A simple definition of a paradox is, it is a statement that contradicts itself or a
substitution which seems to defy logic. It is a state that runs counter to one’s intuition,
sometimes in simple, playful ways, and something in extremely esoteric and profound
ways. Paradoxes range from very simple, everyday common- sense issues, to advanced
ones at the frontiers of mathematics.

A mathematical paradox is anything, which offhand appears to be false, but is actually

true; or which appears to be true ; but actually false but which is simply self contradictory.

68
 For example, “Two fathers and sons leave in town. This reduces the population of the town
by three.”False? No, True-provided the trio consist of father, son and grandson. A paradox
is a true result that is surprising to our human sensibilities. There is nothing wrong with
them. They indeed, activate our intuition and this is one great about mathematics.

A mathematical paradox is also called Antinomy. An antinomy is a proposition that is

undecidable or that has been demonstrated that it can neither be prove to be true nor false.
The mathematicians whose name is associated with this is Kurt Godel who is in 1931 prove
that every mathematical system has proposition that are undesirables. There are several
types of paradox. There is one that we may called a phenomenological paradox, one where
mathematical result contradict basic truth about what mathematics is supposed to model.
Then there are logical paradoxes that refer to statements that are provably both true and
false.

Think a little about this. Did you know that “0.999…” equals “1”? Check the proof:
Let x= 0.999…..
Then 10[ = 9.999….
10[ x = 9.999….-0.999…
9𝑥 = 9
𝑋= 1
Therefore ,0.9999……= 1

Examples of Antinomies:
1. Epimenides’ Libel
It is a problem in logic. It is name after the Cretan philosopher of the 6th century B.C.,
Epimenides of Knossos who is claimed to have made the remarks: ‘Cretans are
always liars’. The Epistle to Titus ( Titus 1 : 12 ) makes reference to Epimenides; the
auther says of Cretans that “they are all lairs, as one of their own has said.” It is a
paraox of self-reference. This is supposed to arise when one considers whether
Epimenides spoke the truth. If someone says “ I always lie”, is the one telling the
truth or lying?
2. Paradox of Place ( From Aristotle ) – “If everything that exist has a place, place
too will have a place, and so on ad infintum.”
3. Barber’s Paradox
Russell an English philosopher (1872 – 1970) hypothesized a certain town, having
a male barber, where all men were clean – shaven. It was known that the town
barber shaved all those men and only those men who do not shave themselves. (I
shave only those who don’t shave themselves). Who then shaved the barber?
Mathematicians’ attempts to formalize the subject in a really careful way have led
to set theory. But even a simple everyday notion of set theory leads to the
Barber’s paradox.
If the barber did not shave himself then, he was shaved by the barber – a paradox.
If the barber shaved himself then he was not shaved by the barber –another
paradox.
4. A much more advanced paradox along these lines, perhaps the best known of all
paradoxes, is the Russell paradox. In a formalized mathematics everything is a
set. That is, every mathematical object is a set. And for any yes/no question you
could ask about things, those things for which the answer is “yes” comprise a set,
as do those for which a answer is “no”. If one is given free rein to do anything at
all in set theory, a set could contain itself. The Russell paradox concerns “The set
of all sets which do not contain themselves”. Obviously, there’s a problem with
this. Does this set contain itself, or not?
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 The lesson of these is that what it means for something to be in a set is tricky,
what it means for a sentence to make a statement about set membership is tricky.
Once again, “meaning” or “semantics” comes into question.
5. Galileo’s paradox
Galileo’s paradox is a demonstration of one of the surprising properties of infinite
sets. Galileo Galilei made apparently contradictory statement about positive
integers, First, some numbers are squares, while others are not; therefore all the
numbers, including both squares and non-squares, must be more numerous than
just the squares. And yet for every square there exactly one positive number that is
its square root, and every numbers there is exactly one square; hence there cannot
be more of one than of the other. This is early use of the idea one-to-one
corresponding to the context of infinity sets. Galileo conclude that the idea of less
equal, and greater apply to finite sets, but not to infinite sets.

In the nineteen century, using the same methods, Cantor showed that this restriction
is not necessary. It is possibly to define comparison among infinite set in a
meaningful way (by which definition the two set he considers, integers and squares,
have the same size) and that by this definition some infinite sets are strictly larger
than others.

6. “Achilles and the Tortoise” in a race, the quickest runner can never overtake the
slowest, since the pursuer must first reach the point whence the pursued started so
that the slower must always hold a lead.-as recounted by Aristotle.

In the paradox of Achilles and the Tortoise, Achilles is in a footrace with the tortoise. Achilles
allows the tortoise a head start of 100 meters, for example. If we suppose that each racer stare
running at some constant speed (one very fast and one very slow), then after some finite time,
Achilles will have run 100 meters, bringing him to the tortoise’s starting point. During this
time, the tortoise has run a much shorter distance, say, 10 meters. It will then take Achilles
some further time to run that distance, by which time the tortoise will have advance farther;
and then more time still to reach his third point, while the tortoise move ahead. Thus, whenever
Achilles researches somewhere the tortoise been, he still have farther to go. Therefore,
because there are an infinite number of points

Achilles must reach where the tortoise has already been, he can never overtake the tortoise.
This is classified as a paradox of motion.

The Law teacher and his graduate

A Greek teacher trained his students as lawyers. But he only ask a student for payment if he
won his first case. One student, after leaving the teacher, never took on a case. Eventually
the lawyer sued the student, arguing as follows: If the court finds in my favour, then he must
pay me my fees. If the court finds in my student’s favour, then he has won his first case and
must pay me my fees.

The student argued:

If the court finds in my favour, then I don’t have to pay fees. If it doesn’t find in my favour,
then I have lost my first case and don’t have to pay fees.
Who is right?

Self –Assessment Questions

Exercise 2.6
1. What is mathematical paradox?
70
 2. Identify and explain and two paradoxes.
3. A mathematical paradox is also called……..?
4. The mathematician whose name is associated with the proof that every mathematical
system has proposition that are undecidable is called……?

WHAT IS GEOMETRY?

This session discusses some definition of geometry as a branch of mathematics. It discusses

briefly the practical uses the ancient Egyptians and Babylonian made of geometry. It further
explains some basic geometry concepts.

Objectives
By the end of the session you should be able to:
a) Explain the term Geometry;
b) Identify some geometrical concepts in your environment; and
c) State and explain at least three basic practical importance of geometry in real life

1.1 Meaning of Geometry

Geometry is a branch of mathematics concerned with questions of shape, size, relative
position of figures, and the properties of space. The Concise Oxford American Dictionary
(2006), defines geometry as the branch of mathematics concerned with the properties and
relation of points, lines, surface, solids, and higher dimensional analogs. The term geometry
comes from a Greek word geometria which means measurement of the earth or land. A
mathematician who works in the field of geometry is called a geometer. That perfectly sparks
for how this branch of mathematics works around us. Geometry is a very essential branch of
mathematics. Its study enhances our appreciation of the world. Geometry can be found in the
structure of the solar system, in geological formations, in plants and flowers, even in animals.
Almost every thing that humans create has elements of geometric form. Geometric
explorations can develop problem- solving skills, and problem- solving is one of the major
reasons for studying mathematics. In the study of some of the areas of mathematics like
fraction, ratio and proportion, geometry plays a key role. It increases student fondness for
mathematics. Early civilization observed from nature certain simple shapes such as triangles,
rectangles and circles which are still with us today.

Geometry is one of the oldest branches of mathematics, having arisen in response to such
practical problems as those found in surveying, and its name is drive from Greek world means
Earth measurement. Eventually it was realized that geometry needs not to be limited to the
study of flat surfaces (plane geometry) and rigid three- dimensional objects (solid geometry)
but that even the most abstract thoughts and images might be represented and developed in
geometric terms. The Egyptians and Babylonian needed and use geometry for constriction,
for land measurements and for commerce. Nature itself is a big playground of points, lines,
surfaces, angles and shapes. All these things are able to camouflage themselves in the beauty
of our environment.

Geometry is primarily developed to be a practical guide for measuring lengths, areas, and
volumes, and is still in use. Euclid turned the study of geometry into an axiomatic form
around 3rd century BC, and these axioms are still useful up to the present day. An important
evolution for the science of geometry was created when Rene Descartes was able to create
the concept of analytical geometry. Because of it, plane figures can now be represented
analytically, and is one of the driving forces for development of calculus. Nowadays, modern
geometry has strong ties with physics, and is an integral part of new physical concept such
as relativity and string theories.
71
 1.2 Some Basic Geometric Concepts
Euclidian geometry has become the most basic form of geometry. Here, length, areas,
volumes, circumference and radii are dealt with. Also volume of 3 dimensional objects such
as cubes, cylinders, pyramids, and spheres can be computed using geometry. Geometry use
to be all about shapes and measurements, but the Pythagoreans, introduce numbers in
geometry in the form of numerical value of length and areas. Numbers are further utilized
when Descartes was able to formulate the concept of coordinates.

The most fundamental geometric form is a point often represent as a dot with a capital letter
which is it name. Next after a point is a line define as a set of points extending in opposite
direction endlessly. It is represented by a point on the line and a double headed arrows or a
single letter in the lower case. A plane is a two dimensional (flat) surface that extends in all
directions up to infinity. A plane has obviously no size and definitely no shape. However it is
represented as a quadrangle and a single capital letter. Three or more points are said to be
collinear if a single line contains all of them ( ie. All the point lies on a straight line). Otherwise
they are said to be non collinear.
L
A B
K
Figure 2: A plane L
Figure 1: Line AB and line K

A line segment is a part of a line. It has a fixed length and consequently two end points. A
line contains infinite segment and if two segments on a line have a common end point, they
can be added (See illustration below) the line AB and BC are two segments on the line k
and they have a common end point B.
Therefore AB + BC = AC
A B C D k

Fold your arm. What you see forming between the folded arms is called angle in geometry.
An angle is therefore a geometric figure formed by two rays that share a common end
point. The common end point is called the vertex of the angle. In fig1, the ray PR and PQ
share the end point P. This rays form the side of the angles denoted by < QPR or RPQ.
R

Observe closely your environment and see that Figure 3: An angle

There are many geometrical shapes. The book on the
Shelf could be rectangular; the table could be square or circular. The alarm clock could be
shaped like a hexagon. How about the shapes of the clouds? Take note of your own
bedroom; the bed frame, windows, closets, books, ceiling, lamps, shoes, and many others.
How about your kitchen? Stove, refrigerator, plates, pots, glasses, and chair? All of these
have geometry attribute to them.

Geometry also teaches about three- dimensional objects which basically refer to objects that
have depth as well as width and height just like a cylinder (paint can), a pyramid of Egypt)

72
 , a prism (cereal box), and a sphere (globe / earth) . Figure 2 shows a box (three-
dimensional) which is formed by six rectangles, called the faces.
Face Edges

Height Width

Length
Figure 4: A Box

1.3 importance of Geometry

Geometry is an important science that not only influences a great many sciences, but our every
day life as well. In real life, geometry has a lot of practical uses, from the most basic to the
most advanced phenomena in life. Even the very basic concept of area can be a huge factor in
how you do your daily business. For example, Space is a huge issue when planning various
construction projects. For instance, the size or area of a specific appliance or tool can greatly
affect how it well fit in to your home or work place, and can affect how the other parts of your
home will fit around it. This is how it is essential to take account of areas, both of your space,
and the item that you are about to integrate in there. In the addition, geometry plays a role in
basic engineering projects. For example, using the concept of perimeter, you can compute the
amount of materials (paint, fencing materials, etc.) that you need to use for projects. Also,
designing profession such as interior design and architecture uses 3 dimensional figures. A
thorough knowledge of geometry is going to help them a lot in determining the proper style
(and more importantly, optimize it function) of a specific house, building, or vehicle.
Some more professions also use geometry in order to do their job properly. For example,
computer imaging, used nowadays for creating animations, video games, designing, etc, are
created using geometric concepts.

Geometry is also use in mapping. Mapping is an essential element in professions such as

surveying, navigation, and astronomy. From sketching to calculating distance, they use
geometry to accomplish their job. In addition, professions such as medicine benefit from
geometric imaging. Technologies such as CT scans and MRIs are used both for diagnosis and
surgical aids. Such method enable doctor to do their job better, safer, and simpler. Observe that
geometry affects us even in the most basic details of our lives. No matter what the form, it
helps us understand specific phenomena and it helps us in uplifting the quality of life.
Self –Assessment Questions

Exercise 4.1
1. Explain the term geometry.
2. List five physical objects and identify any geometrical idea that can be learned from
it.
3. Are the following statements true or false?
i) A line has two end point and hence a fixed length.
ii) The distance of the midpoint of segments from one end may or may not be
equal to its distance from the other end
4. Start and discuss three practical importance of geometry.

73
 LECTURE SERIES SEVEN

CHARACTERISTICS OF CHILDREN DEVELOPMENTAL STAGES

Lesson Objectives:
1. Explain the terms physical, emotional, cognitive and social developmental stages of
children
2. Discuss the implication of each of the developmental levels to the classroom
mathematics teacher for inclusive classroom practices.
3. Explain the Piaget developmental stages and its implication to mathematical learning
and teaching
Area of concentration
2.1 Meaning and types of development
2.2 Physical development of children and its implication to teaching and learning
mathematics
2.3 cognitive development of children and its implication to teaching and learning
mathematics
2.4 emotional development of children and its implication to teaching and learning
mathematics
2.5 language development of children and its implication to teaching and learning
mathematics

JEAN PIAGET’S PHYSICAL AND COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENTAL THEORY

Jean Piaget’s work on children’s cognitive development, specifically with quantitative
concepts, has garnered much attention within the field of education. Piaget explored children’s
cognitive development to study his primary interest in genetic epistemology.

Stages of Cognitive Development

Piaget has identified four primary stages of development: sensorimotor, preoperational,
concrete operational, and formal operational. Sensorimotor Stage In the sensorimotor stage, an
infant’s mental and cognitive attributes develop from birth until the appearance of language.
This stage is characterized by the progressive acquisition of object permanence in which the
child becomes able to find objects after they have been displaced, even if the objects have been
taken out of his field of vision. For example, Piaget’s experiments at this stage include hiding
an object under a pillow to see if the baby finds the object

An additional characteristic of children at this stage is their ability to link numbers to objects
(Piaget, 1977) (e.g., one dog, two cats, three pigs, four hippos). To develop the mathematical
capability of a child in this stage, the child’s ability might be enhanced if he is allowed ample
opportunity to act on the environment in unrestricted (but safe) ways in order to start building
concepts (Martin, 2000). Evidence suggests that children at the sensorimotor stage have some
understanding of the concepts of numbers and counting (Fuson, 1988). Educators of children
in this stage of development should lay a solid mathematical foundation by providing activities
that incorporate counting and thus enhance children’s conceptual development of number. For
example, teachers and parents can help children count their fingers, toys, and candies.
Questions such as “Who has more?” or “Are there enough?” could be a part of the daily lives
of children as young as two or three years of age. Another activity that could enhance the
mathematical development of children at this stage connects mathematics and literature. There
is a plethora of children’s books that embed mathematical content. (See Appendix A for a non-
exhaustive list of children’s books incorporating mathematical concepts and ideas.) A
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recommendation would be that these books include pictorial illustrations. Because children at
this stage can link numbers to objects, learners can benefit from seeing pictures of objects and
their respective numbers simultaneously. Along with the mathematical benefits, children’s
books can contribute to the development of their reading skills and comprehension.

Preoperational Stage
The characteristics of this stage include an increase in language ability (with over-
generalizations), symbolic thought, egocentric perspective, and limited logic. In this second
stage, children should engage with problem-solving tasks that incorporate available materials
such as blocks, sand, and water. While the child is working with a problem, the teacher should
elicit conversation from the child. The verbalization of the child, as well as his actions on the
materials, gives a basis that permits the teacher to infer the mechanisms of the child’s thought
processes. There is lack of logic associated with this stage of development; rational thought
makes little appearance. The child links together unrelated events, sees objects as possessing
life, does not understand point-of-view, and cannot reverse operations. For example, a child at
this stage who understands that adding four to five yields nine cannot yet perform the reverse
operation of taking four from nine. Children’s perceptions in this stage of development are
generally restricted to one aspect or dimension of an object at the expense of the other aspects.
For example, Piaget tested the concept of conservation by pouring the same amount of liquid
into two similar containers. When the liquid from one container is poured into a third, wider
container, the level is lower and the child thinks there is less liquid in the third container. Thus
the child is using one dimension, height, as the basis for his judgment of another dimension,
volume. Teaching students in this stage of development should employ effective questioning
about characterizing objects. For example, when students investigate geometric shapes, a
teacher could ask students to group the shapes according to similar characteristics. Questions
following the investigation could include, “How did you decide where each object belonged?
Are there other ways to group these together?” Engaging in discussion or interactions with the
children may engender the children’s discovery of the variety of ways to group objects, thus
helping the children think about the quantities in novel ways (Thompson, 1990). Concrete

Operations Stage
The third stage is characterized by remarkable cognitive growth, when children’s development
of language and acquisition of basic skills accelerate dramatically. Children at this stage utilize
their senses in order to know; they can now consider two or three dimensions simultaneously
instead of successively. For example, in the liquids experiment, if the child notices the lowered
level of the liquid, he also notices the dish is wider, seeing both dimensions at the same time.
Additionally, seriation and classification are the two logical operations that develop during this
stage (Piaget, 1977) and both are essential for understanding number concepts. Seriation is the
ability to order objects according to increasing or decreasing length, weight, or volume. On the
other hand, classification involves grouping objects on the basis of a common characteristic.
According to Burns & Silbey (2000), “hands-on experiences and multiple ways of representing
a mathematical solution can be ways of fostering the development of this cognitive stage” (p.
55). The importance of hands-on activities cannot be overemphasized at this stage. These
activities provide students an avenue to make abstract ideas concrete

allowing them to get their hands on mathematical ideas and concepts as useful tools for solving
problems. Because concrete experiences are needed, teachers might use manipulatives with
their students to explore concepts such as place value and arithmetical operations. Existing
manipulative materials include: pattern blocks, Cuisenaire rods, algebra tiles, algebra cubes,
geoboards, tangrams, counters, dice, and spinners. However, teachers are not limited to
commercial materials, they can also use convenient materials in activities such as paper folding
and cutting. As students use the materials, they acquire experiences that help lay the foundation
for more advanced mathematical thinking. Furthermore, students’ use of materials helps to
build their mathematical confidence by giving them a way to test and confirm their reasoning.
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One of the important challenges in mathematics teaching is to help students make connections
between the mathematics concepts and the activity. Children may not automatically make
connections between the work they do with manipulative materials and the corresponding
abstract mathematics: “children tend to think that the manipulations they do with models are
one method for finding a solution and pencil-and-paper math is entirely separate” (Burns &
Silbey, 2000, p. 60). For example, it may be difficult for children to conceptualize how a four
by six inch rectangle built with wooden tiles relates to four multiplied by six, or four groups of
six. Teachers could help students make connections by showing how the rectangles can be
separated into four rows of six tiles each and by demonstrating how the rectangle is another
representation of four groups of six. Providing various mathematical representations
acknowledges the uniqueness of students and provides multiple paths for making ideas
meaningful. Engendering opportunities for students to present mathematical solutions in
multiple ways (e.g., symbols, graphs, tables, and words) is one tool for cognitive development
in this stage. Eggen & Kauchak (2000) noted that while a specific way of representing an idea
is meaningful to some students, a different representation might be more meaningful to others.

Formal Operations Stage

The child at this stage is capable of forming hypotheses and deducing possible consequences,
allowing the child to construct his own mathematics. Furthermore, the child typically begins
to develop abstract thought patterns where reasoning is executed using pure symbols without
the necessity of perceptive data. For example, the formal operational learner can solve x + 2x
= 9 without having to refer to a concrete situation presented by the teacher, such as, “Tony ate
a certain number of candies. His sister ate twice as many. Together they ate nine. How many
did Tony eat?” Reasoning skills within this stage refer to the mental process involved in the
generalizing and evaluating of logical arguments (Anderson, 1990) and include clarification,
inference, evaluation, and application. Clarification. Clarification requires students to identify
and analyze elements of a problem, allowing them to decipher the information needed in
solving a problem. By encouraging students to extract relevant information from a problem
statement, teachers can help students enhance their mathematical understanding. Inference.
Students at this stage are developmentally ready to make inductive and deductive inferences in
mathematics. Deductive inferences involve reasoning from general concepts to specific
instances. On the other hand, inductive inferences are based on extracting similarities and
differences among specific objects and events and arriving at generalizations. Evaluation.
Evaluation involves using criteria to judge the adequacy of a problem solution. For example,
the student can follow a predetermined rubric to judge the correctness of his solution to a
problem. Evaluation leads to formulating hypotheses about future events, assuming one’s
problem solving is correct thus far. Application. Application involves students connecting
mathematical concepts to real-life situations. For example, the student could apply his
knowledge of rational equations to the following situation: “You can clean your house in 4
hours. Your sister can clean it in 6 hours. How long will it take you to clean the house, working
together?”

Implications of Piaget’s Theory

Critics of Piaget’s work argue that his proposed theory does not offer a complete description
of cognitive development (Eggen & Kauchak, 2000). For example, Piaget is criticized for
underestimating the abilities of young children. Abstract directions and requirements may
cause young children to fail at tasks they can do under simpler conditions (Gelman, Meck, &
Merkin, 1986). Piaget has also been criticized for overestimating the abilities of older learners,
having implications for both learners and teachers. For example, middle school teachers
interpreting Piaget’s work may assume that their students can always think logically in the
abstract, yet this is often not the case (Eggen & Kauchak, 2000). Although not possible to teach
cognitive development explicitly, research has demonstrated that it can be accelerated
(Zimmerman & Whitehurst, 1979). Piaget believed that the amount of time each child spends
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in each stage varies by environment (Kamii, 1982). All students in a class are not necessarily
operating at the same level. Teachers could benefit from understanding the levels at which their
students are functioning and should try to ascertain their students’ cognitive levels to adjust
their teaching accordingly. By emphasizing methods of reasoning, the teacher provides critical
direction so that the child can discover concepts through investigation. The child should be
encouraged to self-check, approximate, reflect and reason while the teacher studies the child’s
work to better understand his thinking (Piaget, 1970). The numbers and quantities used to teach
the children number should be meaningful to them. Various situations can be set up that
encourage mathematical reasoning. For example, a child may be asked to bring enough cups
for everybody in the class, without being explicitly told to count. This will require them to
compare the number of people to the number of cups needed. Other examples include dividing
objects among a group fairly, keeping classroom records like attendance, and voting to make
class decisions. Games are also a good way to acquire understanding of mathematical
principles (Kamii, 1982). For example, the game of musical chairs requires coordination
between the set of children and the set of chairs. Scorekeeping in marbles and bowling requires
comparison of quantities and simple arithmetical operations. Comparisons of quantities are
required in a guessing game where one child chooses a number between one and ten and
another attempts to determine it, being told if his guesses are too high or too low

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78
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 LECTURE SERIES EIGHT

MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCE
Lesson Objectives:
1. Explain the theory of “multiple intelligence”
2. Discuss the implication of multiple intelligence theory to the all-inclusive classroom
mathematics teacher.
3. Explains Gardener’s principle of multiple intelligences
4. Discuss at least four implications of Gardener’s multiple intelligence to the
mathematics teacher
5. Explain how to guide an upper primary pupils identify his inner talent/intelligence for
career counselling.
Area of concentration
2.1 Meaning of multiple intelligence theory.
2.2 The foundations of multiple intelligence theory
2.3 Multiple intelligence theory and personal development
2.4 Implication of multiple intelligence theory to the classroom all inclusive teacher

GARDNER'S THEORY OF MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES

When you hear the word intelligence, the concept of IQ testing may immediately come to
mind. Intelligence is often defined as our intellectual potential; something we are born with,
something that can be measured, and a capacity that is difficult to change.

In recent years, however, other views of intelligence have emerged. One such conception is
the theory of multiple intelligences proposed by Harvard psychologist Howard Gardner.

THEORY OF MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES

This theory suggests that traditional psychometric views of intelligence are too limited.
Gardner first outlined his theory in his 1983 book Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple
Intelligences, where he suggested that all people have different kinds of "intelligences."

Gardner proposed that there are eight intelligences, and has suggested the possible addition of
a ninth known as "existentialist intelligence."1

In order to capture the full range of abilities and talents that people possess, Gardner
theorizes that people do not have just an intellectual capacity, but have many kinds of
intelligence, including musical, interpersonal, spatial-visual, and linguistic intelligences.

While a person might be particularly strong in a specific area, such as musical intelligence, he
or she most likely possesses a range of abilities. For example, an individual might be strong
in verbal, musical, and naturalistic intelligence.

Criticism

Gardner’s theory has come under criticism from both psychologists and educators. These
critics argue that Gardner’s definition of intelligence is too broad and that his eight different

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"intelligences" simply represent talents, personality traits, and abilities. Gardner’s theory also
suffers from a lack of supporting empirical research.

Despite this, the theory of multiple intelligences enjoys considerable popularity with
educators. Many teachers utilize multiple intelligences in their teaching philosophies and
work to integrate Gardner’s theory into the classroom.2

Learning more about the multiple intelligences can help you better understand your own
strengths. Continue reading to learn more about the major characteristics of each type of
intelligence, and if you still aren't sure which type describes you best, this quiz can help you
figure it out.

Visual-Spatial Intelligence

People who are strong in visual-spatial intelligence are good at visualizing things. These
individuals are often good with directions as well as maps, charts, videos, and pictures.3

Strengths

Visual and spatial judgment

Characteristics

People with visual-spatial intelligence:

• Read and write for enjoyment

• Are good at putting puzzles together
• Interpret pictures, graphs, and charts well
• Enjoy drawing, painting, and the visual arts
• Recognize patterns easily

Potential Career Choices

If you're strong in visual-spatial intelligence, good career choices for you are:

• Architect
• Artist
• Engineer

Linguistic-Verbal Intelligence

People who are strong in linguistic-verbal intelligence are able to use words well, both when
writing and speaking. These individuals are typically very good at writing stories,
memorizing information, and reading.1

Strengths

Words, language, and writing

Characteristics

People with linguistic-verbal intelligence:

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 • Remember written and spoken information
• Enjoy reading and writing
• Debate or give persuasive speeches
• Are able to explain things well
• Use humor when telling stories

Potential Career Choices

If you're strong in linguistic-verbal intelligence, good career choices for you are:

• Writer/journalist
• Lawyer
• Teacher

Logical-Mathematical Intelligence

People who are strong in logical-mathematical intelligence are good at reasoning,

recognizing patterns, and logically analyzing problems. These individuals tend to think
conceptually about numbers, relationships, and patterns.4

Strengths

Analyzing problems and mathematical operations

Characteristics

People with logical-mathematical intelligence:

• Have excellent problem-solving skills

• Enjoy thinking about abstract ideas
• Like conducting scientific experiments
• Can solve complex computations

Potential Career Choices

If you're strong in logical-mathematical intelligence, good career choices for you are:

• Scientist
• Mathematician
• Computer programmer
• Engineer
• Accountant

Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence

Those who have high bodily-kinesthetic intelligence are said to be good at body movement,
performing actions, and physical control. People who are strong in this area tend to have
excellent hand-eye coordination and dexterity.4

Strengths

Physical movement, motor control

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 Characteristics

People with bodily-kinesthetic intelligence:

• Are skilled at dancing and sports

• Enjoy creating things with his or her hands
• Have excellent physical coordination
• Remember by doing, rather than hearing or seeing

Potential Career Choices

If you're strong in bodily-kinesthetic intelligence, good career choices for you are:

• Dancer
• Builder
• Sculptor
• Actor

Musical Intelligence

People who have strong musical intelligence are good at thinking in patterns, rhythms, and
sounds. They have a strong appreciation for music and are often good at musical composition
and performance.5

Strengths

Rhythm and music

Characteristics

People with musical intelligence:

• Enjoy singing and playing musical instruments

• Recognize musical patterns and tones easily
• Remember songs and melodies
• Have a rich understanding of musical structure, rhythm, and notes

Potential Career Choices

If you're strong in musical intelligence, good career choices for you are:

• Musician
• Composer
• Singer
• Music teacher
• Conductor

Interpersonal Intelligence

Those who have strong interpersonal intelligence are good at understanding and interacting
with other people. These individuals are skilled at assessing the emotions, motivations,
desires, and intentions of those around them.5

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Strengths

Understanding and relating to other people

Characteristics

People with interpersonal intelligence:

• Communicate well verbally

• Are skilled at nonverbal communication
• See situations from different perspectives
• Create positive relationships with others
• Resolve conflicts in group settings

Potential Career Choices

If you're strong in interpersonal intelligence, good career choices for you are:

• Psychologist
• Philosopher
• Counselor
• Salesperson
• Politician

Intrapersonal Intelligence

Individuals who are strong in intrapersonal intelligence are good at being aware of their own
emotional states, feelings, and motivations. They tend to enjoy self-reflection and analysis,
including daydreaming, exploring relationships with others, and assessing their personal
strengths.5

Strengths

Introspection and self-reflection

Characteristics

People with intrapersonal intelligence:

• Analyze their strengths and weaknesses well

• Enjoy analyzing theories and ideas
• Have excellent self-awareness
• Understand the basis for his or her own motivations and feelings

Potential Career Choices

If you're strong in intrapersonal intelligence, good career choices for you are:

• Philosopher
• Writer
• Theorist
• Scientist

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 8 Naturalistic Intelligence

Naturalistic is the most recent addition to Gardner’s theory and has been met with more
resistance than his original seven intelligences. According to Gardner, individuals who are
high in this type of intelligence are more in tune with nature and are often interested in
nurturing, exploring the environment, and learning about other species. These individuals are
said to be highly aware of even subtle changes to their environments.1

Strengths

Finding patterns and relationships to nature

Characteristics

People with naturalistic intelligence:

• Are interested in subjects such as botany, biology, and zoology

• Categorize and catalog information easily
• Enjoy camping, gardening, hiking, and exploring the outdoors
• Dislikes learning unfamiliar topics that have no connection to nature

Potential Career Choices

If you're strong in naturalistic intelligence, good career choices for you are:

• Biologist
• Conservationist
• Gardener
• Farmer

Existential Intelligence:

The sensitivity and capacity to tackle deep questions about human existence, such as the
meaning of life, why we die and how we got here.
NOTE: While all people possess some level of each intelligence, most will experience more
dominant intelligences that impact the way they learn and interact with the world around them

Summary of The 9 Intelligences of MI Theory

Intelligence Skills and Career Preferences
1. Verbal-Linguistic Intelligence Skills - Listening, speaking, writing,
Well-developed verbal skills and teaching.
sensitivity to the sounds, meanings and Careers - Poet, journalist, writer, teacher,
rhythms of words lawyer, politician, translator
2. Mathematical-Logical Skills - Problem solving (logical & math),
Intelligence Ability to think conceptually performing experiments
and abstractly, and capacity to discern Careers - Scientists, engineers, accountants,
logical or numerical patterns mathematicians
3. Musical Intelligence Skills - Singing, playing instruments,
Ability to produce and appreciate rhythm, composing music
pitch and timber Careers - Musician, disc jockey, singer,
composer
4. Visual-Spatial Intelligence Skills - puzzle building, painting,
constructing, fixing, designing objects

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 Capacity to think in images and pictures, to Careers - Sculptor, artist, inventor,
visualize accurately and abstractly architect, mechanic, engineer
5. Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence Skills - Dancing, sports, hands on
Ability to control one's body movements experiments, acting
and to handle objects skillfully Careers - Athlete, PE teacher, dancer, actor,
firefighter
6. Interpersonal Intelligence Skills - Seeing from other perspectives,
Capacity to detect and respond empathy, counseling, co-operating
appropriately to the moods, motivations Careers - Counselor, salesperson,
and desires of others politician, business person, minister
7. Intrapersonal Intelligence Skills - Recognize one’s S/W, reflective,
Capacity to be self-aware and in tune with aware of inner feelings
inner feelings, values, beliefs and thinking Careers - Researchers, theorists,
processes philosophers
8. Naturalist Intelligence Skills - Recognize one’s connection to
Ability to recognize and categorize plants, nature, apply science theory to life
animals and other objects in nature Careers – Scientist, naturalist, landscape
architect
9. Existential Intelligence Skills – Reflective and deep thinking,
Sensitivity and capacity to tackle deep design abstract theories
questions about human existence, such as Careers – Scientist, philosopher, theologian
the meaning of life, why do we die, and
how did we get here

Exercise: visit this cite to complete a multiple intelligence quiz to note where you belong
https://alis.alberta.ca/careerinsite/know-yourself/multiple-intelligences-quiz/

What Multiple Intelligences Theory Can Teach Us

While additional research is still needed to determine the best measures for assessing and
supporting a range of intelligences in schools, the theory has provided opportunities to broaden
definitions of intelligence. As an educator, it is useful to think about the different ways that
information can be presented. However, it is critical to not classify students as being specific
types of learners nor as having an innate or fixed type of intelligence.
Having an understanding of different teaching approaches from which we all can learn, as well
as a toolbox with a variety of ways to present content to students, is valuable for increasing the
accessibility of learning experiences for all students. To develop this toolbox, it is especially
important to gather ongoing information about student strengths and challenges as well as their
developing interests and activities they dislike.
1. Providing different contexts for students and engaging a variety of their senses -- for
example, learning about fractions through musical notes, flower petals, and poetic
meter -- is supported by research. Specifically:
2. Providing students with multiple ways to access content improves learning (Hattie,
2011).
3. Providing students with multiple ways to demonstrate knowledge and skills increases
engagement and learning, and provides teachers with more accurate understanding of
students' knowledge and skills (Darling-Hammond, 2010).
4. Instruction should be informed as much as possible by detailed knowledge about
students' specific strengths, needs, and areas for growth (Tomlinson, 2014).

There are specific modes of multimedia and instruction techniques, which include the
following:

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§ Visuals: Visual media help students acquire concrete concepts, such as object identification,
spatial relationship or motor skills.
§ Printed words: While the printed word is the most common method of dispensing
information, some argue that audio is superior.
§ Sound: Sound media offer a stimulus for sound recognition or recall. Audio narration is a
useful tool for students who struggle with reading.
§ Motion: Motion depicts human performance so that learners can copy the movement. This
kinesthetic method can be essential for understanding some subject matter.
§ Color: Choices on color display are required if it is essential to what is being learned (such
as, the sky is blue).
§ Realia: Realia teaches cognitive and motor skills with objects. Realia can be used with
individuals or groups, depending on the situation. Realia may be used to present information
realistically, or with the way learners internalize information.
§ Instructional Setting: Design must include what materials are being used, as well as the
environment in which it is to be taught. Printed materials should be individualized to allow
the learner to set the pace.
§ Learner Characteristics: Teaching models must consider learner characteristics, as media
may be interpreted in various ways by different learners. Research has not provided definitive
methods in matching the media most suitable for types of learners.
§ Reading Ability: Pictures aid learning for poor readers who understand spoken words rather
than printed words; good readers can control the pace, and print allows for easier review.
§ Categories of Learning Outcomes: Categories ranged from three to eleven and most
include some or all of Gagne’s (1977) learning categories: intellectual skills, motor skills,
verbal information, overall attitudes and use of cognitive strategies.
§ Events of Instruction: Teachers have to choose the external events which support internal
learning with events of instruction. This occurs in the planning stage and before selection of
appropriate media.
§ Performance: It is important for students to perform tasks that demonstrate learning and
retention. The elicited performances can be categorized by type: covert, overt, motor, verbal,
constructed and select. Media should be selected to correspond with the desired outcome.

PRIMARY MENTAL ABILITIES

Psychologist Louis L.Thurstone (1887–1955) offered a differing theory of intelligence.
Instead of viewing intelligence as a single, general ability, Thurstone's theory focused on
seven different primary mental abilities.4

• Associative memory: The ability to memorize and recall

• Numerical ability: The ability to solve arithmetic problems
• Perceptual speed: The ability to see differences and similarities among objects
• Reasoning: The ability to find rules
• Spatial visualization: The ability to visualize relationships
• Verbal comprehension: The ability to define and understand words
• Word fluency: The ability to produce words rapidly

THEORIES OF INTELLIGENCE
What Is Intelligence?
Intelligence has been a controversial topic throughout psychology's history. Despite the
substantial interest in the subject, there is still considerable disagreement about what
87
components makeup intelligence. In addition to questions of exactly how to define intelligence,
the debate continues today about whether accurate measurements are even possible.
At various points throughout recent history, researchers have proposed some different
definitions of intelligence. While these definitions can vary considerably from one theorist to
the next, current conceptualizations tend to suggest that intelligence is the ability to:

• Learn from experience: The acquisition, retention, and use of knowledge is an

important component of intelligence.
• Recognize problems: To put knowledge to use, people must be able to identify
possible problems in the environment that need to be addressed.
• Solve problems: People must then be able to take what they have learned to come up
with a useful solution to a problem they have noticed in the world around them.1

Intelligence involves some different mental abilities including logic, reasoning, problem-
solving, and planning. While the subject of intelligence is one of the largest and most heavily
researched, it is also one of the topics that generate the greatest controversy.
While psychologists often disagree about the definition and causes of intelligence, research on
intelligence plays a significant role in many areas. These areas include decisions regarding how
much funding should be given to educational programs, the use of testing to screen job
applicants, and the use of testing to identify children who need additional academic help.

Brief History of Intelligence

The term "intelligence quotient," or IQ, was first coined in the early 20th century by a German
psychologist named William Stern. Psychologist Alfred Binet developed the very first
intelligence tests to help the French government identify schoolchildren who needed extra
academic assistance. Binet was the first to introduce the concept of mental age or a set of
abilities that children of a certain age possess.2
Since that time, intelligence testing has emerged as a widely used tool that has led to developing
many other tests of skill and aptitude. However, it continues to spur debate and controversy
over the use of such testing, cultural biases that may be involved, influences on intelligence,
and even the very way we define intelligence.

Theories of Intelligence
Different researchers have proposed a variety of theories to explain the nature of intelligence.
Here are some of the major theories of intelligence that have emerged during the last 100 years.

General Intelligence
British psychologist Charles Spearman (1863–1945) described a concept he referred to
as general intelligence or the g factor. After using a technique known as factor analysis to
examine some mental aptitude tests, Spearman concluded that scores on these tests were
remarkably similar. People who performed well on one cognitive test tended to perform well
on other tests, while those who scored badly on one test tended to score badly on others. He
concluded that intelligence is a general cognitive ability that can be measured and numerically
expressed.3

Primary Mental Abilities

Psychologist Louis L.Thurstone (1887–1955) offered a differing theory of intelligence.
Instead of viewing intelligence as a single, general ability, Thurstone's theory focused on
seven different primary mental abilities.4

• Associative memory: The ability to memorize and recall

• Numerical ability: The ability to solve arithmetic problems
• Perceptual speed: The ability to see differences and similarities among objects
• Reasoning: The ability to find rules
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 • Spatial visualization: The ability to visualize relationships
• Verbal comprehension: The ability to define and understand words
• Word fluency: The ability to produce words rapidly

One of the more recent ideas to emerge is Howard Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences.
Gardner proposed that the traditional idea of intelligence, based on IQ testing, did not fully
and accurately depict a person's abilities. His theory proposed eight different
intelligences based on skills and abilities that are valued in different cultures:5

• Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence: The ability to control your body movements and to

handle objects skillfully
• Interpersonal intelligence: The capacity to detect and respond appropriately to the
moods, motivations, and desires of others
• Intrapersonal intelligence: The capacity to be self-aware and in tune with inner
feelings, values, beliefs, and thinking processes
• Logical-mathematical intelligence: The ability to think conceptually and abstractly,
and the capacity to discern logically or numerical patterns
• Musical intelligence: The ability to produce and appreciate rhythm, pitch, and timbre
• Naturalistic intelligence: The ability to recognize and categorize animals, plants, and
other objects in nature
• Verbal-linguistic intelligence: Well-developed verbal skills and sensitivity to the
sounds, meanings, and rhythms of words
• Visual-spatial intelligence: The capacity to think in images and pictures, to visualize
accurately and abstractly

Triarchic Theory of Intelligence

Psychologist Robert Sternberg defined intelligence as "mental activity directed toward
purposive adaptation to, selection, and shaping of real-world environments relevant to one's
life." While he agreed with Gardner that intelligence is much broader than a single, general
ability, he suggested that some of Gardner's types of intelligence are better viewed as individual
talents. Sternberg proposed what he referred to as "successful intelligence," which involves
three different factors:6

• Analytical intelligence: Your ability to evaluate information and solve problems

• Creative intelligence: Your ability to come up with new ideas
• Practical intelligence: Your ability to adapt to a changing environment

Questions About Intelligence Testing

In order to gain a deeper understanding of intelligence and the tests developed to measure this
concept, it's important to understand the history of intelligence testing, the research that has
been conducted, and the findings that have emerged.
Major questions about intelligence and IQ testing still include:

• Are intelligence tests biased?

• Is intelligence a single ability, or does it involve an assortment of multiple skills and
abilities?
• Is intelligence inherited, or does the environment play a larger role?
• What do intelligence scores predict, if anything?

To explore these questions, psychologists have conducted a considerable amount of research

on the nature, influences, and effects of intelligence

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 Alfred Binet and the History of IQ Testing

Interest in intelligence dates back thousands of years. But it wasn't until psychologist
Alfred Binet was commissioned to identify students who needed educational assistance that
the first intelligent quotient (IQ) test was born. Although it has its limitations, and it has many
lookalikes that use far less rigorous measurements, Binet's IQ test is well-known around the
world as a way to compare intelligence.
During the early 1900s, the French government asked Binet to help decide which
students were most likely to experience difficulty in school. The government had passed laws
requiring that all French children attend school, so it was important to find a way to identify
children who would need specialized assistance.
Binet and his colleague, Theodore Simon, began developing questions that focused on
areas not explicitly taught in schools, such as attention, memory, and problem-solving skills.
Using these questions, Binet determined which ones served as the best predictors of school
success. He quickly realized that some children were able to answer more advanced questions
that older children were generally able to answer, and vice versa. Based on this observation,
Binet suggested the concept of mental age, or a measure of intelligence based on the average
abilities of children of a certain age group.

First IQ Test
This first intelligence test, referred to today as the Binet-Simon Scale, became the basis for the
intelligence tests still in use today. However, Binet himself did not believe that his
psychometric instruments could be used to measure a single, permanent, and inborn level of
intelligence. Binet stressed the limitations of the test, suggesting that intelligence is far too
broad a concept to quantify with a single number. Instead, he insisted that intelligence
is influenced by many factors, that it changes over time, and that it can only be compared in
children with similar backgrounds.

Stanford-Binet Intelligence Test

When the Binet-Simon Scale was brought to the United States, it generated considerable
interest. Stanford University psychologist Lewis Terman took Binet's original test and
standardized it using a sample of American participants. This adapted test, first published in
1916, was called the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale and soon became the standard
intelligence test used in the U.S.

The Stanford-Binet intelligence test used a single number, known as the intelligence quotient
(or IQ), to represent an individual's score on the test. The Stanford-Binet remains a popular
assessment tool today, despite going through a number of revisions over the years since its
inception.

The IQ score was calculated by dividing the test taker's mental age by his or her chronological
age and then multiplying this number by 100.

For example, a child with a mental age of 12 and a chronological age of 10 would have an IQ
of 120 (12/10 x 100).

Wechsler Intelligence Scales

Building on the Stanford-Binet test, American psychologist David Wechsler created a new
measurement instrument. Much like Binet, Wechsler believed that intelligence involved
different mental abilities. Dissatisfied with the limitations of the Stanford-Binet, he published
his new intelligence test, known as the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS), in 1955.
Wechsler also developed two different tests specifically for use with children: the Wechsler
Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC) and the Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of
Intelligence (WPPSI). The adult version of the test has been revised since its original
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publication and is now known as the WAIS-IV. The WAIS-IV contains 10 subtests, along with
five supplemental tests. The test provides scores in four major areas of intelligence: a verbal
comprehension scale, a perceptual reasoning Scale, a working memory scale, and a processing
speed scale.

The test also provides two broad scores that can be used as a summary of overall intelligence.
The Full-Scale IQ score combines performance on all four index scores, and the General
Ability Index is based on six subtest scores.
Subtest scores on the WAIS-IV can be useful in identifying learning disabilities, such
as cases where a low score in some areas combined with a high score in other areas
may indicate that the individual has a specific learning difficulty.
Rather than scoring the test based on chronological age and mental age, the WAIS is scored by
comparing the test taker's score to the scores of others in the same age group. The average
score is fixed at 100, with two-thirds of scores lying in the normal range between 85 and
115.2 This scoring method has become the standard technique in intelligence testing and is also
used in the modern revision of the Stanford-Binet test
What Is an IQ Test?
An IQ test is an assessment that measures a range of cognitive abilities and provides a score
that is intended to serve as a measure of an individual's intellectual abilities and potential. IQ
tests are among the most commonly administered psychological tests. In order to understand
what these scores really mean, it is essential to look at exactly how these test scores are
calculated. Today, many tests are standardized and scores are derived by comparing individual
performance against the norms for the individual's age group. While many tests utilize similar
methods to derive their scores, it is also important to note that each test is different and scoring
methods may not be the same from one test to another
Types of IQ Tests
There are a number of different intelligence tests in existence and their content can vary
considerably. Some are used with adults, but many are specifically designed to be administered
to children expercially within the upper primary level. Some commonly used intelligence tests
include:

• Cognitive Assessment System

• Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children
• Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale
• Universal Nonverbal Intelligence Test
• Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale
• Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children
• Woodcock-Johnson Tests of Cognitive Abilities

Uses
IQ tests can be used for a wide range of purposes including:

• Educational assessment and placement

• Assessment and diagnosis of intellectual disability
• Cognitive research
• Job candidate evaluation
• Assessing cognitive abilities including memory, speed, and attention

Modern intelligence tests often focus on abilities such as mathematical skills, memory,
spatial perception, and language abilities. The capacity to see relationships, solve problems,
and remember information are important components of intelligence, so these are often the
skills on which IQ tests focus

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 LECTURE SERIES NINE

FACTORS AFFECTING THE TEACHING AND LEARNING OF NUMERACY

Lesson Objectives:
By the end of the lecture series, it is expected of you to perform the following activities
1. Outline and analyze different broad compositions of factors (teacher-based, home-
based, school-based, natural and pupils-based )factors that affect the learning and
teaching of mathematics
2. Describe conceptions about teachers-student ratio as pre-requisite of teaching and
learning of primary numeracy.
3. Discuss the conception about the principle of teaching and learning in upper primary
based on teacher-student related factors
Area of concentration
2.1 Principles of teaching and learning in primary numeracy
2.2 Teacher content and pedagogical knowledge affecting teaching and learning of
mathematics in primary level.

The Concept of Teaching

Teaching is an interaction between two or more people with the aim of effecting changes.
However, in the context of education, teaching have the same meaning but more specific.
Teaching in education is regarded as an interaction with the aim of inducing learning. The
main focus of teaching is to develop a holistic individual suitable for individual and societal
needs.
Alorvor (2012, p.1) also defined teaching as a teacher and a pupil with the intention of
guiding the pupils to acquire information, knowledge, develop skills or attitude which are
compatible with their understanding and problems-solving capabilities at different ages in
order to aid their total growth and success. According to Kumar (2012), it will be
very difficult to get one exhaustive and functional definition of education. To Kumar, a
definition of education well composed unambiguously tells:
1.
“Whether teaching is a process or product
2.
“Its constitutional elements or factors”.
3.
“Its objective”
4.
“its organizational and structural aspect
The exhaustive and functional definition of teaching may include:
5.
Teaching encompasses an informer, a destination and a host of planned events to effect
changes in the behaviour receiver. That is, teaching is regarded as a triadic relation.
6.
Teaching is a social process. The aspirations, principles and administrative structure
of a society influence teaching.
Kumar further gave some similarities and characteristics various definition of teaching
portrays.

Nature and Characteristics Teaching

1. Teaching is a science and an art. Teaching is a science means teaching involves
systematic steps used to achieve a goal or an objective. As an art teaching entails
choosing a suitable method base on the condition at hand. Teachers encounters
challenges in the classroom that call for intuition and discernment from personal

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 experience in an attempt to deal with it. As a science, the method of teaching is
predictable, observable and measurable. For instance, teaching behaviour, pupil-
teacher interaction and the changes brought in the behaviour of the pupils can be
observed and measured and analysed. This kind of analysis gives feedback that is
necessary in for bringing desirable improvement in this process (Alexander, 1990).
2. Teaching requires expertise on the part of the teacher in order to influence the
development of the student.
3. Teaching is what a teacher does in order to stimulate students to learn other things
afterwards.
4. Teaching is highly an act of communication. The teacher is the source of information,
the student is the recipient who gets the information through a medium.
5. Teaching entails various organization of events adapted to the social and physical
environment in relation to the learner.
6. Teaching as varied activities can officially or unofficial, directional or instructional,
teaching conditioning or indoctrination, telling, showing or doing, descriptive or
remedial etc.
7. Teaching is focused on a set of specific tasks geared towards meeting an established
instructional objective(s).
8. Tri-polar Process (The Teacher, The learner and The Subject Matter)
9. Interactive Process.
10. Multiple Phases (Pre-active, inter-active and post-active phase).
11. Multiple Levels (Memory level, understanding level and reflective level).
12. Planned Activity.
13. Intentional Behaviour.
14. To cause motivation to learner.
15. Guidance.

The Relation between Teaching and Other Concepts in Education

There are terms such as conditioning, training, instruction and indoctrination used in education.
Some people have the view that these terms are one and the same as teaching. Conversely, they
are rather part of teaching

Fig. 1. Relationship between Teaching and other concepts

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 According to Kumar (2012), teaching activities are categorised into lower consisting of
conditioning and training and higher level of consisting of instruction and indoctrination
teaching. The lowest level of teaching is the conditioning which shapes behaviour, followed
by training also shaping conduct. Instruction is a high level of teaching above conditioning
and training that shapes knowledge and the highest form of teaching is known as
indoctrination which shapes beliefs.

The first type of teaching (conditioning or training) may result in shaping of behaviour and
conduct. The second (instruction or indoctrination) works as a potent agent for acquisition
of knowledge and formation of beliefs. Teaching activities are primarily divided as high or
low orders and are distributable along a continuum from conditioning to indoctrination
Conditioning is the lowest level of mode of teaching. (Eg. Animals/ Man taught to respond
to signals) It shapes our behaviours and habits. Training is the next higher level of teaching.
It helps in shaping conduct and teaching various skills. (Training a particular skill of
working or machine skilfully, animals – Circus tasks).

Though instruction and indoctrination are higher levels of teaching than conditioning and
training, they cannot be equated to teaching, they need involvement of intellectual powers.
Instruction is mainly concerned with the development of knowledge and understanding
about a system, thing or process (in an individual). Imparting of knowledge and
understanding is not the only objective of teaching. It is only a part of objectives of
teaching. Teaching is more than the act of giving knowledge and understanding. The
cognitive and affective domains of one’s behaviourareneglectedin instruction. While
teaching is aimed towards shaping a total man, instruction cares for only development of
intellect and affects the cognitive domain of one’s behaviour.

The process of teaching and instruction also differ. There is a face to face interaction of the
teacher and the taught in teaching but is not essential in the process of instruction. Teacher
can be replaced by programmed material.

Computer, radio, T.V. etc. In teaching, a teacher may use these devices as aids to teaching.
Hence, instruction is a part of teaching and is one of the several modes of teaching
instruction itself is not teaching, but teaching includes instruction.

Learning to Teach

Learning to teach is complex and multifaceted in that it requires many different

kinds of knowledge. Among these are the following:
1.
Content knowledge
2.
Pedagogical knowledge
3.
Teaching skills

It has long been held that “you can’t teach what you don’t know.” Your content knowledge
is based on the hours you have spent in liberal arts courses and in courses in your major
and minor. However, according to Rudolph Dreikurs (1968b), “Knowledge of subject
matter alone is not sufficient for being proficient in the classroom . . . or even the ability to
convey that knowledge”. Teachers must also know how to translate complex and difficult
ideas into learnable topics.

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Pedagogical knowledge, which involves knowing about classrooms, how they work, and
how they promote learning, is a second kind of critical teacher knowledge. Some
examples of concepts embedded in the domain of pedagogical knowledge include the
following
A third kind of teacher knowledge includes teaching skills, or the ability to use knowledge
in strategic ways to bring about student learning. The teaching skills examined in this book
are organized around the three interrelated tasks of planning, implementation, and
assessment.

Phases of Teaching
The quality of education can be enhanced through the use of a systematic approach. Phases
of teaching involves a three-phase approach. The basic steps in the three-phase approach
to teaching are the following: Planning, Implementing and Assessing.

These three phases are sequential and interrelated. In other words, a teacher, in developing
any learning activity, first plans, then implements those plans, and finally assesses the
activity’s success organizational framework for classroom instruction, this approach
provides a focus for connecting learning experiences to the national and state standards
presented in the previous section.

Planning
All teaching begins with planning, in which a teacher asks: What do I want my students to
know, understand, appreciate, and be able to do? The answer to this question is the
teacher’s goal, and the first step in the planning phase is the establishment of some kind of
goal. This goal may be as mundane as teaching history or math facts or as lofty as
developing students’ moral or spiritual values. Whatever the intent, the establishment of
some type of goal or purpose is a first priority in teaching.
What determines a teacher’s goals?

Implementing
The second phase in the three-phase approach to teaching involves implementation. Having
determined a goal and selected an appropriate means to reach that goal, a teacher then
implements that strategy. The success of the implementation phase depends on clear goals.
Interestingly, a surprising number of teachers do activities with little thought of the goal
they are trying to reach. A major purpose for writing this course is to encourage teachers
to make the planning, implementing, and assessing of learning experiences for students a
systematic and considered process rather than a contingency or “seat-of-the-pants”
approach. Research suggests that while both planning and carrying out meaningful goal-
oriented programs often are not done systematically; such actions can lead to positive
learning results.

A central question the teacher asks in implementing activities is: How will I help my
students reach the goal? The answer to the question will be the teaching procedure, or
strategy, used. Selecting the most appropriate method depends on the goal, students’
backgrounds and needs, available materials, and the teacher’s personality, strengths, and
style.
In addition to considering a teaching strategy to reach a predetermined goal, teachers must
also organize and manage their classrooms so that learning can proceed smoothly.
Management ranges from something as simple as a verbal reminder to a student to pay
attention to the creation of a complex set of rules and procedures to create productive
learning environments
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 Assessing
The third stage in instruction is assessment. In this phase, the teacher attempts to gather
information to determine if and what kind of learning has occurred. This can be done in
many ways, including administering tests or quizzes, grading homework, or noting
students’ reactions to questions or comments. The teacher can use each of these methods
to make decisions concerning whether the goal established in the planning stage was
reached.
During this phase, the teacher asks: How will I determine if the students knew, understood,
or reached the goal I identified earlier? The answer to this question suggests ways in which
the students’ understanding will be assessed through the use of different measurement
instruments.

Effective Teaching Models

The effective teaching model to be discussed is the QAIT model of effective instruction.
The QAIT is an acronym that stands for quality (Q), appropriateness (A), incentive (I) and
time (T) (Slavin, 1994).

A model showing the link between each of the element of the QAIT model for effective
instruction (adapted from Slavin, 1994). The first element of the QAIT model is the
quality of instruction. The quality of instruction refers to the degree to which
mathematics teachers’ present information or skills in a way that students can easily
learn. The quality of instruction is largely a product of the quality of the curriculum and
of the lesson presentation itself. Slavin (1994) maintains that instruction must make
sense to the students. To achieve this, teachers must:
present information in an orderly and systematic manner;
provide smooth transitions from old to new topics or lessons;
use vivid images and concrete examples and
ensure necessary repetition and reinforcement. Figure 2 shows the QAIT model.

The second element of the QAIT model according Slavin (1994) is appropriate levels
of instruction. Appropriate levels of instruction is about the degree to which the teacher
ensures that students are ready to learn a new lesson (that is, they have the necessary
skill and knowledge to learn) but have not already learnt the lesson. In other terms, the
level of instruction is neither too easy nor too difficult for the students. Here, one of the
challenging tasks of teachers is how to effectively deal with individual differences.

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 The third element is incentive. Incentive is the degree to which a teacher ensures that
students are motivated to work on instructional tasks and are also motivated to learn
the material being presented.

Time is the fourth element of the QAIT model of effective instruction. Time, in the
QAIT model, stands for the degree to which students are given enough time to learn
materials that are being taught.

Principles of Teaching and Learning

The term Principle has been derived from the Latin word ‘Princeps’ which means the
beginning and the end of all things. It is said that the Greeks used the word to express
the origin of all things and also to express their fundamental laws.
Principles are comprehensive laws or doctrines from which others are derived or on
which others are founded. Principles of teaching and learning are therefore rules that
guide the process of education. They are important and serve as chief guides that govern
the actions and operations in teaching and learning. But it is noteworthy that principles
are not rigid, unequivocal laws that apply in all teaching-learning situations.

GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF TEACHING/LEARNING

1. Teaching should be based on psychology of learning. That is the nature of the child, the
nature of learning process, and the principles that govern its operation should determine what
to teach and how to teach (Child centeredness).
2. Teaching involves planning. Teaching is good when it’s well-planned such that the activities
and experiences of the learner are continuously related and interrelated into a larger more
meaningful, more inclusive relationship pattern.
3. Principle of definite objectives. Teaching is good when the learner is made conscious of the
aims and objective to be accomplished. This principle calls for proper motivation.
4. Principle of individual differences. It is a known fact that individuals differ in their learning
potential. Good teaching requires that teachers organize their teaching to suit all the different
intellectually groupings in the class.
5. Principle of selection of Materials. Teaching requires rich environment of instructional
materials from which the teacher can select during instructional delivery.
6. Principle of correlation. Learning should be based on what learners already know. Relating
new instruction to learner’s previous knowledge will make learning meaningful and authentic.
7. Principle of reasoning. Teaching is good when the learner is stimulated to think and reason.
The best teaching methods are the ones that liberate the mind and encourage thinking. Effective
teaching involves differentiation and integration or analysis and synthesis. Generalization of
facts is important in teaching for transfer.
8. Principle of democracy. Good teaching is governed by democratic principles. In democratic
teaching, social relationship is placed on a plane of natural respect, cooperation, tolerance and
fair play. Teaching effectiveness must be governed by love and understanding; in order words
learners are free from emotional tension.
9. Principle of Cooperation. Teaching is greatly enhanced when opportunity is given for group
work and cooperative learning.
10. Principle of variety. Good teaching uses several methods and instructional media to aid
understanding.

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11. Principle of Evaluation. Evaluation should be made an integral part of teaching and
learning. There should be regular formative assessment to measure learning outcomes. Regular
feedback should be given to help learners readjust their learning.
12. Principle of activity and practice. Teaching should include review, repetition and drill to
reinforce learned facts, ideas and skills in other to create a permanent bond.
Involve
Popular Maxims Used In Teaching
What are maxims of teaching?
The word maxim is defined by the Oxford Dictionary as a general truth drawn from the science
of experience. Over the years, various educationist have come out with numerous rules of
conduct for teaching which may called maxims. They are the true facts found out by the teacher
on the basis of experience. They are of universal significance and are trust worthy. There are
certain popular maxims used in teaching. Among these are:
1. Proceed from the known to unknown: This is another way of saying that we should connect
new knowledge with the experience of our learners.
2. Proceed from the concrete to the abstract: This reminds us that babies learn first from the
things they taste and touch and smell, and later from things they see and hear. Children are
interested in people and things not in abstract ideas. They know my cat and your cat, but not in
general. They must learn by studying concrete examples before they proceed to draw out or
abstract from these examples a general rule. If our teaching is to truly educate we must never
get too far away from the living people and the real things known to the learners.

3. Proceed from the particular to the general. This is another way of saying; proceed from the
concrete to the abstract. The particular example is concrete, the generalization, is an
abstraction, something “drawn from” concrete examples. This is the inductive method of
teaching.
4. Proceed from the easy to the more difficult. Each step in our work must be neither so easy
that the learners feel it is hardly worth taking, nor so difficult that they are discouraged and
lose interest. It is however important to remember that what seems the easier thing to us may
not seem so to the child. To find out what is easy for the child we must depend not upon logic
but on psychology. Though we have learned to think logically, the child has not: so we must
forget our logic and depend instead upon our knowledge of the nature and interest of our pupils.
5. Proceed from the simple to the complex. We must remember that simple must be simple
from the point of view of the child. Children are interested in whole concrete objects, a mother,
brother, a policeman, a house, a dress, a motor. They do not break these down into parts,
qualitative uses and so on. People and things become more complex as we learn more about
them. As we grow older, we learn that “mother” was once a girl. She is now a woman, and a
married woman. She has a name, she is so many years old etc.
The five maxims discussed must be our servants and not our masters. These are no more than
guides we may sometimes find helpful, especially in exposition. We should use them only
when they help us to carry out the general principles off teaching method.

CONCEPT AND CONCEPT FORMATION IN MATHEMATICS

Skemp R.R. (1989) describes concept as ‘the mental object, which results when we
abstract from a number of examples something which they all have in common.’ A concept
is a mental representation of the common properties. ‘Concept is some kind of lasting
change, the result of abstracting which enables us to recognize new experiences as having
the similarities of an already formed class’ Concepts are abstract and not easy to define.
The process of concept formation is termed ‘abstraction’. Abstraction is becoming aware
of the similarities among our experience, which we recognize on future occasions.
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 “Concepts are the ideas or abstractions formed as a result of categorizing data from a
number of observations”. They are names given to categories formed as factual information
is classified.
Concepts enable us to group together different things that have some similarities. They
allow us to organize and store similar pieces of information efficiently. In a sense, concepts
are hooks on which we can hang our experiences. They help us to be more efficient in our
communication and this tends to enhance comprehension and assist in transfer of learning.
Thus concepts as a form of higher learning should become the basis of the content to be
taught and the focus of teaching.
Skemp identified two kinds of concepts – Primary and secondary concepts.

• Primary concepts are concepts that we learn through our experiences with the
environment. They are derived directly from our sensory and motor experiences of the outside
world like seeing, feeling, smelling, tasting, etc (the five senses). Examples of primary concepts
are red, blue, one, two…; rectangle, triangle, heavy, sweet, hot, cold, … etc. The concept of
four can be formed by seeing/experiencing many sets with four elements and recognizing their
common property; the concept of red when we see many red objects; the concept of hotness by
touching hot objects.
•
• Secondary concepts are abstracted from other concepts. They are built up by combining
primary concepts. E.g. when one, two, three etc are combined we form the concept of
‘Number’ because that is the property shared by these primary concepts; red green yellow also
combines to form the secondary concept of ‘colour’. Examples of secondary concepts are
number, colour, shape, weight, etc.
• Secondary concepts thus depend on other concepts and so can only be formed if the learner
has already formed these other concepts. Some concepts are of higher order than others. For
example, if concept A is an example of concept B then B is said to be of a higher order than A.
This idea of related concepts, of order between concepts and conceptual hierarchy, enables us
to see clearly why mere definition is an inadequate mode of communication.
Note that a higher order concept encompasses wider experience than does each primary
concept. They are further removed from the primary concepts. Nevertheless, the higher
order concepts are connected to all lower-level concepts in a complex hierarchy of
abstractions.
Concept can also be classified as Nonverbal and Verbal concepts.
A non verbal kind of concept is learned in concept formation by abstracting from examples.
For example, a mathematics student who can distinguish protractors from objects and uses
of protractor for the purposes for which it is intended would be said to have a concept of
protractor.
Verbal concepts are those for which a conventional name or designating expression exists
and they are learnt by concept assimilation, concept assimilation might agree that a concept
is the meaning of a term used to designate or assign the concept.
Implication for the teacher
Concepts have to be formed in learner’s own mind. What teachers can do is to help along
the child’s learning process but not to do it for the child (facilitator role).
Children should learn their early mathematics concepts by abstracting from concrete
experiences

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 Teaching of Mathematical concept
The following can be identified as moves in teaching mathematics concepts:
a) Definition b) giving examples c) asserting d) classifying e) comparing or contrasting,
analyzing dialogue, etc.

1. Defining-math concepts that are precise may be taught by definition.eg. Parallel

lines are lines which do not meet. E.g. 2: A triangle is a plane figure which has three
sides.
2. Stating a sufficient condition: this is where the characteristics or properties of an
object (or things) are explicitly defined. In stating sufficient condition, a linguistic
form that signals the condition must be used.
3. Giving one or more examples: thus provide as many examples as possible.
Examples are objects denoted by the concept- that is members of the set determined
by the concept. Example: 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, … are even numbers. Square, kite, rectangle,
rhombus, etc. are quadrilateral Triangle, rectangle, pentagon, octagon, etc. are
polynomial.
4. Give example accompanied by reason why it is example. Giving an example
along with a reason that it is an example is helpful to students who are slow learners.
Example: 2, 4, 6, 8, …, are even numbers because they are divisible by 2. Square,
kite, rectangle, etc. are quadrilateral because they have four sides and four angles.
5. Comparing and contrasting objects denoted by the concept. It is useful to
contrast objects comparable objects to point out differences. This establishes a bond
or association between the familiar and less familiar. Comparison points out
similarities, but since objects compared are not identical there must be differences.
A contrast identifies some of these differences, if not all. Example concept of
histogram and bar chart.
6. Giving a counterexample: it is an example that disproves a false generalization.
7. Stating a necessary condition:- the logic of this move enables a student to identify
examples of objects not denoted by a concept.
8. Stating necessary and sufficient condition:- this means using the locution if and
only if to explain something explicitly. Example, A regular polygon is ‘equilateral
and equiangular’ is not very clear like ‘ a polygon is regular if and only if it is
equiangular and equilateral’. Because a sufficient condition enables examples to be
identified and a move of necessary condition enables nonexamples to be identified,
a necessary and sufficient move enable both these discriminations to be made.
9. Giving one or more nonexamples:- an object not in a set determined by a concept
is a nonexample of the concept. Example, 2, 4, 6, 7, 8, 10. Giving nonexamples
helps clarifies a concept. Exhibiting nonexamples along with examples induces
necessary and sufficient conditions of understanding a concept.
10. Giving nonexample accompanied by a reason why it is a nonexample: the
reason that accompanies the nonexample is the failure to satisfy a necessary
condition. The utility of giving a nonexample together with a reason that it is a
nonexample is evident when teaching students who learn slowly. The teacher must
help the slow learners to appreciate this move by deliberately helping them to
associate the two.
11. Giving characteristic which is neither necessary nor sufficient: A concept is
precise when the necessary and sufficient conditions are known. Mathematics
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 concepts are mostly precise. When characteristics of object is used to denote a
concept, the characteristic may be sufficient, necessary or neither sufficient nor
necessary. Using characteristic to illustrate concept may be irrelevant in teaching
mathematics.

Summary
Figure 1.1 The summary of the moves for teaching mathematical concept is provided below.

Moves in teaching Without

concept With reason
reason

Ex
Characterizatio Exemplificati

Definiti Necessary Counterexampl Nonexample Exampl

and
sufficient
Sufficient condition
With
Condition Without
reason
reason

Necessary
condition
Neither necessary nor Comparing and
sufficient contrasting

GENERALIZATION
Teaching mathematical generalizations.
Generalization refers to a statement of fact that holds over a set of objects after studying
the properties and relationships among these objects. It is a rule obtained for a set of objects
after studying the properties and relationships among these objects. It is a rule that identifies
how certain mathematical operation should be carried out.
Example. 𝐴 = 7(5 + 𝑥), , find the value of 𝐴 when 𝑥 = 4
Here, we identify ways of solving this problem in order to have accurate result. We may
apply the rule BEDMAS as the generalization of solving mathematics of this sort.

Moves (methods) of teaching generalization

Generalizations are usually taught in one of two ways: by exposition or by heuristics
(that is, guided discovery).
A strategy in which the assertion move appears early in the sequence is called expository
strategy. The word expository is derived from exposition, which means an explanation or
interpretation in which is given a commentary that seeks to clarify the meaning and
implications of the object of exposition. In teaching for example generalization,
generalization is the object of exposition. An expository strategy commonly used by
mathematics teacher is composed of an assertion move, one or more interpretation moves,
and several application moves, in that order. It comprised an introduction moves in which

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the teacher names the subject of the forthcoming generalization to provide focus, asserts
the generalization, and interprets it by paraphrastic language. There is no application move.
It is only meant for students to comprehend and remember the generalization. The textbook
is almost always the source of application exercise.

1. By exposition:
(a) Introduction moves: in this kind of move, the teacher sets the stage for the subsequent
instruction. Three kinds of introduction moves are used by teachers.
i. The teacher focuses the attention of students on the topic of instruction. This is simply
done by naming the topic - we call this focus move. Here, the teacher directs the students’
attention to what he wants to talk about next. Example, a teacher may direct students’
attention to the two formulas for converting temperatures in one scale into corresponding
temperatures in another scale.
ii. The teacher states explicitly the goal or outcome of the subsequent study call an
objective move. Here, the objective of the study is stated clearly at the outset of the day’s
lesson.
iii. Motivation move:- this is where the teacher tries to convince students about the
worthiness of the generalization they are about to learn. Often, motivation is attained by
pointing out the utility of the generalization. Example: In an attempt to persuade students
to learn how to use proportions in daily life, a teacher might point out examples of
proportions. Also, a teacher who is about to teach the generalization that are the basis for
finding the product of rational numbers might state that these generalizations will be used
over and over through the rest of the algebra course.

Garth Runion (1972) developed seven ways a mathematics teacher can initiate a lesson
and provide motivation.
(a) One way is to state the goals of the lesson. This provides the students some direction
for the study.
(b) A second is outlining, in which the teacher states the major points to be covered in
the development of the lesson. Like stating goals, this can be regarded as providing the
student some direction. Often, motivation increases with the clarity of the objective.
(c) A third way of introducing a lesson is to use an analogue. In this approach the teacher
selects, from what the students are familiar with, some object, process, or situation like
what the students are to study. This approach relates the unfamiliar to the familiar. Thus,
the algebra might remind students of the balance and the operations that can be performed
and still maintain a balance. Then the teacher can lead into the solution of equations in
which he or she wants to stress performance of the same operation on both sides of the
equation.
(d) Using historical material is a fourth way of increasing generalizations. For example,
before teaching a Pythagoras theorem, the teacher can tell the students something about
Pythagoras, who was a versatile man and did things other than, discover this relation.
Matrix theory can be introduced by relating the history of the invention of matrices; the
same can be done for vectors.
(e) Reviewing subordinates information is a fifth way of introducing a generalization.
The information reviewed is usually prerequisite to understanding the generalization or
generalizations to be taught later in the lesson. Thus the review can be diagnostic, with
remedial teaching provided if and when it is deemed necessary.
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 (f) The sixth approach is giving reasons for studying a particular topic. Runion
pointed out this approach as particularly effective when combined with another approach
– statement of goals – that makes clear to the students what they are to accomplish.
(g) The seventh approach consists of presenting a problematical situation. This gains
the students’ attention or arouses their interest in what is to come. Many students are
curious, and by posing some sort of problematical situation the teacher can capitalize on
their curiosity. Mathematical fallacies represent one kind of problem that can be used.
Another concerns how a long and involved process can be shortened by an algorithm.

2. Assertion moves: here a generalization is firmly stated. Thus a definite

statement or claim is made that something is true. The teacher directs the students’ attention
to its statement in a textbook or helps the students verbalize the generalization, which may
have been discovered or identified in a discussion. Often, the teacher keeps repeating this
move, probably for emphasis.

3. Instantiation moves. Here, the teacher employs one or more instances

of the generalization. If the generalization is in mathematical notation with the variables
explicitly quantified as, for example, for each rational 𝑎 and for all positive integers 𝑚` ,
𝑖 = 1, 2, 3, … . 𝑛, 𝑎 ef × 𝑎 eg × … .× 𝑎eh = 𝑎ef ieg i⋯eh

an instance of the generalization is obtained by dropping the quantifiers and replacing at

least one variable by a constant from the domains of the variables. Thus,
5A × 5@ = 59= ; 3, × 38 × 3< × 3: = 39< ; 7N, × 7N8 × 7 = 7N@
are instances of the generalization.
If there are no quantifiers, as in 𝑢. 𝑣 = 0 Þ 𝑢 and 𝑣 are orthogonal where it is
understood that the variables 𝑢 and 𝑣 range over the domain of vectors, a replacement of
either or both variables by a constant yields an instance of the generalization.
If the generalization is not mathematical notation – that is, if it employs common nouns
– an instance is obtained by replacing at least one common noun by a proper noun or
constant. Thus, for the generalization ‘ if both sides of an inequality are divided by a
negative number, the inequality is reversed’, an instance is
If −5𝑥 > 15, then 𝑥 < −3. Also, if 1 − 𝑥 < −6, then 𝑥 > 7
We must notice that an instance is always a sentence whereas an example is an element
of a set. We speak of an example of a concept but of an instance of a generalization.
4. Application moves: An application move always involves deduction. An application
move is one in which the teacher by means of questions, exercises, or problems seeks to
get the students to apply the generalization either by itself or in conjunction with other
generalizations. It is closely related to instantiation move. Here, a situation or problem is
analyzed and one decides which generalization(s) are relevant. Teachers employ
application move by either displaying examples or by supplying exercises or problems that
may be instances of generalization.

Example: solve for 𝑥 in the equation 𝑥 , − 3𝑥 − 5 = 0

No ± √og N Apq
𝑥= ,p
Here, we list the values of 𝑎 = 1; 𝑏 = −3; 𝑐 = −5 and substitute them in the formula
−(−3) ± s(−3), – 4(−5)
𝑥=
2
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 3 ± √29
𝑥=
2
This is an application of the quadratic formula.
[
Example 2: logp TxV = log p 𝑥 − log p 𝑦
Also, log o (𝑝𝑞 ) = log o 𝑝 + log o 𝑞

5. Interpretation moves. When teachers thought that not all students understand a
generalization because of its complex nature, he may clarify or interpret the generalization.
The teacher may state the generalization in different ways – paraphrasing. The teacher can
also review or leads students to review the concepts that may not be clear to them. Finally,
the teacher can employ some examples to clarify the generalization – instantiation move.

6. Counterexample moves. This is used to disprove a false generalization. If there exist

a counterexample for a generalization, the instance formed by using the counterexample is
called a counterinstance.
Study the following
i. 𝑥 × 𝑥 = 𝑥 , , so 2 × 2 = 4 and 2 + 2 = 4 implies 2 × 2 = 2 + 2. This is true
Counterexample: 3 × 3 = 9 but 3 + 3 = 6 implies that 3 × 3 ≠ 3 + 3
So the generalization 𝑥 × 𝑥 = 𝑥 , ≠ 𝑥 + 𝑥
7. Justification moves. This involves providing evidence or reasons to prove or show that
the generalization is true.

There are four kinds of justification moves.

Ø The generalization must be accepted by authority
Ø The second is a deductive argument
Ø Giving one or more instances that a generalization holds – instantiation move
Ø Giving Counterexample:

Other methods of teaching mathematical concepts and generalizations

Instructional Methods
Your instructional procedure and methods should be a detailed, step-by-step description
of everything that you will do during the lesson. Much of how you write this section will
depend on the type of instruction that you plan on using.

Types of Instruction
When most people think of instruction, they think “lecture”. In a good lesson plan, this
will not always be the case. Here are a few of the different instructional methods you can
use:
1. Direct Instruction: Direct instruction is a term used for the majority of teacher-
centered instructional approaches. It is good for teaching basic facts and skills. Almost
all methods of direct instruction include four steps: introduction and review, presentation
of new information, guided practice and independent practice. Examples of direct
instruction include:

Apart from afore discussed method of teaching mathematical concepts and

generalization, there are other methods of teaching which support practices of
mathematics education. These may include:
1. Discovery learning
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 2. Expository method
3. Lecturing method usually used in introducing concepts, explaining and
concluding
4. Questioning and answering techniques
5. Demonstration method of teaching
6. Brainstorming
7. Story telling approach
8. Field trip and survey
9. Resource person approach in teaching
10. Computer-based algorism and method of teaching
11. Cooperative learning approach

1. Lecture: Although it is frequently criticized, lecture is still the most common method
of teaching.
2. Demonstration: Demonstration is used most commonly to teach science, computer
skills and similar programmes.
3. Lecture-Discussions: Lecture-discussions start with a lecture followed by discussion
about the topic by the teacher and the students.
2. Case Studies: A case study is not appropriate for elementary students, but it is a great
way to help older students develop analytic and problem-solving skills. It involves having
students work together in groups to analyze or solve a case presented to them.
3. Cooperative Learning: Cooperative learning not only helps students learn academic
skills, but promotes social skills. The trick is to make sure that each student in the group
actively participates as a member of his or her group.
4. Discussion: Discussions are excellent for use after a lecture or video, but can be
difficult to manage with larger groups.

5. Discovery Learning: Discovery learning requires students to use prior knowledge and
experiences to discover new information. It requires the students to have some prior
knowledge and needs to be well structured.
6. Inquiry Learning: Inquiry learning requires the students to solve a problem that the
teacher has given them. Inquiry learning requires a high amount of participation by the
students.
7. Jigsaw: Jigsaw is a cooperative learning strategy in which each student is a member
of two groups: a home group and a learning group. Students meet with their learning
group to master a skill or idea. They then report back to their home group where they
teach the other members of their group about what they learned.
8. Learning Centres: Learning centres involve self-contained areas where students work
alone or in groups to complete a task.
9. Role Play: Role playing is when students try to solve problems by acting them out. It
is usually followed by a discussion where students can explore their feelings and gain
insight about their attitudes.
10. Scaffolding: Scaffolding is when a teacher begins the lesson by modeling the skill
and then slowly withdraws his or her assistance allowing the students to take
responsibility for their own learning.

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 11. Simulations: Simulations are frequently used in social studies and science
classrooms. In today’s technological society, this usually involves use of the computer.
Using simulations promotes the use of critical and evaluative thinking by the students.
12. Think, Pair, Share: In think, pair, share, students are divided into groups of four.
The teacher presents them with an issue or question and gives each student time to think
about it. They are then paired up with another member of their group and each shares
their answer. Students are then paired up with a different member of the group and share
the answers that the first pair had come up with.
Class activities 1:

Students in their groups discuss teaching strategies, methodological approaches, demerits in

using these strategies in teaching mathematical concepts and generalizations

TEACHING MATHEMATICAL SKILLS

3.1 What are skills?
They are those traits exhibited by students as they engage in various mathematical problem
solving activities. Example, generic skills (speaking skills, listening skills, reading skills
and writing skills), generalization skills, computing skills, problem solving skills, graphing
skills, investigation,
Generic skills are the basic skills needed by every student as the foundation on which other
skills and knowledge can be developed. Example: speak, listen, read, talk, observe, report,
practice, show, investigate, play, make, do, solve problem, etc.
Skills are abilities that have been acquired by (through) training. Mathematical skills are
not taught in mathematics as a topic, but are implicative in teacher-learner moves in
teaching and learning encounter. Many students’ inability score well or pass well in
mathematics could be attributed to students’ poor imitation of teacher, or perhaps ill-trained
mathematical skills.

Characteristics of skills
1. Imitation: A distinguishing characteristic of learning how to do sometime is that it can
be learned through imitation. Consider the skills of swimming and squaring binomials.
Many people learn to swim without formal instruction by observing and imitating others.
Similarly, an algebra student may learn how to square binomials by observing and imitating
a teacher or another student. Through proper practice he may improve in his ability to
square binomials and be able to find products accurately and rapidly, thus acquiring the
desired skill. One should not conclude, however, that the strategy of imitation followed by
practice is the best way to acquire a skill. Without some knowledge of the theory and
principles, imitation and practice tend to be a time consuming and unreliable approach to
learning a skill
2. Speed and Accuracy: Another characteristic of skills is that speed and accuracy are
criteria of their performance. The terms speed and accuracy apply to someone’s ability to
square binomials but they do not apply very well to one’s knowledge about squaring
binomials: it seems odd to say that a student knows the distributive property with great
speed and accuracy. It makes sense to say that a student can solve equation quickly and
with few errors, but it seems odd to say that he knows such generalization as the transitive
property, the additive property for addition and other basic generalizations which are
utilized in solving equations, with speed and accuracy. (speed and accuracy are criteria of
their performance)
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3. Problem solving organization: (discuss): There are a lot of mathematical problem
solving moves. Mathematics problems come in different forms. Teachers need to introduce
students into varieties of such moves surrounding mathematicl concepts and topics taught.
With varied examples, the teacher can teach form varieties or different mathematical
problems so as to enrich students competence and meaningful understanding of the topic
defined by the syllabus. When this become meaningful, students feel comfortable to
compfront any standardized assessment in mathematics.
4. Skill practice through routine and non-routine measures: students are given enough
time to practice various mathematical problem solving strategies through enough practices.
To be able to do something very well and quickly requires practice. To teach skills
effectively, then teachers must provide students with opportunity for practice.

3.3 The nature and use of prescriptions in teaching skills

Teaching is not limited to nonverbal communication between teachers and students.
Teachers Communicate directions, called prescriptions, to advice, guide, or direct student
action. Prescriptions that apply to extensive domains and assist us in guiding our deliberate
actions together with true generalizations constitute what we will call principles. Principles,
then, can be partitioned into generalizations and prescription. A teacher has to judge when
to state a principle as a generalization and when to state it as a prescription. We see the
significance of the classifications of principles into generalization and prescriptions when
we consider the principles

But teachers know that many students cannot apply them readily and hence they teach
these principles in prescriptive form as, for example, to form the power of a number,
multiply the logarithm of the number by the exponent of the power and find the
antilogarithm of the product.

3.4 Moves in teaching skills

Parts of teachers’ strategy must be able to make sure students know how to complete a task.
Analyzing classroom discourse, Todd (1972) identified moves that mathematics teachers
use in teaching skills. Some of these moves are similar to the introduction, interpretation,
and justification moves for teaching generalizations. We will discuss these along with
practice moves which involve such psychological principles as reinforcement, feedback,
and spacing.

1. Introduction moves: a skill can be introduced in basically the same way as a

generalization, through focus, objective, and motivation moves. Teacher may focus
students’ attention on the skill by describing briefly what it entails. The teacher may state
an objective for the skill, such as when we finish this material, you should be able to factor
quickly and correctly, over a given set, any trinomial I give you recognize that its not
factorable over that set, etc. Students are thus made explicitly aware of the teacher’s
instructional goals. Motivating students by pointing out the utility of the knowledge to be
learned. Sometimes students are motivated to acquire skills and other kinds of knowledge
simply because it is fun to learn or they feel a sense of accomplishment in performing a
task well.

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Ø Ascertain moves: we pointed out earlier that prescriptive principles are useful in
teaching how to do something because they offer general advice on what to do, how to do
it, and perhaps the sequence in which the various steps are to be performed.
Ø Interpretation moves: many moves used in interpreting generalizations also can be
used to help to help students clarify the meaning of prescriptions. Teachers can review the
meaning of terms in prescription as well as in generalizations. For example, in teaching
this prescription for simplifying complex fractions, multiply each term of a complex
fraction by the lowest common denominator of all the fractions involve. A teacher might
review the meaning of terms such as: complex fraction, and lowest common multiple. A
teacher using interpretation moves might first review any terms that cause confusion and
then paraphrased the prescriptions.
Ø Justification moves: teachers can also design moves to justify prescriptions. One
method of justifying prescription to students is to enable them to determine whether their
answer on following a prescription is correct. A second method of justifying prescriptions
is to establish that the prescriptions are predicted on acceptable mathematical
generalizations.
Ø Practice moves: it is only through practice that one develops the ability to complete
tasks with speed and accuracy. The old adage “practice makes perfect” still has a ring of
truth in it. Skills in Mathematics also can be acquired only through practice. To speak
simply, one must solve equations, graph, and prove theorems to become skilled in these
activities.

There are various means of making practice effective. We begin by considering

reinforcement and feedback and also discuss scheduling and ways to couch practice in a
variety of activities.
Ø Reinforcement and feedback: a basic generalization concerning learning asserts that
rewarded behavior is more likely to recur. This generalization concerning is sometimes
referred to as the law of reinforcement. Practice, then, must occur in a context that ensures
success and benefit from effort. Furthermore, correct responses can be promoted by
reinforcing, by rewarding, desired responses. A reinforce is defined as any stimulus that
increases the probability of a respond. Usually positive reinforcement consist of some sort
of reward. In teaching mathematics, this may be self – satisfaction from mastering a task,
grades praises from peers, teachers, or parents or special privileges or prizes. These forms
of reinforcement can serve as means of motivating the learning of skills. Reinforcement
must be used judiciously. Another factor to be considered in teaching skills is feedback.
DeCecco (1968, p. 290) defines feedback as “the information available to the students
which makes possible the comparison of his actual performance with some standard
performance of a skill.”
Feedback is sometimes referred to as knowledge of results. Feedback provides
corrective information to the student and thus enables the student to monitor performance.
DeCecco (1968), stresses the importance of giving feedback immediately after students
performance. When it is delay, it is less effective and students tend to be less interested in
their tasks. Furthermore, when feedback is immediate it can prompt and motivate
subsequent behavior.

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 GUIDELINES FOR USING PRACTICE, REINFORCEMENT, AND FEEDBACK IN
TEACHING MATHEMATICAL SKILLS
1. Strive to provide reinforcement and feedback during practice sessions
2. Make sure reinforcement is associated with desirable responses
3. Do not reinforce inappropriate responses
4. Provide feedback by making answers available to students
5. Return assignment and test papers as quickly as possible
6. Remind students of their objective
7. Try to get students to take pride in their work

TEACHING PROBLEM CHILDREN?

We also have to touch upon sensitive issues arising from the interaction of an able student with
his or her teacher and fellow students. Mathematics is empowering; when a young person starts
to feel a grasp of mathematics, he or she discovers the wonderful feeling of knowing things for
certain, the proverbial \mathematical certainty".
·
Locating and correcting errors in mathematical arguments and computations, either your own
or others is an essential mathematical skill. It is a teacher's important duty to create in the class
a safe environment for criticism, an atmosphere where being asked a question is not seen as a
humiliation.
·
For an able student it is relatively easy to see that he or she is \better" at mathematics than
others. Unfortunately, it could also work the other way: it is easy for able students to see when
someone else is better than they are. The ease of superficial comparison and the element of
competitiveness that is inherently present in problem solving can create a feeling of insecurity
even in relatively strong students.
·
This feeling of insecurity can also affect teachers. In Britain, many observers get the impression
that teachers systematically suppress able students not out of vindictiveness, but either because
of their own insecurity and fear of having their authority undermined, or in order to engage the
rest of a group in a discussion that is not dominated by the able student. What is clear is that
teachers need support and guidance on the best ways of interacting with able students

Teaching High And Low Ability Students /pupils.

High Ability Students (HAS) are usually more talented, learn faster and retain more content
easily.
Characteristics of high ability students (HAS)
High Ability Sstudents/pupils
i. Are able to complete their task faster than other students
ii. Have extensive background of competence
iii. Work well on their own
iv. Ask thought provoking questions
v.Are eager to become involved in new learning experiences
vi. Have positive self – confident
vii. Deal with some ambiguity, and accept responsibility

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 How to work with the high – ability students (Relating with HAS)
1. Allow students to extend themselves by completing more work in a shorter time span
and going into greater depth on given topics
2. Diminish the amount of disengaged instructional time during the school year,
3. Allow teachers to spend more direct instructional time with lower ability students, and
4. Make it possible for advanced students to progress through the curriculum fast enough
to allow them extra time which can be used for other activities such as peer - tutoring
sessions with classmates or self – directed study.

(Van Houten, 1976). If low ability students are constantly corrected and reminded of their
weakness, their most common reaction is anxiousness and withdrawal from the
instructional situation.

Low Ability Students (LAS)

By definition, Low ability students is a student who does not have the skills and
knowledge that are required to function in a typical curriculum for average learners at the
assigned grade or level. Such students need to be accepted for who they are and not
judged by standards more appropriate for others.

Characteristics of low ability student

1. Require more time to learn a concept or skill
2. Have a minimal level of readiness for new instruction
3. Have generally and fewer past experience with which to link new information
4. Have a history of failure
5. Are unsure of themselves
6. Are hesitant to become involved in new learning situations
7. Tend not to work well in groups
8. May be difficult to motivate
9. Are often more successful with concrete as opposed to attract work
10. Frequently have poor self concepts
How to work with the low ability student
1. The teacher should look for those things that the low ability student does well and
provides reinforcement for the accomplishment.
2. The teacher also must identify curriculum materials that are of high interest to each
student and written on an appropriate level to engender success
3. When instructing a low ability, it is important to remember that it is much worse to
place the student in material which is too difficult than in material which is too easy
4. The most realistic, non-threatening environment for low ability students is a situation
in which they work closely with a supportive teacher in a curriculum area where they do
not have to worry about adjusting their rate.

DISCUSSION/ACTIVITIES

Through group discussions, let us discuss following

2.1 The Principles of teaching and learning in primary numeracy

2.2 Teacher content and pedagogical knowledge affecting teaching and learning of
mathematics in primary level.

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