1st Sem Food Nutrition Notes

UNIT 1 - Foods of Plant Origin
CEREALS:
Cereals are edible grasses cultivated for their seeds, which are used for food, animal
feed, and industrial products. Common cereals include wheat, rice, corn, oats, barley,
and rye. They are a staple food for a large portion of the world's population and are a
significant source of nutrients such as carbohydrates, fiber, and certain vitamins and
minerals.
STRUCTURE OF CEREALS:
Cereals typically have a structure consisting of three parts:

1. Bran: the tough outer layer that protects the seed and contains fiber, minerals, and
antioxidants.
2. Endosperm: the middle layer that contains carbohydrates, protein, and small
amounts of vitamins and minerals.
3. Germ: the innermost part that contains healthy fats, vitamins, minerals, and some
protein.
The structure of cereals can vary between different types and varieties, but this three-part
structure is common to most cereal grains. Processing of cereals such as milling and refining
can affect the nutrient content by removing some of the outer layers (bran and germ) of the
grain.
Prepared by Aditya Balu.G

COMPOSITION OF CEREALS:
Cereals are an important source of nutrients and provide a significant amount of the
world's food supply. The composition of cereals varies depending on the type of
grain and can be described as follows:
Carbohydrates: Cereals are rich in carbohydrates, which are the primary source of
energy. The major carbohydrate in cereals is starch, which provides a slow and
steady release of energy. Cereals also contain some simple sugars, such as glucose
and fructose.
Protein: Cereals are a good source of plant-based proteins, which are important for
growth and repair of body tissues. The protein content of cereals can vary depending
on the type of grain, with some, such as wheat and quinoa, being higher in protein
than others.
Fiber: Cereals are rich in dietary fiber, which helps to promote healthy digestion and
prevent chronic diseases. The fiber content of cereals is highest in the bran and
germ.
Vitamins: Cereals are a good source of B-vitamins, which are important for energy
metabolism and nervous system function. They also contain vitamin E, which is an
antioxidant that helps to protect cells from damage.
Minerals: Cereals are a good source of minerals, such as iron, magnesium, zinc, and
phosphorus, which are important for the development and maintenance of bones,
teeth, and other tissues.
The composition of cereals may vary depending on how they are processed, with
refined grains containing less fiber, vitamins, and minerals than whole grains. It's
important to choose whole grain cereals to get the most nutrients and health
benefits.
Functional Properties of Cereals:
Cereals have a range of functional properties that make them important ingredients
in food processing and preparation. The functional properties of cereals can be
described as follows:
Water absorption: Cereals are able to absorb and retain water, which is important for
the texture and moisture of baked goods and other foods.
Viscosity: Cereals can increase the viscosity or thickness of liquids, which can be
useful in the preparation of sauces, gravies, and other products.

Gelatinization: Cereals can undergo gelatinization when heated in water, which is
important for the production of products such as breads, cakes, and pastries.
Binding: Cereals can act as binders, helping to hold ingredients together in products
such as meat analogs, protein bars, and energy balls.
Emulsification: Cereals can act as emulsifiers, helping to mix water and oil-based
ingredients together in products such as salad dressings, mayonnaise, and sauces.
Fermentation: Cereals can be used as a source of fermentable carbohydrates, which

can be used to produce fermented products such as beer, bread, and yogurt.
Texturization: Cereals can be processed to create a range of textures, such as flakes,

grits, and puffed cereals, which can be used in a variety of products.
The functional properties of cereals are important in food processing and

preparation and can be used to create a wide range of products with unique textures,
flavors, and nutritional profiles.
Millets:
Millets are a group of small-seeded grains or cereals that are widely grown and
consumed in many parts of the world, particularly in Asia and Africa. They are
considered to be hardy, drought-resistant crops that can thrive in a variety of growing
conditions, making them an important food source in regions with marginal or arid
land.
There are several different types of millets, including pearl millet, foxtail millet, finger
millet, proso millet, and barnyard millet, among others. These grains are often used
in a variety of food products, including flatbreads, porridges, and snacks. They are
also used as a feed for livestock and as a raw material for industrial products such
as biofuels.
Millets are valued for their nutritional qualities, as they are high in protein, fiber, and
micronutrients such as iron and zinc. They are also considered to be gluten-free,
making them a good alternative for people with celiac disease or gluten sensitivity.
Millets have gained popularity in recent years as a health food, and they are
increasingly being used in a variety of products such as breakfast cereals, baked
goods, and snacks.

Structure of Millets:
The structure of millets is similar to that of other cereal grains, such as wheat, rice,
and corn. The millet grain has four main parts:
Seed coat or hull: The outermost layer of the millet grain is called the seed coat or
hull. It is thin, light, and often slightly yellow or tan in color. The seed coat protects
the inner parts of the grain from environmental damage, insects, and
microorganisms.
Bran: The bran is the next layer and is located beneath the seed coat. It is rich in
fiber, vitamins, and minerals, and gives the millet its brown color. The bran layer is
removed during processing to produce refined millet flour or grain.
Endosperm: The endosperm is the largest part of the grain and contains the majority
of the starch and protein. It provides energy and nutrition to the growing embryo. The
endosperm is white in color and can be milled to produce refined millet flour or left
intact to produce whole millet grain.
Germ: The germ is the innermost part of the grain and contains healthy fats,
vitamins, and minerals. It is the reproductive part of the grain and can sprout into a
new plant. The germ is small and often yellow in color. It is also removed during
processing to produce refined millet flour or grain.
The structure of millets can vary depending on the type of millet. For example, pearl
millet has a larger seed size and thicker bran layer compared to other millets.
However, the basic structure of the millet grain remains the same. It's important to
note that whole grain millets contain all four parts of the grain and are more
nutritious than refined millet products that have had the bran and germ removed

Composition of Millets:
The composition of millets can vary slightly depending on the type of millet, growing
conditions, and processing methods. However, millets are generally considered to be
highly nutritious and are an excellent source of several essential nutrients. Here is a
detailed composition of millets:
Carbohydrates: Millets are primarily composed of carbohydrates, with starch being

the main type of carbohydrate. They also contain small amounts of sugars and
dietary fiber.
Proteins: Millets are a good source of plant-based proteins. The protein content can
range from 6% to 18%, depending on the type of millet. Millets are considered to be a
complete protein source, as they contain all essential amino acids.
Fats: Millets are low in fat, with most varieties containing less than 5% fat. However,
the fat content can be higher in some types of millets, such as foxtail millet and
finger millet, which contain healthy fats, including essential fatty acids.
Vitamins: Millets are a good source of several vitamins, including thiamin (B1),
riboflavin (B2), niacin (B3), folate (B9), and vitamin E. Finger millet is particularly high
in thiamin and riboflavin.
Minerals: Millets are a rich source of several minerals, including calcium, iron,
magnesium, phosphorus, potassium, and zinc. Pearl millet is particularly high in iron,
while finger millet is high in calcium.
Antioxidants: Millets contain several antioxidant compounds, including phenolic

acids, flavonoids, and tannins. These compounds have been shown to have various
health benefits, including reducing the risk of chronic diseases.
Overall, millets are highly nutritious and provide a good balance of macronutrients,
micronutrients, and antioxidants. They are also considered to be gluten-free, making
them a good alternative for people with celiac disease or gluten sensitivity.
Functional Properties of Millets:
Millets have several functional properties that make them useful in various food
applications. Some of these functional properties include:

Water-holding capacity: Millets have high water-holding capacity, which makes them
useful in the production of baked goods and other food products that require
moisture retention.
Viscosity: Millets have a high viscosity, which is useful in the production of foods
that require thickening, such as soups, stews, and gravies.
Gelatinization: Millets have the ability to gelatinize when heated in water, which
makes them useful in the production of foods that require gelling, such as puddings
and custards.
Emulsification: Millets have the ability to form emulsions, which is useful in the
production of salad dressings, mayonnaise, and other emulsified food products.
Foaming: Millets can be used to create foams in food products, such as meringues,
soufflés, and whipped toppings.
Binding: Millets can be used as a binding agent in food products, such as meat and
vegetable patties.
Textural properties: Millets have a unique texture that can add variety to food
products. For example, millet grains can be used to add crunchiness to granola bars
or to provide a chewy texture to baked goods.
These functional properties make millets a versatile ingredient in various food

applications. Millets are being increasingly used in the food industry to create
healthy and nutritious products that are also delicious and appealing to consumers.
Pectin:
Pectin is a complex carbohydrate and a soluble dietary fiber found in the cell walls of
many fruits and vegetables, such as apples, citrus fruits, berries, carrots, and
potatoes. It is a heteropolysaccharide, meaning it is composed of different types of
sugars (primarily galacturonic acid) and their derivatives linked together in long
chains.
Pectin is best known for its ability to gel and thicken solutions. When pectin is mixed
with sugar and heated in the presence of acid, it forms a gel that is commonly used
in the production of jams, jellies, and other fruit spreads. Pectin is also used in the
food industry as a thickener, stabilizer, and emulsifier. It is often added to processed
foods, such as yogurt, sauces, and baked goods, to improve texture and shelf life.

In addition to its functional properties in food, pectin has health benefits as a dietary
fiber. It can help lower cholesterol levels, improve digestion, and promote feelings of
fullness. Pectin is often used in dietary supplements and as an ingredient in
functional foods and beverages.
Functional Role in Food Products:
Pectin has several functional roles in food products, which make it a popular
ingredient in the food industry. Some of the functional roles of pectin in food
products are:
Gelling agent: Pectin is used as a gelling agent in the production of jams, jellies, and
other fruit spreads. When pectin is heated with sugar and acid, it forms a gel that
thickens and sets the fruit mixture.
Thickener: Pectin is used as a thickener in many food products, such as yogurts,

sauces, and dressings. It adds viscosity and improves texture.
Stabilizer: Pectin is used as a stabilizer in many food products, such as ice cream
and pudding. It helps to prevent syneresis (separation of liquid from a gel or
semi-solid) and maintain product consistency.
Emulsifier: Pectin is used as an emulsifier in many food products, such as

mayonnaise and salad dressings. It helps to stabilize the emulsion by preventing
separation of the oil and water.
Fat replacer: Pectin can be used as a fat replacer in many food products, such as
baked goods and dairy products. It adds bulk and texture without adding calories.
Dietary fiber: Pectin is a soluble dietary fiber that can help promote digestion and
improve gut health. It is often added to functional foods and beverages for its health
benefits.
These functional roles make pectin a versatile ingredient in the food industry, and it
is used in a wide range of food products. The amount and type of pectin used in a
food product can impact the final product's texture, stability, and shelf life.

Pectin Application's:
Pectin has a wide range of applications in the food industry due to its unique
functional properties. Some common applications of pectin are:
Jams and jellies: Pectin is used as a gelling agent in the production of jams and
jellies. It is often combined with sugar and acid to create a gel that thickens and sets
the fruit mixture.
Fruit spreads: Pectin is used in the production of fruit spreads, such as marmalade
and fruit butter. It provides a smooth texture and helps to prevent separation of the
liquid and fruit solids.
Yogurts and dairy products: Pectin is used as a thickener and stabilizer in many
dairy products, such as yogurts, sour cream, and cream cheese. It helps to improve
the texture and stability of these products.
Beverages: Pectin is used as a thickener and emulsifier in many beverages, such as

fruit juices and smoothies. It helps to create a smooth and uniform texture.
Confectionery: Pectin is used in the production of confectionery, such as gummy

candies and marshmallows. It provides a smooth and chewy texture.
Bakery: Pectin is used as a fat replacer and thickener in many bakery products, such
as cakes and muffins. It helps to improve the texture and reduce calories.
Meat products: Pectin is used as a binder and emulsifier in many meat products,
such as sausages and meatballs. It helps to improve the texture and stability of
these products.
These are some of the common applications of pectin in the food industry. The type
and amount of pectin used in a food product can impact its texture, stability, and
shelf life. Pectin can be used alone or in combination with other ingredients to
achieve the desired functional properties.
Gums:
Gums are complex carbohydrates and hydrocolloids that are widely used in the food
industry as thickeners, stabilizers, emulsifiers, and gelling agents. They are typically

extracted from natural sources, such as plants, seeds, and microbial fermentation,
and are often added to processed foods to improve texture and stability.
Gums are composed of long chains of sugar molecules that are hydrophilic, meaning
they attract water. When added to a food product, gums can absorb water and form
a gel or a viscous solution, which can help to improve the product's texture, stability,
and mouthfeel.
Some common examples of gums used in the food industry include guar gum,
xanthan gum, carrageenan, and gum arabic. Each type of gum has its unique
properties and applications, and the choice of gum depends on the specific
functional requirements of the food product.
Functional Role in Food Products:
Gums are widely used in the food industry due to their unique functional properties.
They can serve a variety of roles, including:
Thickening: Gums can be used to increase the viscosity of a food product, making it
thicker and creamier. They can improve the texture of products such as salad
dressings, sauces, and gravies.
Stabilizing: Gums can help to stabilize emulsions, suspensions, and foams. They
can prevent the separation of ingredients that would naturally settle, such as in salad
dressings or chocolate milk.
Gelling: Some gums can form gels when combined with water. This makes them
useful as gelling agents in products such as jams, jellies, and fruit snacks.
Fat replacement: Gums can be used as a replacement for some of the fat in food
products, reducing calories without compromising texture or flavor.
Moisture retention: Some gums have the ability to hold onto water, which can help to
keep food products moist and fresh for longer. This is particularly useful in baked
goods.
Texture modification: Gums can modify the texture of a food product, such as
making it more chewy or crunchy. This is useful in products such as confectionery or
baked goods.

Shelf-life extension: Gums can help to extend the shelf life of food products by
preventing spoilage and maintaining quality.
The specific functional role of a gum in a food product depends on the type of gum
used, the amount used, and the other ingredients in the product. By selecting the
right gum for the desired functional properties, food manufacturers can improve the
quality, texture, and shelf life of their products.
Gums Application's:
Gums have a wide range of applications in the food industry, including:
Dairy products: Gums are often used in dairy products such as yogurts, ice creams,
and cheeses to improve texture and prevent separation of the liquid and solid
components.
Beverages: Gums can be used in beverages such as juices, sports drinks, and energy
drinks to improve mouthfeel, stability, and suspension of added ingredients.
Confectionery: Gums are used in many confectionery products such as gummies,

licorice, and marshmallows to improve texture and stability.
Bakery: Gums are used in bakery products such as cakes, bread, and pastries to
improve texture, shelf life, and moisture retention.
Meat products: Gums are used in meat products such as sausages, burgers, and deli
meats as binders and stabilizers, to improve texture and prevent fat separation.
Sauces and dressings: Gums are used in sauces and dressings such as ketchup,
mayonnaise, and salad dressings as thickeners and stabilizers.
Fruit spreads: Gums are used in fruit spreads such as jams and jellies as gelling
agents.
Nutrition bars: Gums are used in nutrition bars to improve texture, stability, and shelf
life.
Gluten-free products: Gums are often used in gluten-free products such as bread,
pasta, and baked goods to provide structure and texture in the absence of gluten.

These are just a few examples of the many applications of gums in the food industry.
Gums can provide a variety of functional benefits to food products and are often
preferred over other additives due to their natural origin and low toxicity.
Dectic Fibre:
Dietary fiber, also known as roughage or bulk, refers to the indigestible portion of
plant foods. It is a type of carbohydrate that is not broken down by digestive
enzymes in the human body, and so it passes through the digestive system largely
intact.
Dietary fiber can be divided into two main types: soluble fiber, which dissolves in
water, and insoluble fiber, which does not. Soluble fiber can help to lower cholesterol
levels and regulate blood sugar, while insoluble fiber can promote regularity and
prevent constipation.
Dietary fiber is found in a variety of foods, including fruits, vegetables, whole grains,
nuts, seeds, and legumes. It is an important component of a healthy diet and is
associated with a range of health benefits, such as reducing the risk of heart
disease, stroke, and certain types of cancer. The recommended daily intake of
dietary fiber varies depending on age, gender, and other factors, but most health
organizations suggest consuming between 25 and 38 grams per day.
Its Role in nutrition:
Dietary fiber plays an important role in nutrition and is associated with several health
benefits. Here are some of the key roles that dietary fiber plays in nutrition:
Promoting digestive health: Dietary fiber adds bulk to the stool and helps to promote
regularity, prevent constipation, and reduce the risk of digestive disorders such as
hemorrhoids, diverticulitis, and inflammatory bowel disease.
Reducing the risk of chronic diseases: A high intake of dietary fiber is associated
with a reduced risk of chronic diseases such as heart disease, stroke, type 2
diabetes, and certain types of cancer.
Managing blood sugar and cholesterol levels: Soluble fiber can help to regulate
blood sugar levels by slowing the absorption of glucose into the bloodstream. It can

also help to lower cholesterol levels by binding to cholesterol in the digestive tract
and preventing it from being absorbed into the bloodstream.
Providing satiety: Foods high in dietary fiber can help to promote feelings of fullness
and satiety, which can be helpful for weight management.
Supporting gut microbiota: Certain types of dietary fiber can be fermented by

bacteria in the large intestine, producing short-chain fatty acids that can provide
energy for the cells lining the colon and support the growth of beneficial bacteria in
the gut.
Overall, a diet rich in dietary fiber can have many positive effects on health and is an
important component of a balanced and healthy diet.
Pulses:
Pulses are a type of edible seed that grows in a pod. They are also commonly
referred to as legumes and include a wide variety of plants, such as chickpeas,
lentils, beans, and peas. Pulses are an important source of plant-based protein, fiber,
vitamins, and minerals, and are a staple food in many cultures around the world.
They are also known for their versatility and can be used in a wide variety of dishes,
including soups, stews, salads, and curries.
Composition of Pulses:
Pulses are a rich source of nutrients and contain a variety of macronutrients and
micronutrients that are important for health. Here are some of the key components
of pulses:
Protein: Pulses are an excellent source of plant-based protein, with most varieties
containing between 20% and 30% protein by weight.
Carbohydrates: Pulses are a good source of complex carbohydrates, which are

slowly digested and can help to regulate blood sugar levels.
Fiber: Pulses are a rich source of dietary fiber, including both soluble and insoluble
fiber. This can help to promote feelings of fullness, regulate digestion, and support
gut health.

Vitamins: Pulses are a good source of a variety of vitamins, including folate,
thiamine, and vitamin B6.
Minerals: Pulses are also a good source of several important minerals, such as iron,
potassium, magnesium, and zinc.
In addition to these macronutrients and micronutrients, pulses are also relatively low
in fat and are a good source of antioxidants and other bioactive compounds that can
have positive effects on health.
Anti-nutritional factors of Pulses:
Pulses are a rich source of nutrients, but they also contain some anti-nutritional
factors that can reduce the bioavailability of these nutrients in the human body. Here
are some of the common anti-nutritional factors found in pulses:
Phytic acid: Pulses contain high levels of phytic acid, which can bind to minerals
such as iron, calcium, and zinc, reducing their bioavailability and interfering with their
absorption.
Protease inhibitors: These compounds can interfere with protein digestion by

inhibiting the activity of digestive enzymes in the gut.
Lectins: These compounds can interfere with nutrient absorption and may cause
digestive upset in some people.
Oligosaccharides: These are complex carbohydrates that are difficult for the body to
digest, leading to bloating and flatulence.
Tannins: These compounds can interfere with protein digestion and reduce the
bioavailability of certain minerals.
While these anti-nutritional factors can reduce the bioavailability of some nutrients in
pulses, they can be reduced by various methods, including soaking, sprouting, and
cooking. For example, soaking and sprouting can help to reduce phytic acid levels,
while cooking can help to reduce the levels of protease inhibitors and lectins.
Effect of cooking Pulses:
Cooking pulses can have several effects, including:

Improved digestibility: Cooking helps to break down complex carbohydrates and
other compounds that can be difficult for our bodies to digest.
Increased nutrient availability: Cooking can make certain nutrients, such as protein
and minerals, more easily absorbed by the body.
Softening and tenderizing: Cooking can soften and tenderize the texture of pulses,
making them more palatable and easier to chew.
Reduction of anti-nutrients: Cooking can reduce the levels of anti-nutrients such as

phytic acid and lectins that can interfere with nutrient absorption.
Loss of some nutrients: Cooking can lead to the loss of some heat-sensitive
nutrients, such as vitamin C and some B vitamins. However, the overall nutrient
content of cooked pulses is still high.
Legumes:
Legumes are a family of plants that produce edible seeds, which are commonly
referred to as pulses. Legumes include a wide variety of plants such as beans, lentils,
chickpeas, peas, and peanuts. Legumes are a rich source of protein, dietary fiber,
vitamins, and minerals, and are often used as a meat substitute in vegetarian and
vegan diets. They are also an important crop for farmers around the world and play a
key role in sustainable agriculture and food security.
Composition of Legumes:
Legumes are a nutrient-rich food and are an excellent source of several key nutrients
including:
Protein: Legumes are a good source of plant-based protein, with most varieties
containing around 20-25% protein.
Carbohydrates: Legumes are a rich source of carbohydrates, including both simple

and complex carbs.
Fiber: Legumes are high in dietary fiber, both soluble and insoluble, which is
beneficial for digestive health and helps to reduce cholesterol levels.
Vitamins: Legumes are a good source of several vitamins, particularly B vitamins

such as folate and thiamine, as well as vitamin K.

Minerals: Legumes are a rich source of several minerals, including iron, magnesium,
phosphorus, and potassium.
Phytonutrients: Legumes contain a variety of beneficial plant compounds, including

flavonoids and phenolic acids, which have antioxidant and anti-inflammatory
properties.
The nutrient content of legumes can vary depending on the specific variety and how
they are prepared.
Anti-nutritional factors of Legumes:
Legumes can contain several anti-nutritional factors that can reduce their nutrient
availability and potentially have negative effects on human health. These
anti-nutritional factors include:
Phytic acid: Legumes contain phytic acid, which can bind to minerals such as iron,
calcium, and zinc, making them less available for absorption.
Lectins: Some legumes contain lectins, which can interfere with the absorption of
nutrients and cause digestive issues in some people.
Protease inhibitors: Legumes contain protease inhibitors, which can reduce the
absorption of protein and interfere with digestion.
Oligosaccharides: Legumes contain oligosaccharides, which can cause gas and

bloating in some people.
Tannins: Some legumes contain tannins, which can reduce the digestibility of protein
and carbohydrates.
These anti-nutritional factors can be reduced or eliminated by various methods,

including soaking, sprouting, and cooking. Proper preparation and cooking of
legumes can increase their nutrient availability and reduce the negative effects of
anti-nutritional factors.
Effect of cooking Legumes:
Cooking legumes has several beneficial effects on their nutritional content and
digestibility, including:

Increased protein digestibility: Cooking legumes breaks down complex proteins into
more easily digestible forms, making their protein content more available for
absorption by the body.
Increased mineral bioavailability: Cooking legumes can break down anti-nutrients

such as phytic acid, making minerals like iron and zinc more available for absorption.
Increased starch digestibility: Cooking legumes can improve the digestibility of their
starch content, making them a more efficient source of energy.
Reduction of anti-nutrients: Cooking legumes can reduce the levels of anti-nutrients

such as lectins, protease inhibitors, and tannins, which can interfere with nutrient
absorption and digestion.
Improved palatability: Cooking can soften the texture of legumes, making them
easier to chew and swallow, and can also enhance their flavor and aroma.
It's worth noting that overcooking can lead to nutrient loss, so it's important to cook
legumes just until they are tender and not to overcook them. Proper preparation and
cooking of legumes can maximize their nutritional benefits and improve their
digestibility.
Pulses toxic constituents:
Pulses can contain various toxic constituents that can have negative effects on
human health if consumed in large amounts. These toxic constituents include:
Lectins: Lectins are proteins that can bind to carbohydrates and are found in some
pulses, such as kidney beans and lima beans. In their raw state, they can be toxic
and cause digestive issues. However, lectins are usually inactivated by cooking.
Phytohaemagglutinin: Phytohaemagglutinin is a type of lectin found in red kidney

beans. It can cause nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea if consumed in high amounts. To
detoxify red kidney beans, they should be boiled for at least 10 minutes.
Lathyrogens: Lathyrogens are compounds found in some pulses, such as chickpeas

and grass pea, that can cause a condition called lathyrism if consumed in large

amounts. Lathyrism can cause muscle weakness and other symptoms. Soaking and
cooking chickpeas and grass pea can reduce the levels of lathyrogens.
Trypsin inhibitors: Trypsin inhibitors are compounds found in some pulses, including
soybeans. They can interfere with protein digestion and absorption. Soaking,
sprouting, and cooking can reduce the levels of trypsin inhibitors.
Flatulence-causing oligosaccharides: Some pulses, such as beans and lentils,

contain oligosaccharides that can cause gas and bloating in some people. These
oligosaccharides are not toxic but can be unpleasant. Soaking and cooking can
reduce the levels of oligosaccharides.
Cyanogenic glycosides: Some pulses, such as lima beans, can contain cyanogenic
glycosides, which can release cyanide when ingested in large amounts. Proper
cooking can detoxify the cyanogenic glycosides.
It's detoxification process:
Pulses can contain various toxic constituents that can have negative effects on
human health if consumed in large amounts. Detoxification of these toxic
constituents can be achieved through several methods, including soaking, sprouting,
and cooking.
Soaking: Soaking pulses in water overnight can help to reduce the levels of some
anti-nutrients, including lectins and oligosaccharides. To soak pulses, place them in
a large bowl or container, cover with water, and let them soak for at least 8 hours or
overnight. Drain the water and rinse the pulses before cooking.
Sprouting: Sprouting pulses involves allowing them to germinate, which can help to
reduce the levels of anti-nutrients and increase their nutrient content. To sprout
pulses, rinse them well and place them in a sprouting jar or other container. Add
water to cover the pulses and let them soak for 8-12 hours. Drain the water and rinse
the pulses twice a day for 2-4 days, until they have sprouted. The sprouted pulses
can be eaten raw or cooked.
Cooking: Cooking pulses, especially boiling, can help to inactivate or reduce the
levels of many toxic constituents, including lectins, trypsin inhibitors, and
lathyrogens. It's important to ensure that pulses are properly cooked to minimize the
levels of toxic constituents and maximize their nutritional benefits.

For example, red kidney beans contain high levels of phytohaemagglutinin, which can
cause nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea if consumed in high amounts. To detoxify red
kidney beans, they should be boiled for at least 10 minutes before cooking in order to
reduce the levels of phytohaemagglutinin.
Some pulses, such as chickpeas and grass pea, contain lathyrogens that can cause
muscle weakness and other symptoms if consumed in large amounts. Soaking and
cooking chickpeas and grass pea can reduce the levels of lathyrogens.
Cyanogenic glycosides, found in some pulses such as lima beans, can release
cyanide when ingested in large amounts. Proper cooking can detoxify the
cyanogenic glycosides.
In conclusion, soaking, sprouting, and cooking are effective methods for detoxifying
toxic constituents in pulses, and proper preparation and cooking can ensure that
pulses are safe to eat and provide maximum nutritional benefits.
Vegetables and Fruits:
Vegetables and fruits are two broad categories of edible plant-based foods that are
commonly consumed by humans for their nutritional value and health benefits.
Vegetables are typically the edible parts of plants, including leaves, stems, roots, and
bulbs. They are often consumed as savory dishes, either cooked or raw, and can be
prepared in a variety of ways such as roasting, steaming, or stir-frying. Common
examples of vegetables include broccoli, spinach, carrots, onions, and potatoes.
Fruits, on the other hand, are the mature ovaries of flowering plants, usually
containing seeds. They are typically sweet or sour in taste and can be consumed raw
or used in a variety of dishes such as desserts, jams, and smoothies. Common
examples of fruits include apples, bananas, oranges, strawberries, and grapes.
In botanical terms, the distinction between fruits and vegetables can be more
complex and may depend on factors such as the plant's reproductive structure and
the development of its seeds. However, in everyday language, the terms "fruits" and
"vegetables" are typically used to refer to different types of plant-based foods that
are consumed for their nutritional value and culinary versatility.

Classification of Vegetables and Fruits:
Vegetables and fruits can be classified in various ways based on different factors
such as their botanical structure, culinary use, nutrient content, and cultural
significance. Here are some common ways in which vegetables and fruits can be
classified:
Classification of Vegetables:
Root vegetables: These are vegetables that grow underground and have a thick,
fleshy root. Examples include carrots, beets, sweet potatoes, and radishes.
Leafy vegetables: These are vegetables that have edible leaves and are often used in
salads or cooked dishes. Examples include lettuce, spinach, kale, and collard greens.
Stem vegetables: These are vegetables that have an edible stem or stalk. Examples
include asparagus, celery, and rhubarb.
Cruciferous vegetables: These are vegetables that belong to the Brassicaceae family
and have a cross-shaped flower. Examples include broccoli, cauliflower, cabbage,
and Brussels sprouts.
Allium vegetables: These are vegetables that belong to the Allium genus and have a
pungent aroma and flavor. Examples include onions, garlic, and shallots.
Gourd vegetables: These are vegetables that have a hard, thick outer shell and soft,
edible flesh inside. Examples include pumpkin, squash, and zucchini.
Classification of Fruits:
Berry fruits: These are fruits that have a soft, fleshy exterior and small seeds.
Examples include strawberries, blueberries, and raspberries.
Citrus fruits: These are fruits that have a sour or tangy taste and are high in vitamin
C. Examples include oranges, lemons, limes, and grapefruits.
Stone fruits: These are fruits that have a large, hard seed or pit in the center.
Examples include peaches, plums, and cherries.
Tropical fruits: These are fruits that are native to tropical regions and have a sweet,
exotic flavor. Examples include bananas, mangoes, and pineapples.
Pome fruits: These are fruits that have a central core containing seeds and are
surrounded by a fleshy, edible layer. Examples include apples, pears, and quinces.
Melons: These are fruits that have a juicy, sweet flesh and a hard rind. Examples
include watermelons, cantaloupes, and honeydew melons.
It's important to note that some vegetables, such as tomatoes and avocados, are
botanically classified as fruits but are often treated as vegetables in culinary
contexts. The classification of vegetables and fruits can vary depending on the

source and context, but these broad categories provide a useful framework for
understanding and categorizing different types of plant-based foods.
Composition of Vegetables and Fruits:
Vegetables and fruits are important sources of vitamins, minerals, fiber, and other
beneficial compounds. Here is a general overview of the composition of vegetables
and fruits:
Composition of Vegetables:
Water: Most vegetables have a high water content, ranging from 80-95%.
Carbohydrates: Vegetables are generally low in carbohydrates, with the exception of
starchy vegetables such as potatoes and corn.
Fiber: Vegetables are a good source of dietary fiber, which can help support digestive
health and lower the risk of chronic diseases.
Vitamins: Vegetables are rich in vitamins, especially vitamin C, vitamin A, and folate.
Dark leafy greens such as spinach and kale are also good sources of vitamin K.
Minerals: Vegetables are a good source of minerals such as potassium, magnesium,
and calcium.
Phytochemicals: Many vegetables contain beneficial compounds such as
carotenoids, flavonoids, and glucosinolates, which have antioxidant and
anti-inflammatory properties.
Composition of Fruits:
Water: Like vegetables, most fruits have a high water content, ranging from 80-95%.
Carbohydrates: Fruits are a good source of natural sugars such as fructose and
glucose, as well as dietary fiber.
Vitamins: Fruits are a rich source of vitamins, especially vitamin C and vitamin A.
Some fruits, such as citrus fruits and berries, are also high in vitamin K and vitamin
E.
Minerals: Fruits are a good source of minerals such as potassium, magnesium, and
calcium.
Phytochemicals: Many fruits contain beneficial compounds such as carotenoids,
flavonoids, and anthocyanins, which have antioxidant and anti-inflammatory
properties.
It's important to note that the nutrient content of vegetables and fruits can vary
depending on factors such as the variety, ripeness, and cooking method. However,

including a variety of colorful vegetables and fruits in your diet can help provide a
range of nutrients and health benefits.
Pigments in Vegetables and Fruits:
The pigments of vegetables and fruits are responsible for their characteristic colors
and can also provide a range of health benefits. Here are some common pigments
found in vegetables and fruits:
Carotenoids: These are orange, red, and yellow pigments found in many fruits and
vegetables, such as carrots, sweet potatoes, tomatoes, and peppers. Carotenoids are
antioxidants that can help protect against damage from free radicals and support
eye health.
Chlorophyll: This green pigment is found in leafy green vegetables such as spinach,
kale, and broccoli. Chlorophyll is a good source of vitamins and antioxidants, and has
been shown to have anti-inflammatory and anti-cancer properties.
Anthocyanins: These are red, purple, and blue pigments found in fruits and
vegetables such as blueberries, grapes, and red cabbage. Anthocyanins are
antioxidants that can help protect against inflammation and support heart health.
Betalains: These are red and yellow pigments found in beets and cactus fruit.
Betalains have been shown to have anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties,
and may also support liver and kidney health.
Flavonoids: These are a diverse group of pigments found in many fruits and
vegetables, including citrus fruits, berries, and apples. Flavonoids are antioxidants
that can help protect against chronic diseases such as cancer and heart disease.
Consuming a variety of colorful fruits and vegetables can help ensure that you are
getting a range of beneficial pigments in your diet.
Flavor constituents of Vegetables and Fruits:
The flavor of vegetables and fruits is determined by a combination of taste, aroma,

and texture. The taste of fruits and vegetables is primarily determined by their sugar,
acid, and salt content. Here are some key flavor constituents found in vegetables and
fruits:

Sugars: Many fruits and some vegetables contain natural sugars, such as fructose
and glucose, that contribute to their sweetness. For example, apples and pears
contain a high amount of fructose, while carrots and beets contain more glucose.
Acids: The acidity of fruits and vegetables can vary depending on the type of acid
present. For example, citrus fruits are high in citric acid, while tomatoes and rhubarb
contain malic acid. Acids can help balance the sweetness of fruits and add a sour or
tart flavor.
Aromatic compounds: Many fruits and vegetables contain volatile compounds that
contribute to their characteristic aroma. For example, strawberries contain esters
that give them a fruity scent, while onions contain sulfur compounds that give them
a pungent smell.
Bitter compounds: Some vegetables, such as leafy greens and cruciferous

vegetables like broccoli and kale, can have a bitter taste. Bitter compounds are
thought to have a range of health benefits, such as supporting digestion and liver
function.
Umami compounds: Umami is a savory taste that is often associated with meat, but
is also present in some vegetables, such as mushrooms and tomatoes. Umami is
thought to enhance the overall flavor of dishes and can help balance other flavors.
The specific flavor constituents in fruits and vegetables can vary widely depending
on the type of plant and the growing conditions. Cooking and processing methods
can also affect the flavor of fruits and vegetables.
Cooking effect of vegetables and fruits
Cooking can have a significant effect on the texture, flavor, and nutritional content of
vegetables and fruits. Here are some ways in which cooking can impact these
factors:
Texture: Cooking can soften vegetables and fruits, making them easier to chew and
digest. However, overcooking can cause vegetables to become mushy and lose their
texture.
Flavor: Cooking can enhance or change the flavor of vegetables and fruits by
breaking down cell walls and releasing flavors. For example, roasting vegetables can
bring out their natural sweetness, while boiling can cause some vegetables to
become bland.

Nutritional content: Some vitamins and minerals in vegetables and fruits are
sensitive to heat and can be destroyed during cooking. For example, vitamin C is a
heat-sensitive vitamin that can be lost during cooking. However, cooking can also
increase the bioavailability of some nutrients, making them easier for the body to
absorb. For example, cooking tomatoes can increase the availability of lycopene, an
antioxidant that may have health benefits.
Antinutrients: Cooking can help reduce the levels of antinutrients in vegetables and
fruits, making them easier to digest and absorb. For example, cooking can help
reduce the levels of phytic acid in legumes and grains, which can interfere with the
absorption of some nutrients.
The specific effects of cooking on vegetables and fruits can vary depending on the
type of plant, cooking method, and duration of cooking. In general, steaming,
stir-frying, and roasting are considered to be some of the best cooking methods for
preserving the flavor and nutritional content of vegetables and fruits.
Browning Reactions in Vegetables and Fruits:
Browning reactions in vegetables and fruits occur when enzymes and compounds in
the plant tissue are exposed to air or heat, leading to changes in color, flavor, and
texture. The two main types of browning reactions that occur in vegetables and fruits
are enzymatic browning and non-enzymatic browning.
Enzymatic browning: This type of browning occurs when enzymes in the plant tissue
called polyphenol oxidases (PPOs) come into contact with oxygen in the air. This can
happen when vegetables and fruits are cut or bruised. Enzymatic browning causes
the formation of brown pigments, such as melanins, that can change the color and
flavor of the produce. Some vegetables and fruits, such as potatoes and apples,
contain high levels of PPOs and are particularly susceptible to enzymatic browning.
Non-enzymatic browning: This type of browning occurs when sugars and amino
acids in the plant tissue react with heat. This can happen during cooking, such as
when vegetables are roasted or sautéed. Non-enzymatic browning can cause the
formation of a range of flavor and aroma compounds, including caramel-like flavors
and aromas. This type of browning is also responsible for the crust that forms on
baked goods like bread and pastries.
Browning reactions can have both positive and negative effects on the flavor and
nutritional content of vegetables and fruits. For example, enzymatic browning can

cause produce to become unappetizing and can lead to the loss of certain vitamins
and antioxidants. However, non-enzymatic browning can help enhance the flavor and
aroma of vegetables and fruits, making them more appealing to eat. Some cooking
methods, such as blanching and acid treatment, can help reduce enzymatic
browning in vegetables and fruits.
Nuts:
Nuts are a type of edible seed or fruit with a hard, indehiscent shell surrounding the
kernel or meat inside. They are a nutritious food source and are rich in healthy fats,
protein, fiber, vitamins, and minerals. Common types of nuts include almonds,
cashews, walnuts, pistachios, pecans, macadamia nuts, and hazelnuts. Nuts can be
eaten raw or roasted and salted, and are often used in cooking and baking to add
flavor and texture to a wide variety of dishes. Due to their nutritional benefits, nuts
are often recommended as part of a healthy diet, but they are also high in calories, so
it's important to eat them in moderation as part of a balanced diet.
Classification of Nuts:
Nuts can be classified into different types based on their botanical origin and
characteristics. Here are some common ways to classify nuts:
Tree nuts: These are nuts that grow on trees and have a hard shell that needs to be
cracked open to access the kernel inside. Examples of tree nuts include almonds,
cashews, walnuts, hazelnuts, pecans, macadamia nuts, and Brazil nuts.
Peanuts: Although technically not a nut, peanuts are often grouped with nuts due to
their similar nutritional profile and culinary uses. Peanuts are a type of legume and
grow underground in pods.
Seeds: Some edible seeds, such as sunflower seeds, pumpkin seeds, and sesame
seeds, are often included in the category of nuts due to their similar nutritional profile
and culinary uses.
Tropical nuts: These are nuts that are native to tropical regions and include coconut,
palm nuts, and kola nuts.
Nut-like drupes: Some fruits, such as almonds and walnuts, are not true nuts but are
classified as drupes because they have a fleshy outer layer that surrounds a hard
shell enclosing the seed.

Different classification systems may group nuts differently, but these are some
common ways of categorizing them.
Composition of Nuts:
Nuts are a nutrient-dense food source, providing a range of vitamins, minerals, and
other beneficial compounds. The exact nutrient profile can vary between different
types of nuts, but in general, they are a good source of:
● Healthy fats: Nuts are high in unsaturated fats, particularly monounsaturated

and polyunsaturated fatty acids, which can help improve cholesterol levels
and lower the risk of heart disease.
● Protein: Nuts are a good source of plant-based protein, which can help
promote satiety and support muscle growth and repair.
● Fiber: Nuts are high in fiber, which can help regulate digestion and promote
feelings of fullness.
● Vitamins and minerals: Nuts are a good source of vitamins and minerals,
such as vitamin E, magnesium, and selenium, which are important for overall
health.
● Antioxidants: Many nuts are rich in antioxidants, such as flavonoids and
phenolic compounds, which can help protect against oxidative damage and
inflammation.
Here is a general breakdown of the nutrient composition of some common nuts (per
1-ounce serving):
Almonds: 6 grams of protein, 14 grams of fat, 3.5 grams of fiber, and a range of
vitamins and minerals, including vitamin E, magnesium, and calcium.
Cashews: 5 grams of protein, 12 grams of fat, 1 gram of fiber, and a range of

vitamins and minerals, including copper and zinc.
Walnuts: 4 grams of protein, 18 grams of fat, 2 grams of fiber, and a range of

vitamins and minerals, including omega-3 fatty acids, vitamin E, and magnesium.
Pecans: 3 grams of protein, 20 grams of fat, 3 grams of fiber, and a range of vitamins
and minerals, including vitamin E, zinc, and manganese.
Pistachios: 6 grams of protein, 12 grams of fat, 3 grams of fiber, and a range of

vitamins and minerals, including vitamin B6 and potassium.

Peanuts: 7 grams of protein, 14 grams of fat, 3 grams of fiber, and a range of
vitamins and minerals, including vitamin E, niacin, and magnesium.
Keep in mind that nuts are also high in calories, so it's important to eat them in
moderation as part of a balanced diet.
Functional Properties of Nuts:
Nuts have a variety of functional properties that make them useful in food
applications. Here are some of the key functional properties of nuts:
Textural properties: Nuts can add a range of textures to foods, including

crunchiness, creaminess, and chewiness. They can also help improve the texture of
gluten-free products by providing structure and moisture.
Flavor properties: Nuts have a distinctive flavor profile that can add depth and
complexity to foods. They can be used to add nutty, earthy, or sweet flavors to a
range of products.
Nutritional properties: Nuts are a rich source of nutrients, including protein, healthy
fats, fiber, and vitamins and minerals. They can be used to boost the nutritional
profile of a range of products.
Emulsifying properties: Nuts contain natural emulsifiers, such as lecithin, which can
help stabilize oil-in-water emulsions in food products, such as salad dressings and
nut butters.
Antioxidant properties: Many nuts are rich in antioxidants, which can help protect
against oxidative damage and inflammation. This can be particularly beneficial in
products that are prone to oxidation, such as oils and fats.
Allergenic properties: While not a positive functional property, it's worth noting that
nuts are a common food allergen. This means that their presence in a food product
can limit its marketability to individuals with nut allergies.
Overall, the functional properties of nuts make them a valuable ingredient in a range
of food products, from baked goods and confections to savory snacks and spreads.

Plantation crops:
Plantation crops are agricultural crops that are grown on large-scale estates or
plantations, typically for export purposes. These crops are typically grown in tropical
or subtropical regions and require extensive labor and capital inputs for their
production. Examples of plantation crops include coffee, tea, rubber, cocoa, bananas,
pineapples, and palm oil. These crops have historically been associated with
colonialism and slavery, and their production has been linked to social and
environmental issues such as deforestation, land grabbing, and labor exploitation.
However, many plantation crops remain important sources of income and
employment for rural communities in developing countries, and efforts are being
made to promote sustainable and equitable production practices in the industry.
Classification of Plantation crops:
Plantation crops can be classified in a number of ways based on their characteristics

and uses. Here are some common ways that plantation crops are classified:
Based on crop type: Plantation crops are often classified based on the type of crop
that is grown. Common plantation crops include coffee, tea, rubber, cocoa, bananas,
pineapples, and palm oil.
Based on end use: Plantation crops can also be classified based on their end use.
For example, some crops like rubber and palm oil are used primarily in industrial
applications, while others like coffee and tea are consumed as beverages.
Based on geography: Plantation crops can also be classified based on the

geographic region in which they are grown. For example, many tropical crops like
bananas, cocoa, and palm oil are grown in Latin America, Africa, and Southeast Asia.
Based on cultivation practices: Plantation crops can also be classified based on the
cultivation practices used to grow them. For example, some crops like coffee and tea
are grown on small-scale farms using traditional methods, while others like palm oil
are grown on large-scale plantations using mechanized and industrialized
techniques.
Overall, the classification of plantation crops can vary depending on the context and
purpose of the classification. However, these categories provide a useful framework
for understanding the characteristics and uses of different types of plantation crops.

Composition of Plantation crops:
The composition of plantation crops varies depending on the specific crop, growing
conditions, and other factors. Here are some general characteristics of common
plantation crops:
● Coffee: Coffee beans contain caffeine, a stimulant that can affect the nervous
system and increase alertness. They also contain antioxidants and other
compounds that may have health benefits.
● Tea: Tea leaves contain caffeine as well as other compounds, including
flavonoids and catechins, which are believed to have antioxidant and
anti-inflammatory properties.
● Rubber: Rubber latex, which is extracted from the bark of the rubber tree,
contains a complex mixture of proteins, lipids, carbohydrates, and minerals.
● Cocoa: Cocoa beans contain flavonoids and other compounds that may have
antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects. They are also a source of minerals
like magnesium and zinc.
● Bananas: Bananas are a good source of dietary fiber, vitamins B6 and C, and
minerals like potassium and manganese.
● Pineapples: Pineapples contain enzymes called bromelain, which can help to
break down proteins and aid in digestion. They are also a good source of
vitamin C and manganese.
● Palm oil: Palm oil is rich in saturated and unsaturated fats, as well as
antioxidants like vitamin E.
These are just a few examples of the composition of different plantation crops. The
specific composition of each crop can vary depending on factors like growing
conditions, processing methods, and other factors.
Functional Properties of Plantation crops:
Plantation crops possess a variety of functional properties that make them useful in
a range of applications. Here are some of the functional properties of common
plantation crops:
Coffee: Coffee is a stimulant that can increase alertness and concentration. It is also
used as a flavoring agent in a variety of food and beverage products.

Tea: Tea is also a stimulant that can increase mental alertness and concentration. It
is often consumed as a beverage and is used as a flavoring agent in a variety of food
and beverage products.
Rubber: Rubber has unique physical properties that make it useful in a range of
applications, including as a material for tires, rubber gloves, and other industrial
products.
Cocoa: Cocoa is used primarily as a flavoring agent in chocolate and other food and
beverage products. It also contains compounds like flavonoids that may have
antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects.
Bananas: Bananas are used primarily as a food source and are a good source of
vitamins and minerals like potassium, manganese, and vitamin B6.
Pineapples: Pineapples are also used primarily as a food source and are often
consumed fresh or used in cooking and baking. They also contain the enzyme
bromelain, which is used in some digestive supplements and topical skin care
products.
Palm oil: Palm oil is used primarily as a cooking oil and is also used in a range of
food and personal care products. It is a source of saturated and unsaturated fats as
well as antioxidants like vitamin E.
These are just a few examples of the functional properties of different plantation
crops. The specific functional properties of each crop can vary depending on factors
like the specific variety, growing conditions, and other factors.

UNIT 2 - Foods of Animal Origin
Milk
Milk is a nutritious liquid produced by the mammary glands of mammals, including

cows, goats, and sheep. It is a rich source of essential nutrients such as calcium,
vitamin D, and protein, and is commonly consumed as a beverage or used in cooking
and baking. Different types of milk are available, including whole milk, skim milk, and
various plant-based alternatives such as soy milk and almond milk. Milk can be
pasteurized to kill harmful bacteria and extend its shelf life, and it can also be
fortified with additional nutrients.
Composition of Milk
The composition of milk can vary slightly depending on the species of animal it
comes from, as well as factors such as diet and stage of lactation. However, in
general, cow's milk, which is the most commonly consumed type of milk, contains
the following components:
● Water (approximately 87%)

● Fat (3-4% in whole milk, but lower in skim milk)
● Protein (3-4%)
● Carbohydrates, primarily lactose (approximately 5%)
● Vitamins, including vitamin D, vitamin A, and B vitamins
● Minerals, including calcium, phosphorus, and potassium
Cow's milk also contains small amounts of other compounds, such as

enzymes, hormones, and immunoglobulins, which can have various effects on
health. Additionally, different types of milk, such as goat's milk or sheep's milk,
may have slightly different compositions
Kinds of milk:
● Whole milk: This is milk that has not had any of the fat removed. It has a
creamy taste and is often used in cooking and baking.

● Skim milk: Also known as fat-free milk, this milk has had all of the fat
removed. It is often preferred by people who are trying to limit their fat intake.
● Low-fat milk: This milk has had some of the fat removed, but not all of it. It
typically has around 1-2% fat content.
● Flavored milk: This is milk that has been flavored with things like chocolate,
strawberry, or vanilla. While it can be a tasty treat, flavored milk often contains
added sugars.
● Plant-based milk: Milk alternatives made from plants such as soy, almond,
coconut, and oat milk. These are popular among people who are vegan,
lactose intolerant, or have dairy allergies.
● Raw milk: Milk that has not been pasteurized, which means it hasn't been
heated to kill any bacteria. It's not legal to sell raw milk in some countries, as it
can pose health risks.
● Organic milk: This milk comes from cows that have been raised without
antibiotics or hormones, and have been fed organic feed
● Condensed milk: This is milk that has been heated to remove most of the
water content, resulting in a thick, sweet liquid. It is often used in baking and
making desserts.
● Evaporated milk: Similar to condensed milk, evaporated milk is milk that has
had most of its water content removed. However, it is not sweetened like
condensed milk.
● UHT milk: This stands for ultra-high temperature, which means the milk has
been heated to a very high temperature to kill bacteria and prolong its shelf
life. UHT milk can be stored at room temperature for several months.
● Goat milk: Milk that comes from goats instead of cows. It has a slightly tangy
taste and can be easier to digest for some people.
● Camel milk: Milk that comes from camels, which is a popular drink in some
parts of the world. It has a slightly salty taste and is said to be high in
nutrients.

● A2 milk: Milk that comes from cows that only produce the A2 protein, which
some people believe is easier to digest than the A1 protein found in most
cow's milk.
Functions Properties of Milk:
Milk is a complex fluid that contains various compounds with unique functional
properties. Here are some of the functional properties of milk:
Emulsification: Milk contains a protein called casein, which has the ability to
emulsify fat. This means that milk can be used to create stable emulsions, such as in
salad dressings or mayonnaise.
Foaming: Milk proteins also have the ability to form stable foams when they are
whipped or beaten. This is why milk is often used in making whipped cream or
meringue.
Thickening: The proteins in milk can also thicken liquids. When heated, milk proteins
denature and bond together, forming a thickened mixture. This is why milk is often
used in making custards and sauces.
Coagulation: Milk can also be coagulated or curdled by adding an acid such as

vinegar or lemon juice. This is the process used in making cheese and yogurt.
Nutrition: Milk is a rich source of nutrients, including calcium, protein, and vitamins D
and B12. These nutrients contribute to the growth and maintenance of bones,
muscles, and other tissues.
Flavor: Milk has a mild, slightly sweet flavor that can be used to enhance the taste of
other ingredients in recipes.
Binding: Milk proteins have the ability to bind together ingredients in a recipe, such
as in meatballs or meatloaf.
Browning: The lactose (sugar) in milk can help promote browning reactions, such as
in the crust of bread or in caramelized sugar.
Moisture: Milk contains a high amount of water, which can help keep baked goods
moist and tender.

pH regulation: Milk contains buffers that help regulate the pH of a recipe, which is
important in ensuring that the final product has the desired texture and flavor.
Preservation: Milk can be used as a preserving agent due to its acidity and
antimicrobial properties. This is why milk is often used in pickling or fermenting
vegetables.
Freezing: Milk can be frozen and used in recipes later, making it a convenient
ingredient to have on hand.
Color: The proteins in milk can give a golden brown color to baked goods or other
recipes, such as in pancakes or waffles.
These functional properties make milk a versatile and important ingredient in many
recipes.
Milk Products:
There are a variety of milk products that are derived from milk or milk alternatives.
Here are some of the most common milk products:
Butter: Made from churning cream, butter is a dairy product that is used in cooking
and baking.
Cheese: Made from coagulating milk and separating the curds from the whey,
cheese is a versatile dairy product that comes in many different varieties.
Yogurt: Made from fermenting milk with bacteria, yogurt is a tangy dairy product that
can be eaten on its own or used in cooking and baking.
Cream: The fat that rises to the top of milk can be skimmed off to create cream,
which can be used in cooking and baking or whipped to make whipped cream.
Ice cream: A frozen dessert made from milk, cream, and sugar, ice cream can be
flavored with a variety of different ingredients.
Sour cream: A tangy dairy product made from cream that has been soured with
lactic acid bacteria, sour cream is often used as a topping or ingredient in recipes.

Condensed milk: As mentioned earlier, condensed milk is made by heating milk and
sugar until most of the water has evaporated, resulting in a thick, sweet liquid.
Powdered milk: Milk that has been dehydrated and turned into a powder, powdered
milk can be reconstituted with water and used in cooking and baking.
Non-dairy milk alternatives: There are many non-dairy milk alternatives available,
including soy milk, almond milk, coconut milk, and oat milk, which are often used by
people who are vegan, lactose intolerant, or have dairy allergies.
These are just a few of the many milk products available, and each one has its own
unique properties and uses.
Egg:
Eggs are a nutritious food that is commonly used in cooking and baking.
Structure of Eggs:
An egg has three main parts: the shell, the egg white (also called the albumen), and
the yolk.
Shell: The shell of an egg is the outermost layer and is made up of primarily of
calcium carbonate. The shell is porous, which means that air can pass through it,
allowing the developing embryo to breathe. The shell also serves to protect the

contents of the egg from outside elements, such as bacteria or moisture. The color
of the eggshell can vary depending on the breed of the chicken that laid the egg, and
can range from white to brown.
Egg White: The egg white, or albumen, is the clear, viscous liquid that surrounds the
yolk. It makes up about 60% of the weight of the egg. The egg white is composed of
approximately 90% water and 10% protein. The protein in the egg white is made up of
two different types of proteins: ovalbumin and conalbumin. These proteins are
responsible for the egg white's unique properties, such as its ability to foam and to
coagulate when cooked.
Yolk: The yolk is the yellow or orange part of the egg that sits in the center of the egg
white. The yolk makes up about 30% of the weight of the egg. It is a concentrated
source of nutrients, including protein, fat, vitamins, and minerals. The protein in the
yolk is primarily composed of a protein called vitellin. The yolk also contains several
important vitamins, such as vitamin A, vitamin D, and vitamin E, as well as minerals
such as iron and calcium.
The yolk and egg white are connected by two twisted strands of tissue called
chalazae. These strands help to keep the yolk centered within the egg and provide
support to the developing embryo.
In summary, the structure of an egg is made up of three main parts: the shell, egg
white, and yolk. Each of these parts plays an important role in protecting and
nourishing the developing embryo, and also provides a source of nutrition for
animals and humans who consume eggs
Composition of Egg:
An egg is a highly nutritious food that contains a variety of important nutrients. The
composition of an egg includes:
Water: The egg is primarily composed of water, making up about 75% of its total
weight.
Protein: Eggs are an excellent source of high-quality protein, containing all nine
essential amino acids that our body needs for growth and repair. The egg white is
particularly rich in protein, accounting for about 60% of the total protein in the egg.

Fat: The yolk of an egg is the main source of fat in an egg. It contains about 5 grams
of fat, including both saturated and unsaturated fats. The fat in egg yolks is also a
good source of important fat-soluble vitamins, such as vitamin A, D, E, and K.
Vitamins: Eggs are a good source of several vitamins, including vitamin B2

(riboflavin), vitamin B12, and vitamin D. The yolk of the egg is particularly rich in
vitamins A and D.
Minerals: Eggs are also a good source of several important minerals, including iron,
phosphorus, and selenium.
Overall, eggs are a highly nutritious food that can provide a range of important
nutrients. The composition of an egg can vary slightly depending on the size of the
egg and the diet of the hen that laid it, but in general, eggs are a healthy and
nutritious food choice.
Functional Properties of Egg:
Eggs are known for their unique functional properties in cooking and food
preparation. Here are some of the functional properties of eggs:
Emulsification: The proteins in egg yolks act as emulsifiers, meaning they help to
mix and stabilize liquids that would otherwise separate, such as oil and water. This
property is essential in the preparation of mayonnaise, salad dressings, and other
emulsified sauces.
Foaming: Egg whites can be whipped into a foam that can provide structure and
volume to baked goods such as meringues, soufflés, and angel food cakes. The
proteins in the egg whites help to create and stabilize the foam.
Binding: The proteins in eggs can act as binders, helping to hold together ingredients
in dishes such as meatloaf, burgers, and meatballs. Eggs can also help to bind
together breading and coating mixtures for fried foods.
Coagulation: When eggs are heated, the proteins in the egg whites and yolks
coagulate, or thicken, which is important for the structure of custards, puddings, and
quiches.
Coloring: The yellow pigments in egg yolks can add a rich color to baked goods,
pasta, and other dishes.

Overall, eggs are a versatile ingredient that can provide a range of functional
properties in cooking and food preparation. Their unique properties make them an
essential ingredient in many recipes
Meat and Poultry:
Structure of Meat:
Meat is a complex biological tissue that is made up of muscle fibers, connective

tissue, fat, and other components. The structure of meat can vary depending on the
animal species, the cut of meat, and the age of the animal, among other factors.
Here are some of the main components of meat:
Muscle fibers: Meat is primarily made up of muscle fibers, which are long, thin cells
that are arranged in bundles. The size and arrangement of these fibers can affect the
texture and tenderness of the meat.
Connective tissue: Connective tissue is a fibrous material that surrounds and

supports the muscle fibers. It can be found in varying amounts throughout the meat,
and can affect the texture and chewiness of the meat. Collagen, a type of connective
tissue, is converted to gelatin during cooking, which can help to tenderize the meat.
Fat: Fat is a component of meat that can be found in varying amounts depending on
the animal species and the cut of meat. It can affect the flavor and texture of the
meat, as well as its juiciness and tenderness.

Blood vessels and nerves: Meat also contains blood vessels and nerves that are
essential for the function of the muscle tissue, but can also affect the texture and
flavor of the meat.
Overall, the structure of meat is complex and can have a significant impact on its
taste, texture, and nutritional properties. The composition and structure of meat can
vary depending on many factors, including the animal species, the cut of meat, and
the age of the animal.
Muscle Composition:
Protein Fibers: Protein fibers, or myofibrils, make up the majority of muscle tissue.
They are responsible for the meat's texture and structure. Myofibrils are made up of
two types of protein filaments - thin filaments made of actin and thick filaments
made of myosin. These filaments work together to create muscle contractions that
allow animals to move.
Connective Tissue: Connective tissue, including collagen and elastin, provides

support for the muscle and gives it its toughness. Collagen is the most abundant
protein in connective tissue and is responsible for the meat's strength and structure.
Elastin is another type of connective tissue that is less abundant and provides
elasticity to the meat.
Fat: Fat, or adipose tissue, can be distributed throughout the muscle and contributes
to flavor and tenderness. The amount and distribution of fat in meat can vary
depending on the animal's diet and genetics. Some cuts of meat, such as ribeye or
marbled steak, are known for their high fat content and tenderness.
Water: Water is an essential component of muscle tissue and can affect the texture
and juiciness of meat. Meat can contain up to 75% water, which helps to keep it
moist during cooking. However, excessive moisture loss during cooking can result in
tough and dry meat.
Cooking methods and quality: Different cuts of meat can have different proportions
of these components, which can affect their cooking methods and overall quality.
Leaner cuts of meat with less fat and connective tissue may require less cooking
time and can be cooked at higher temperatures. On the other hand, tougher cuts with
more connective tissue may need to be cooked low and slow to break down the
collagen and become tender.

In conclusion, understanding the muscle composition of meat can help you choose
the right cuts for your cooking needs and ensure that you get the best quality and
flavor from your meat
Heat induced changes in Meat:
Heat can cause various changes in meat, including changes in texture, color, flavor,
and nutritional content. Here are some of the heat-induced changes in meat:
Denaturation of Proteins: Heat causes the proteins in meat to denature, or unravel,

resulting in changes in texture and structure. As the temperature of the meat
increases, the myofibrillar proteins coagulate and shrink, resulting in a loss of
moisture and a firmer texture.
Maillard Browning: When meat is cooked at high temperatures, the Maillard reaction
occurs, which is a chemical reaction between amino acids and reducing sugars that
gives meat its characteristic brown color and rich flavor.
Caramelization: Caramelization is another chemical reaction that occurs when the

natural sugars in meat are heated, resulting in a sweeter flavor and darker color.
Loss of Moisture: As meat is cooked, it loses moisture through evaporation, resulting

in a drier texture. This can be minimized by cooking the meat at a lower temperature
and for a shorter duration, as well as by marinating the meat beforehand.
Loss of Nutrients: Heat can also cause a loss of nutrients in meat, including
vitamins, minerals, and amino acids. Overcooking meat can result in a significant
loss of nutrients.
Tenderization: Heat can also tenderize meat by breaking down the collagen and
connective tissue, resulting in a more tender texture.
In summary, heat-induced changes in meat can have a significant impact on its

texture, flavor, and nutritional content. Proper cooking techniques can help to
minimize negative changes and result in a delicious and nutritious meal

Post mortem changes In Meat:
After an animal is slaughtered, several post-mortem changes occur in the meat that
can affect its quality and flavor. Here are some of the most significant post-mortem
changes in meat:
Rigor Mortis: After an animal is slaughtered, its muscles go through a process called
rigor mortis, which is the stiffening of the muscles due to a lack of ATP production.
This process can affect the tenderness of the meat and is why it is important to age
meat before cooking it.
Proteolysis: Proteolysis is the breakdown of proteins in meat due to enzymatic

activity. This process can affect the texture and flavor of the meat, and is responsible
for the tenderization of meat during the aging process.
Autolysis: Autolysis is the self-digestion of cells in meat due to the release of

enzymes after slaughter. This process can result in off-flavors and odors in the meat.
Lipolysis: Lipolysis is the breakdown of fat in meat due to enzymatic activity. This
process can affect the flavor and tenderness of the meat, and can lead to rancidity if
the meat is not stored properly.
Oxidation: Oxidation is the reaction of oxygen with the fats and pigments in meat.
This process can result in the development of off-flavors and off-odors in the meat.
Bacterial Growth: After slaughter, bacteria can grow on the surface of the meat and
in its tissues, leading to spoilage and foodborne illness if the meat is not handled
and stored properly.
In conclusion, post-mortem changes in meat can significantly affect its quality and
flavor. Proper handling, storage, and cooking techniques can help to minimize
negative changes and ensure a safe and delicious meal.
Tenderness and tenderizers of Meat:
Tenderness is one of the most important qualities of meat, and it is affected by a

variety of factors, including the animal's age, breed, diet, and the method of cooking.
However, there are also tenderizers that can be used to improve the tenderness of
meat. Here are some factors that affect tenderness and common meat tenderizers

Factors Affecting Tenderness:
Collagen and Connective Tissue: Collagen and connective tissue can make meat
tough, so meat from older animals or certain muscle groups may be less tender.
Fat: Fat can affect the texture and flavor of meat, with marbled fat contributing to
tenderness.
Age of the Meat: Aging meat can help to break down the proteins and connective
tissues, resulting in a more tender texture.
Cooking Method: Different cooking methods can affect the tenderness of meat, with
slow cooking methods often resulting in a more tender texture.
Common Meat Tenderizers:
Enzymatic Tenderizers: Enzymatic tenderizers use enzymes to break down the

proteins in meat, resulting in a more tender texture. Papain, bromelain, and ficin are
common enzymatic tenderizers.
Acids: Acids, such as vinegar or citrus juices, can help to break down the proteins
and connective tissues in meat, resulting in a more tender texture.
Salts: Salts, such as kosher salt, can help to break down the proteins in meat and
improve its texture and flavor.
Mechanical Tenderizers: Mechanical tenderizers use physical force to break down

the fibers in meat, resulting in a more tender texture. Examples include pounding or
using a meat tenderizer tool.
In conclusion, the tenderness of meat can be affected by various factors, and there
are several meat tenderizers that can be used to improve its texture and flavor.
Proper handling, storage, and cooking techniques can also help to ensure the best
quality and tenderness of meat.
Curing of Meat:
Curing is a preservation method that has been used for centuries to extend the shelf
life of meat by inhibiting bacterial growth and preventing spoilage. The process

typically involves adding salt, nitrite, or nitrate to the meat and allowing it to cure for
a period of time. Here is a step-by-step guide to the curing process:
Selecting the Meat: The meat used for curing should be fresh and of high quality.
Common meats used for curing include pork, beef, and fish.
Preparing the Cure: The curing mixture typically consists of salt, sugar, and nitrite or
nitrate. The nitrite or nitrate helps to prevent bacterial growth and preserve the
meat's color and flavor.
Applying the Cure: The cure is applied to the meat either by dry rubbing or by
injecting the cure into the meat.
Aging the Meat: After the cure is applied, the meat is typically aged for several
weeks to allow the cure to penetrate the meat and inhibit bacterial growth.
Smoking (Optional): After the curing process is complete, some meats may be
smoked to add flavor and further extend their shelf life.
Storing the Meat: Once the curing and smoking (if applicable) are complete, the
meat should be stored in a cool, dry place or refrigerated to prevent spoilage.
Some common cured meats include bacon, ham, pastrami, and corned beef. While
curing can extend the shelf life of meat, it is important to note that consuming
excessive amounts of cured meats may be linked to health problems, including an
increased risk of certain types of cancer. As with any preservation method, it is
important to use proper techniques and follow food safety guidelines to prevent
foodborne illness
Fish:
Classification:
Fish can be classified into different groups based on their characteristics such as
body shape, habitat, bone structure, and other factors. Here are some common ways
of classifying fishes:
Jawless Fish: These are primitive fishes that do not have jaws. They include
lampreys and hagfish.

Cartilaginous Fish: These are fishes that have skeletons made of cartilage rather
than bone. They include sharks, rays, and skates.
Bony Fish: These are fishes that have skeletons made of bone. They include most of
the fish species that people are familiar with, such as salmon, trout, tuna, and cod.
Ray-Finned Fish: These are bony fish that have fins supported by thin, bony spines
called rays. They include many of the fish species that people commonly eat, such as
tilapia, catfish, and bass.
Lobe-Finned Fish: These are bony fish that have fins that are fleshy and have a bony
structure similar to that of a human arm or leg. They include coelacanths and
lungfish.
Saltwater Fish: These are fish that live in saltwater habitats, such as oceans and
seas. Examples include tuna, salmon, and swordfish.
Freshwater Fish: These are fish that live in freshwater habitats, such as rivers, lakes,
and streams. Examples include trout, catfish, and bass.
Anadromous Fish: These are fish that spend most of their lives in saltwater but
migrate to freshwater to spawn. Examples include salmon and steelhead.
Catadromous Fish: These are fish that spend most of their lives in freshwater but
migrate to saltwater to spawn. Examples include eels.
These are just a few examples of how fish can be classified. Other factors, such as
diet, behavior, and reproductive strategies, can also be used to categorize fish
species.
Composition of Fish:
Fish is a highly nutritious food source that is low in fat and calories and high in
protein, omega-3 fatty acids, vitamins, and minerals. Here is a breakdown of the
composition of fish:
Protein: Fish is a good source of high-quality protein. The protein content varies
depending on the species of fish, but in general, fish contains about 18-25% protein
by weight.

Fat: Fish is a low-fat food source, with most species containing less than 5% fat.
However, some fatty fish species, such as salmon and mackerel, contain higher
levels of healthy omega-3 fatty acids.
Omega-3 Fatty Acids: Fish is a rich source of omega-3 fatty acids, which have been
shown to have many health benefits, including reducing the risk of heart disease,
improving brain function, and reducing inflammation. Fatty fish such as salmon,
mackerel, and sardines are particularly high in omega-3s.
Vitamins: Fish is a good source of several essential vitamins, including vitamin D,

vitamin B12, and vitamin A. Vitamin D is important for bone health and immune
function, while vitamin B12 is important for the nervous system and red blood cell
formation. Vitamin A is important for eye health and immune function.
Minerals: Fish is also a good source of several minerals, including iodine, selenium,
and zinc. Iodine is important for thyroid function, while selenium and zinc are
important for immune function and wound healing.
In addition to these nutrients, fish also contains small amounts of carbohydrates,

fiber, and other micronutrients such as potassium, magnesium, and iron. The nutrient
content of fish varies depending on the species, the part of the fish consumed, and
the cooking method used
Nutritive Importance of Fish:

Fish is a highly nutritious food that provides many health benefits due to its nutrient
content. Here are some of the key nutritive benefits of fish:
Protein: Fish is a good source of high-quality protein, which is essential for building
and repairing tissues in the body. Fish protein is easily digestible and contains all of
the essential amino acids needed for the body to function properly.
Omega-3 Fatty Acids: Fish is one of the best sources of omega-3 fatty acids, which
are essential fats that the body cannot produce on its own. Omega-3s have been
shown to reduce inflammation, lower blood pressure, improve brain function, and
reduce the risk of heart disease and stroke.
Vitamins: Fish is a good source of several essential vitamins, including vitamin D,

vitamin B12, and vitamin A. Vitamin D is important for bone health and immune
function, while vitamin B12 is important for the nervous system and red blood cell
formation. Vitamin A is important for eye health and immune function.

Minerals: Fish is also a good source of several minerals, including iodine, selenium,
and zinc. Iodine is important for thyroid function, while selenium and zinc are
important for immune function and wound healing.
Low in Fat and Calories: Fish is generally low in fat and calories, making it a good
option for people who are trying to lose weight or maintain a healthy weight.
Low in Saturated Fat: Most fish is low in saturated fat, which is a type of fat that can
increase cholesterol levels and increase the risk of heart disease.
Overall, fish is a highly nutritious food that provides many health benefits due to its
protein, omega-3 fatty acid, vitamin, and mineral content. Eating fish regularly as part
of a healthy diet has been linked to improved heart health, brain function, and overall
health and wellness.
Cooking of Fish:
Cooking fish properly is important for both safety and taste. Here are some common
methods of cooking fish:
Baking: Fish can be baked in the oven in a dish with seasonings and oil or butter. It is
important to not overcook fish, as it can become dry and tough. Fish is usually
cooked at a temperature of 375-400°F for about 10-20 minutes depending on the
thickness of the fish.
Grilling: Grilling is a popular way to cook fish, especially during the summer months.
Fish can be marinated first or simply seasoned with salt and pepper. Grilling times
vary depending on the type of fish and its thickness, but usually, fish is grilled for
5-10 minutes per side.
Pan-frying: Pan-frying is a quick and easy way to cook fish. The fish is coated with
flour or breadcrumbs and fried in oil or butter until it is golden brown and crispy.
Pan-frying times also vary depending on the type of fish and its thickness, but
usually, fish is pan-fried for about 2-4 minutes per side.
Steaming: Steaming is a healthy way to cook fish, as it does not require any added
fat. The fish is placed in a steaming basket or on a plate over boiling water and
cooked for 5-10 minutes, depending on the thickness of the fish.

Poaching: Poaching is another healthy way to cook fish. The fish is cooked in a
flavorful liquid, such as stock or wine, until it is cooked through. Poaching times vary
depending on the type of fish and its thickness, but usually, fish is poached for about
5-10 minutes.
When cooking fish, it is important to ensure that it is cooked to a safe internal

temperature of 145°F to prevent foodborne illness. You can use a meat thermometer
to check the internal temperature of the fish. Also, be careful not to overcook the fish,
as this can make it dry and tough.
Marine Foods:
Classification of Marine Foods:
Marine foods can be classified in different ways based on various factors such as
their habitat, structure, nutritional content, and culinary use. Here are some common
ways of classifying marine foods:
Finfish: Finfish are a group of marine animals that have fins and backbones. They
include both saltwater and freshwater species such as salmon, tuna, cod, haddock,
and tilapia.
Shellfish: Shellfish are a group of marine animals that have shells or exoskeletons.
They include bivalves such as clams, oysters, and mussels, and crustaceans such as
shrimp, crab, and lobster.
Mollusks: Mollusks are a group of soft-bodied marine animals that have a hard shell.
They include snails, octopus, squid, and cuttlefish.
Cephalopods: Cephalopods are a group of mollusks that have tentacles, such as

squid, octopus, and cuttlefish.
Seaweed: Seaweed is a type of marine plant that is used in various culinary dishes. It
includes species such as nori, kelp, and dulse.
Marine mammals: Marine mammals are a group of animals that live in the ocean
and have lungs to breathe air. They include species such as whales, dolphins, and
seals. However, they are not typically consumed as food due to their conservation
status and cultural taboos.

Crustaceans: Crustaceans are a group of arthropods that live in the ocean and
include species such as shrimp, crab, and lobster.
These are some common ways of classifying marine foods, but there are many other
ways to do so based on factors such as their nutritional value, geographic origin, and
culinary use.
Composition of Marine Foods:
Marine foods are known for their high nutritional value and are a rich source of
protein, omega-3 fatty acids, vitamins, and minerals. Here is a breakdown of the
composition of some common marine foods:
Finfish: Finfish are low in calories and fat, making them a healthy protein source.
They are rich in omega-3 fatty acids, vitamins B12 and D, and minerals such as
selenium, phosphorus, and potassium.
Shellfish: Shellfish are a rich source of protein, vitamins, and minerals. They are low
in fat and calories and high in nutrients such as zinc, iron, and vitamin B12. However,
shellfish are also known to contain high levels of cholesterol.
Mollusks: Mollusks are a good source of protein, omega-3 fatty acids, and minerals
such as iron and zinc. They are also low in fat and calories.
Seaweed: Seaweed is a low-calorie food that is rich in vitamins A, C, E, and K, as well

as minerals such as iodine, iron, and calcium. It is also a good source of antioxidants
and contains unique compounds such as fucoxanthin, which has been linked to
potential health benefits.
Crustaceans: Crustaceans such as shrimp, crab, and lobster are a good source of
protein and low in fat and calories. They are also rich in nutrients such as zinc,
selenium, and vitamin B12.
Overall, marine foods are a healthy addition to any diet due to their high nutritional
value and potential health benefits. However, it is important to be mindful of potential
contaminants such as mercury and to choose sustainably sourced seafood to
support marine ecosystems

Nutritive Importance of Marine Foods:
Marine foods are known for their high nutritional value and are a rich source of
protein, omega-3 fatty acids, vitamins, and minerals. Here are some of the key
nutritive benefits of marine foods:
High-quality protein: Marine foods are a rich source of high-quality protein, which is
essential for building and repairing tissues in the body.
Omega-3 fatty acids: Many marine foods are rich in omega-3 fatty acids, which have
been linked to a variety of health benefits. These include reducing inflammation,
improving brain function, and reducing the risk of heart disease.
Vitamins and minerals: Marine foods are a rich source of vitamins and minerals
such as vitamin D, vitamin B12, selenium, and zinc, which are essential for
maintaining good health.
Low in saturated fat: Many marine foods are low in saturated fat, which can help
reduce the risk of heart disease and other chronic illnesses.
Low in calories: Many marine foods are low in calories, making them a great option
for those who are looking to maintain a healthy weight.
Unique compounds: Some marine foods, such as seaweed, contain unique

compounds such as fucoxanthin, which has been linked to potential health benefits.
Eating a diet that includes a variety of marine foods can help provide the body with
essential nutrients and promote good health. However, it is important to choose
sustainable sources of seafood and be mindful of potential contaminants such as
mercury.
Cooking of Marine Foods:

Cooking marine foods can vary depending on the type of food and personal
preference. Here are some common methods of cooking marine foods:
Grilling: Grilling is a popular way to cook finfish and shellfish. It imparts a smoky
flavor and can be done on an outdoor grill or an indoor grill pan. The key is to ensure
that the heat is evenly distributed and the food is cooked to the proper temperature.

Baking: Baking is a great way to cook larger cuts of fish, such as salmon or halibut. It
can be done in the oven or in a covered dish on the stovetop. The key is to add
seasoning and moisture to prevent the fish from drying out.
Frying: Frying is a popular way to cook shellfish and smaller cuts of fish. It can be
done in a deep fryer or on the stovetop in a pan. It is important to use high-quality oil
and monitor the temperature to prevent overcooking or burning.
Steaming: Steaming is a healthy and simple way to cook fish and shellfish. It can be
done in a steamer basket or by placing the food in a covered dish over simmering
water. The key is to ensure that the food is cooked to the proper temperature and not
overcooked.
Raw: Some marine foods, such as sushi and sashimi, are eaten raw. It is important to
choose high-quality, fresh seafood and to follow proper food safety guidelines to
prevent foodborne illness.
Overall, the key to cooking marine foods is to use proper cooking techniques and to
not overcook the food. This will help retain the nutritional value and flavor of the
seafood. It is also important to choose sustainable seafood options and to be
mindful of potential contaminants such as mercury.

UNIT 3 - Starch,Sugars and Fats
Starch:
Starch is a type of carbohydrate that is made up of long chains of glucose

molecules. It is one of the most common carbohydrates found in food, and it is a
major source of energy for the human body. Starch is found in a variety of foods,
including grains (such as rice, wheat, and corn), potatoes, and legumes (such as
beans and lentils).
Starch is a complex carbohydrate, which means it takes longer for the body to break
down and digest compared to simple carbohydrates like sugar. When starch is
consumed, it is broken down into glucose molecules and absorbed by the body to be
used for energy.
Starch is also commonly used as a thickening agent in cooking and food processing.
When starch is mixed with a liquid and heated, the long chains of glucose molecules
begin to unravel and thicken the mixture. This process is commonly used in making
gravies, soups, and sauces.
Starch comes in several different forms, including cornstarch, tapioca starch, and
potato starch, each with their own unique properties and uses in cooking and food
processing.
Characteristics of Starch:
● Starch is a carbohydrate made up of long chains of glucose molecules.

● It is a white, odorless, and tasteless powder.
● Starch is insoluble in cold water, but it can be dispersed in water and forms a
thick paste when heated.
● When heated, starch granules absorb water and swell, which causes the
starch to thicken and gelatinize.
● Starch can be modified to change its properties and functionality in food
applications.
● The two main types of starch are amylose and amylopectin, which have
different properties and structures.

● Starch is a source of energy and can be found in foods like grains, potatoes,
and legumes.
● Starch is commonly used as a thickening agent in cooking and food
processing.
● Starch is often used as an ingredient in food products like baked goods,
sauces, and processed meats.
● Starch can also be used in non-food applications, such as in paper and textile
production
Gelatinazation:
Gelatinization is the process by which starch granules absorb water and swell when
heated in the presence of water, causing the starch to thicken and form a gel-like
substance. This process occurs when starch is heated to its gelatinization
temperature, which varies depending on the type of starch.
During gelatinization, the hydrogen bonds that hold the starch granule structure
together are broken, allowing water molecules to penetrate the granule and causing
it to swell. As the granule swells, it absorbs water and forms a viscous paste. The
paste thickens as more water is absorbed, and it eventually becomes a gel when the
starch reaches its maximum water-holding capacity.
Gelatinization is an important process in cooking and food processing, as it allows

for the creation of a variety of foods and products such as sauces, gravies, and
puddings. The degree of gelatinization can also affect the texture, flavor, and
appearance of foods, making it an important consideration in food formulation and
processing.
Factors Affecting Gelatinazation:
There are several factors that can affect the gelatinization of starch. Here are some
key factors:
Type of starch: Different types of starch have different gelatinization temperatures

and characteristics. For example, cornstarch has a lower gelatinization temperature
than potato starch.
Starch concentration: The concentration of starch in a mixture can affect the

gelatinization process. A higher concentration of starch can result in a thicker and
more viscous gel.

Temperature: The gelatinization temperature of starch varies depending on the type
of starch. Generally, starches begin to gelatinize at temperatures between 55-65°C,
but some starches may require higher temperatures.
Time: The amount of time that starch is heated can affect its gelatinization. Longer
heating times can result in a thicker and more viscous gel.
pH: The pH of a solution can affect the gelatinization of starch. Starches tend to
gelatinize best in slightly acidic to neutral environments.
Presence of other ingredients: Other ingredients, such as sugar, salt, and fats, can
affect the gelatinization of starch. For example, the presence of sugar can delay or
prevent gelatinization.
Stirring: Stirring or mixing a starch mixture can affect the gelatinization process.
Agitating the mixture can help to distribute the heat evenly and prevent lumps from
forming.
Modified Food Starches:
Modified food starches are starches that have been chemically, physically, or
enzymatically altered to improve their functional properties in food applications.
These modifications can include changes to the starch's viscosity, stability, texture,
and processing characteristics.
There are several different types of modified food starches, including:
Cross-linked starch: This type of starch has been chemically modified to improve its
stability and resistance to heat, acid, and shear. Cross-linking reduces the starch's
susceptibility to breakdown and improves its viscosity and texture in
high-temperature and high-shear applications.
Acetylated starch: Acetylated starch is modified with acetic anhydride, which

changes the starch's molecular structure and improves its solubility, clarity, and
stability in acidic and high-temperature applications.
Oxidized starch: Oxidized starch is treated with a small amount of

sodium hypochlorite or hydrogen peroxide, which changes the starch's

structure and increases its water-holding capacity, viscosity, and stability in
high-temperature and high-shear applications.
Hydroxypropylated starch: Hydroxypropylated starch is modified with propylene

oxide, which increases its water-holding capacity, stability, and viscosity in food
applications.
Enzyme-modified starch: Enzyme-modified starches are treated with enzymes that

break down the starch's molecular structure and create new functional properties.
These modifications can include changes to the starch's viscosity, stability, and
texture.
Modified food starches are commonly used in a variety of food products, including
soups, sauces, dressings, and baked goods. They can improve the texture, stability,
and sensory characteristics of food products and provide functional benefits such as
improved freeze-thaw stability and resistance to heat, acid, and shear.
Modified food starches are widely used in the food industry due to their ability to
improve the functional properties of food products. Here are some common
applications of modified food starches:
Soups and sauces: Modified food starches are commonly used in soups and sauces
to improve their viscosity, stability, and mouthfeel. They can help prevent the
separation of liquid and solids and provide a smooth and creamy texture.
Bakery products: Modified food starches are often used in bakery products such as
cakes, cookies, and bread to improve their texture and moisture retention. They can
also help prevent staling and extend the shelf life of baked goods.
Dairy products: Modified food starches are commonly used in dairy products such
as yogurt, ice cream, and cheese to improve their texture and stability. They can help
prevent the formation of ice crystals, improve the creaminess and smoothness of the
product, and prevent the separation of liquid and solids.
Meat products: Modified food starches are used in meat products such as sausages
and deli meats to improve their texture, juiciness, and sliceability. They can also help
prevent the loss of moisture during cooking and improve the binding of meat
particles.

Beverages: Modified food starches are used in beverages such as fruit juices and
sports drinks to improve their stability and texture. They can help prevent settling of
particles and improve the suspension of solids in the liquid.
Overall, modified food starches play a critical role in the food industry by improving
the functional properties of food products and enhancing their sensory
characteristics.
Sugars:
Sugars are simple carbohydrates that are naturally present in many foods, including
fruits, vegetables, and dairy products. They are also added to many processed foods
and beverages as sweeteners. Sugars are a type of carbohydrate that the body uses
for energy. They are composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms.
Types of Sugars:
There are several types of sugars, each with their own unique characteristics and
properties. Here are some of the most common types of sugars:
Monosaccharides: Monosaccharides are the simplest form of sugar, consisting of a

single sugar molecule. Examples of monosaccharides include glucose, fructose, and
galactose.
Disaccharides: Disaccharides are made up of two sugar molecules that are bonded
together. Examples of disaccharides include sucrose (table sugar), lactose (milk
sugar), and maltose (malt sugar).
Oligosaccharides: Oligosaccharides are made up of three to ten sugar molecules

bonded together. Examples of oligosaccharides include raffinose and stachyose,
which are found in beans, peas, and lentils.
Polysaccharides: Polysaccharides are long chains of sugar molecules. Examples of

polysaccharides include starch, which is found in potatoes, rice, and wheat, and
cellulose, which is found in plant cell walls.
High-fructose corn syrup: High-fructose corn syrup is a sweetener that is made by

converting corn starch into glucose and then fructose. It is commonly used as a
sweetener in processed foods and beverages.

Artificial sweeteners: Artificial sweeteners are synthetic sugar substitutes that are
often used as a low-calorie alternative to sugar. Examples of artificial sweeteners
include aspartame, saccharin, and sucralose.
It is important to consume sugars in moderation as excessive consumption can lead

to health problems such as weight gain, tooth decay, and an increased risk of chronic
diseases such as diabetes and heart disease.
Types of Sugar Syrups:
There are several types of sugar syrups, each with their own unique properties and
uses. Here are some of the most common types of sugar syrups:
Simple syrup: Simple syrup is made by dissolving granulated sugar in water. It is

used as a sweetener in cocktails, iced tea, and other beverages.
Corn syrup: Corn syrup is made by converting corn starch into glucose. It is often
used as a sweetener in baked goods, candies, and other processed foods.
Golden syrup: Golden syrup is a type of invert sugar syrup that is made by boiling
sugar, water, and a small amount of lemon juice. It is commonly used as a sweetener
in baking and desserts.
Maple syrup: Maple syrup is made from the sap of maple trees. It is commonly used
as a sweetener in pancakes, waffles, and other breakfast foods.
Honey: Honey is a natural sweetener that is produced by bees from the nectar of
flowers. It is commonly used as a sweetener in tea, yogurt, and other foods.
Molasses: Molasses is a thick, dark syrup that is made from the byproduct of sugar
production. It is commonly used as a sweetener in baked goods and as a flavoring in
marinades and sauces.
Sugar syrups are often used in cooking and baking to add sweetness and moisture
to foods. It is important to consume sugar syrups in moderation as excessive
consumption can lead to health problems such as weight gain, tooth decay, and an
increased risk of chronic diseases such as diabetes and heart disease.

Crystallisation of Sugars:
Crystallization is a process in which a solution of sugar in water is heated and then

allowed to cool, causing the sugar to solidify into crystals. This process is commonly
used in the production of various types of candies, such as rock candy, fudge, and
caramels.
The process of crystallization typically involves the following steps:
Dissolving the sugar: Granulated sugar is dissolved in water to form a sugar syrup.
The sugar concentration in the syrup can vary depending on the desired outcome.
Heating the syrup: The syrup is heated to a high temperature to dissolve the sugar
completely and create a supersaturated solution. The temperature at which the syrup
is heated depends on the type of sugar being used and the desired outcome.
Cooling the syrup: The syrup is then allowed to cool slowly, causing the sugar
molecules to come together and form crystals. The size and shape of the crystals
can be controlled by adjusting the cooling rate and other factors such as the
agitation of the syrup.
Seeding the syrup: To help promote crystal growth and create a more uniform
product, a small amount of sugar crystals can be added to the syrup as it cools. This
process is called seeding.
Straining and cutting the crystals: Once the sugar syrup has cooled and crystallized,
the crystals are typically strained to remove any excess liquid and then cut or broken
into the desired shape and size.
Crystallization is an important process in the production of various types of

confectionery products. However, it can also be a complex and delicate process that
requires careful control of temperature, timing, and other factors to achieve the
desired outcome.
Sugar Cookery and Applications:
Sugar is a versatile ingredient in cooking and baking, and it is used in a variety of

ways. Here are some common sugar cookery techniques and applications:

Caramelizing: Sugar can be caramelized by heating it until it melts and turns golden
brown, resulting in a rich and complex flavor that is often used in sauces, desserts,
and confections.
Creaming: Sugar is often creamed with butter or other fats to create a light and fluffy
texture in baked goods, such as cakes and cookies.
Boiling: Sugar is frequently boiled with water and other ingredients to create syrups
for use in drinks, desserts, and confections.
Dusting: Powdered sugar can be dusted over baked goods or desserts as a finishing
touch.
Meringue: Sugar is a key ingredient in making meringue, a light and airy mixture of
egg whites and sugar that is used in desserts such as pies and pavlovas.
Fondant: Fondant is a smooth, pliable icing that is often used to cover cakes and
pastries. It is made by heating sugar, water, and other ingredients until it forms a
pliable dough.
Frosting and icing: Sugar is a key ingredient in frosting and icing, which are used to
decorate and sweeten cakes and other desserts.
Candy making: Sugar is a fundamental ingredient in many types of candy, including

fudge, toffee, caramels, and hard candies.
Preserving: Sugar is often used in preserving fruits and other foods, as it helps to
prevent spoilage and bacteria growth.
Overall, sugar is a versatile and important ingredient in cooking and baking, and its
many applications make it an essential component in many types of dishes and
desserts.
Fats and Oils:
Fats and oils are a type of nutrient known as lipids. They are composed of molecules
called fatty acids, which are made up of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms. Fats
and oils are an important part of a balanced diet, providing the body with energy,
insulation, and aiding in the absorption of certain vitamins.

Fats and oils are very similar, with the main difference being their physical state at
room temperature. Fats are typically solid at room temperature, while oils are liquid.
This is because fats have a higher melting point than oils.
Fats and oils are found in a variety of foods, including meats, dairy products, nuts,
seeds, and some fruits and vegetables. They are also commonly used in cooking and
baking, as they add flavor, texture, and richness to dishes.
There are different types of fats and oils, including:
Saturated fats: These fats are solid at room temperature and are typically found in
animal products such as meat, butter, and cheese. They can raise cholesterol levels
in the body and are often considered less healthy than other types of fats.
Unsaturated fats: These fats are liquid at room temperature and are typically found
in plant-based sources such as olive oil, avocados, and nuts. They are generally
considered healthier than saturated fats and can help to lower cholesterol levels.
Trans fats: These fats are created through a process called hydrogenation, which
turns liquid oils into solids. They are often found in processed foods such as baked
goods and fried foods and are considered unhealthy.
Overall, fats and oils are an important part of a healthy diet, but it is important to
consume them in moderation and choose healthier sources whenever possible.
Sources of Fats and Oils:
Fats and oils can be found in a variety of foods, including:
Animal-based sources: Butter, lard, tallow, and other animal fats are all sources of
fat.
Plant-based sources: Oils derived from plants such as olive oil, canola oil, soybean
oil, and coconut oil are all sources of fat.
Nuts and seeds: Nuts and seeds such as almonds, walnuts, flaxseeds, and chia
seeds are high in healthy fats.
Fish: Fatty fish such as salmon, mackerel, and tuna are rich in omega-3 fatty acids.

Avocados: Avocados are a good source of healthy fats and are high in
monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fats.
Dairy products: Cheese, milk, and cream are all sources of fat, although they also
contain protein and other nutrients.
It is important to consume fats and oils in moderation and to choose healthier

sources whenever possible. Saturated and trans fats, which are commonly found in
processed foods and baked goods, should be limited in the diet as they can increase
the risk of heart disease and other health problems.
Composition of Fats and Oils:
Fats and oils are composed of fatty acids and glycerol molecules. Fatty acids are
long chains of carbon and hydrogen atoms with a carboxyl group (COOH) at one end.
Glycerol is a three-carbon molecule with a hydroxyl group (OH) attached to each
carbon. When fatty acids are attached to glycerol, they form a molecule called a
triglyceride.
The composition of fats and oils can vary depending on the source.
Saturated fats are solid at room temperature and are typically found in animal-based
sources such as butter and lard. They are composed of mostly saturated fatty acids,
which have no double bonds between the carbon atoms in the fatty acid chain.
Unsaturated fats are typically liquid at room temperature and are found in
plant-based sources such as olive oil and canola oil. They are composed of mostly
unsaturated fatty acids, which have one or more double bonds between the carbon
atoms in the fatty acid chain.
Trans fats are a type of unsaturated fat that have been chemically altered to be more
solid at room temperature. They are typically found in processed foods and are
associated with an increased risk of heart disease.
It is important to choose healthy sources of fats and oils and to consume them in
moderation. Monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fats are considered healthier
choices as they can help lower cholesterol levels and reduce the risk of heart
disease when consumed in moderation.

Absorption of Fats and Oils:
Fats and oils are absorbed in the small intestine with the help of bile, which is
produced by the liver and stored in the gallbladder. Bile helps to emulsify fats,
breaking them down into smaller droplets that can be more easily digested.
Once the fats are emulsified, enzymes called lipases break them down further into
fatty acids and glycerol. These smaller molecules are then absorbed by the cells
lining the small intestine and transported to the liver via the bloodstream.
In the liver, the fatty acids are either used for energy or packaged into lipoprotein
particles called chylomicrons, which are transported via the lymphatic system to
other parts of the body for use or storage.
Excessive consumption of fats and oils can lead to health problems such as obesity,
high cholesterol, and heart disease. It is important to consume healthy sources of
fats and oils in moderation as part of a balanced diet.
Functional Properties of Fat- Melting point:
● The melting point of a fat is a crucial factor in determining its functionality in

food products.
● It is the temperature at which a fat transitions from a solid to a liquid state,
and is influenced by factors such as the type of fatty acids present in the fat,
their degree of saturation, and the length of their carbon chains.
● Fats with higher melting points are preferred for producing solid food
products like margarine, shortening, and chocolate.
● Fats with lower melting points are preferred for producing liquid products like
salad dressing and cooking oil.
● The melting point affects the texture and mouthfeel of food products, with
higher melting point fats producing a firmer texture.
● Fats with a higher melting point tend to be more stable at high temperatures
and are less likely to break down or oxidize, making them suitable for frying
and high-temperature cooking.
● Fats with lower melting points are more prone to oxidation, which can lead to
off-flavors and odors if overheated.

● The melting point is also a factor in the shelf life of food products, as fats with
a lower melting point tend to have a shorter shelf life due to their increased
tendency to oxidize.
● The melting point of a fat can also affect its solubility and emulsification
properties, with lower melting point fats being more soluble and easier to
emulsify.
● It is important to select the appropriate fat with the desired melting point for a
specific application to achieve the desired texture, stability, and shelf life of
the final product.
Smoke Point:
Smoke point is the temperature at which a fat or oil starts to break down and release
smoke. It is a crucial factor in determining the functionality of a fat or oil in
high-temperature cooking, such as frying, sautéing, and roasting. The smoke point is
influenced by the type of fatty acids present in the fat or oil, as well as the degree of
refining, processing, and storage conditions.
When a fat or oil is heated beyond its smoke point, it can release harmful
compounds such as acrolein and other free radicals, which can cause off-flavors,
odors, and decrease the nutritional value of the food. The smoke point also affects
the stability and shelf life of a fat or oil, with oils that have a lower smoke point being
more prone to oxidation and rancidity.
The smoke point of a fat or oil can be increased by refining and processing
techniques such as bleaching, deodorizing, and hydrogenation, but these methods
can also decrease the nutritional value of the oil and increase the formation of trans
fats. Therefore, it is important to choose a fat or oil with a smoke point appropriate
for the cooking method being used, and to avoid overheating or reusing oil that has
already been heated beyond its smoke point.
Here are the smoke points of some common oils and fats, in points (°F):
Butter: 350 points

Coconut oil (refined): 450 points
Corn oil: 450 points
Ghee: 485 points
Olive oil (extra-virgin): 375 points
Olive oil (refined): 465 points
Peanut oil: 450 points
Sesame oil (unrefined): 350 points

Soybean oil: 450 points
Sunflower oil: 440 points
It's important to note that heating oil beyond its smoke point can result in the release
of toxic fumes and the formation of harmful compounds. Therefore, it's essential to
choose an oil or fat with a smoke point appropriate for the cooking method and
temperature used.
Flash Point:
Flash point is the temperature at which a fat or oil can ignite and produce a flame
when exposed to a spark or open flame. It is a critical factor in the safety of handling,
storage, and transport of fats and oils. The flash point is influenced by the chemical
composition of the fat or oil, as well as its degree of refinement, processing, and
storage conditions.
Fats and oils with a low flash point are considered more hazardous and require more
careful handling and storage, as they are more likely to catch fire or explode. The
flash point can be increased by refining and processing techniques, but these
methods can also affect the quality and stability of the fat or oil.
Flash point is an important property to consider in industries that use or transport

large quantities of fats and oils, such as the fuel and lubricant industries. It is also
important in food processing, particularly in the production of fried and roasted
foods, as the flash point affects the safety and quality of the final product.
Flash point is typically measured in degrees Fahrenheit (°F) or Celsius (°C). Here are
the flash points of some common oils, in Fahrenheit:
Olive oil: 600°F

Coconut oil: 360°F
Vegetable oil: 450-500°F
Canola oil: 400°F
Peanut oil: 600°F
Soybean oil: 495°F
It's important to note that the flash point can vary depending on the specific type of
oil, as well as factors such as impurities, additives, and processing methods. In
addition, the flash point is just one factor to consider when evaluating the safety of

an oil or fuel, as other factors such as volatility and flammability can also affect its
overall safety profile.
Sensory Evaluation:
Sensory evaluation is a scientific method used to measure and analyze human

responses to sensory stimuli, such as taste, smell, appearance, texture, and sound.
● It is commonly used in the food and beverage industry to evaluate the sensory
characteristics of products and to ensure consistency and quality.
● Trained panelists are used to detect and evaluate specific attributes of a

product, such as its flavor profile, aroma, texture, and appearance.
● Panelists may be trained in descriptive analysis or consumer testing, and

various methods may be used, such as triangle testing, hedonic scaling,
ranking, profiling, and discrimination testing.
● Sensory evaluation can provide valuable information about a product, such as

its quality, consistency, and consumer acceptance.
● It can be used to make informed decisions about product development,

formulation, and marketing.
● Sensory evaluation is not limited to the food and beverage industry and is
used in other fields such as cosmetics, fragrance, and pharmaceuticals to
evaluate the sensory characteristics of products and ensure their quality and
safety.
Overall, sensory evaluation plays an important role in ensuring the quality and
consistency of products and can provide valuable insights for product development
and marketing decisions.
Sensory Attributes and it's Characteristics:
Sensory attributes are the physical characteristics of a product that are detected by
the senses and contribute to the overall sensory experience. There are different
types of sensory attributes, including:

Appearance: The visual characteristics of a product, such as color, size, shape, and
surface characteristics.
Texture: The tactile or mouthfeel characteristics of a product, such as firmness,

chewiness, creaminess, and crispness.
Flavor: The taste and aroma characteristics of a product, including sweetness,

saltiness, sourness, bitterness, umami, and aroma.
Sound: The auditory characteristics of a product, such as the sound of crunching or

breaking.
The characteristics of sensory attributes can vary depending on the product being
evaluated, but they often include:
Intensity: The degree to which a sensory attribute is perceived.
Duration: The length of time the sensory attribute is perceived.
Quality: The distinctiveness or uniqueness of a sensory attribute.
Hedonic tone: The pleasantness or unpleasantness of a sensory attribute.
Threshold: The minimum concentration or level at which a sensory attribute is

detectable.
Discrimination: The ability to differentiate between sensory attributes.
Descriptive language: The words used to describe sensory attributes, such as

"sweet," "salty," "tangy," "creamy," "crunchy," and "bitter."
Understanding the sensory attributes and their characteristics of a product is

essential in sensory evaluation, as it helps to identify and describe the specific
aspects of the product that are important to consumers and to optimize the sensory
experience of the product.
Requirements to Conduct Sensory Evaluation:
To conduct a sensory evaluation, several requirements need to be considered,

including:

Panelists: A trained panel of individuals who have the ability to detect and describe
sensory attributes accurately and consistently. Panelists should have good sensory
acuity, be able to communicate effectively, and have no allergies or health conditions
that could interfere with their sensory abilities.
Test environment: The sensory evaluation should be conducted in a clean, well-lit,

and odor-free room to minimize distractions and ensure accurate sensory evaluation.
Standardized procedures: Standardized procedures should be followed for all

aspects of the sensory evaluation, including the presentation of samples, the use of
rating scales, and the collection of data.
Sample preparation: Samples should be prepared in a consistent manner to ensure

that all panelists are evaluating the same product.
Sample serving: Samples should be served at the appropriate temperature and in the
appropriate portion size to ensure that panelists are evaluating the product as it is
intended to be consumed.
Testing materials: The use of appropriate testing materials, such as disposable

cups, plates, and utensils, is necessary to prevent contamination and ensure
consistency.
Data collection and analysis: Data should be collected in a systematic manner, and
statistical analysis should be performed to ensure that results are reliable and valid.
Ethics: The use of human subjects in sensory evaluation requires ethical

considerations, such as informed consent and confidentiality.
By considering these requirements, a sensory evaluation can provide valuable

insights into the sensory attributes of a product and help to improve the quality and
overall sensory experience of the product.
Sensory Tests:
Sensory tests are conducted to evaluate the sensory attributes of food products.
There are several types of sensory tests that can be conducted, including:
Discrimination tests: Discrimination tests are used to determine if there are

significant differences between two or more products. These tests can be conducted

using two-alternative forced-choice (2-AFC), triangle, duo-trio, or paired-comparison
tests.
Descriptive tests: Descriptive tests are used to identify and quantify the sensory
attributes of a product. These tests can be conducted using trained or semi-trained
panelists who use standardized sensory evaluation methods to describe the product.
Hedonic tests: Hedonic tests are used to determine the overall acceptability of a
product. These tests can be conducted using untrained or trained panelists who rate
the product on a hedonic scale, typically ranging from dislike extremely to like
extremely.
Consumer tests: Consumer tests are conducted to evaluate the acceptability of a

product by the target consumers. These tests can be conducted using consumer
panels who evaluate the product based on their own preferences and experience.
Affective tests: Affective tests are used to measure the emotional response of
panelists to a product. These tests can be conducted using rating scales to measure
emotions such as liking, satisfaction, or preference.
Sensory tests are an important tool for product development, quality control, and
consumer research. By using sensory tests, food manufacturers can identify sensory
defects in their products, develop new products, and optimize the sensory
experience of their products for consumers.

UNIT 4 - Nutrition
Food as a source of Nutrients:
Classification of Nutrients:
Nutrients can be classified into several categories based on their chemical structure
and function in the body. Here is a general classification of nutrients and their
functions:
Macronutrients: These are nutrients that the body needs in relatively large amounts.
They include:
Carbohydrates: The primary source of energy for the body.
Proteins: Essential for the growth and repair of tissues, as well as the synthesis of
enzymes and hormones.
Fats: Provide energy, help to absorb certain vitamins, and contribute to the structure
of cell membranes.
Micronutrients: These are nutrients that the body needs in smaller amounts. They
include:
Vitamins: Organic compounds that are essential for a range of bodily functions,
including vision, immune function, and the production of red blood cells.
Minerals: Inorganic compounds that are essential for a range of bodily functions,
including the formation of bones and teeth, nerve function, and muscle contraction.
Water: Technically not a nutrient, but essential for life. Water plays a vital role in
many bodily functions, including digestion, nutrient absorption, and temperature
regulation.
Functions of Nutrients:
Each nutrient has specific functions in the body. Here's a brief overview of the main
functions of some of the key nutrients:
Carbohydrates: Provide energy for the body's cells and support the central nervous
system.

Proteins: Essential for growth, maintenance, and repair of tissues, as well as the
synthesis of enzymes and hormones.
Fats: Provide energy, help to absorb certain vitamins, and contribute to the structure
of cell membranes.
Vitamins: Essential for many bodily functions, including vision, immune function, and
the production of red blood cells.
Minerals: Essential for a range of bodily functions, including the formation of bones
and teeth, nerve function, and muscle contraction.
Water: Crucial for many bodily functions, including digestion, nutrient absorption,
and temperature regulation.
Overall, nutrients play a vital role in maintaining good health and preventing disease.
A balanced and varied diet that includes all of these nutrients can help support
optimal physical and mental function, and reduce the risk of chronic diseases such
as heart disease, cancer, and diabetes.
Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs)
Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs) are a set of nutrient intake

recommendations developed by the Food and Nutrition Board of the National
Academy of Sciences. RDAs are based on the amount of a nutrient needed to meet
the requirements of nearly all healthy individuals in a particular life stage and gender
group.
The RDAs provide guidelines for the minimum daily intake of various nutrients that
are necessary to maintain good health and prevent deficiencies. The RDAs are based
on a variety of factors, including age, gender, weight, and activity level, as well as
individual health conditions.
Here are some examples of RDAs for various nutrients:
Vitamin C: RDA for adults is 75-90 mg per day

Calcium: RDA for adults is 1000-1200 mg per day
Iron: RDA for adult men is 8 mg per day, and for adult women is 18 mg per day
Vitamin D: RDA for adults is 600-800 IU per day
Zinc: RDA for adult men is 11 mg per day, and for adult women is 8 mg per day

It's important to note that the RDAs are not the same as the optimal levels of nutrient
intake, which may vary depending on an individual's health status, genetics, and
lifestyle factors. However, the RDAs provide a useful guide for ensuring that you are
getting the minimum amount of essential nutrients necessary for good health.
Basal Metabolic rate (BMR)
BMR stands for Basal Metabolic Rate, which is the minimum amount of energy
required by the body to sustain its basic functions at rest.
● BMR accounts for the majority of the body's total energy expenditure and can
be influenced by factors such as age, sex, weight, and muscle mass.
● BMR is typically measured in calories per day and can be estimated using
various equations that take into account factors such as age, sex, weight, and
height.
● Understanding BMR is important for managing weight and maintaining a

healthy metabolism.
● If an individual consumes more calories than their BMR, they may gain
weight, while consuming fewer calories than their BMR can lead to weight
loss.
● BMR provides a baseline estimate of the body's energy needs and can be
useful for developing personalized nutrition and exercise plans.
Overall, BMR is an important concept in understanding the body's energy needs and
can help in developing effective strategies for weight management and maintaining a
healthy metabolism.
Specific Dynamic Action (SDA):
Specific dynamic action (SDA) is the increase in energy expenditure that occurs after
consuming a meal, due to the energy required for digestion, absorption, and
processing of nutrients.
● SDA varies depending on the macronutrient composition of the meal. Protein

has the highest SDA, followed by carbohydrates, while fat has the lowest SDA.
● SDA is also influenced by the size and composition of the meal, as well as
individual factors such as age, sex, and metabolic rate.

● SDA can increase an individual's overall energy expenditure, which can
contribute to weight loss and weight maintenance.
● However, the effect of SDA on energy expenditure is relatively small compared
to other factors, such as physical activity and basal metabolic rate.
● SDA is sometimes referred to as the thermic effect of food (TEF), which refers
to the increase in energy expenditure due to the consumption, digestion, and
absorption of food.
Overall, SDA refers to the increase in energy expenditure that occurs after consuming
a meal, due to the energy required for digestion, absorption, and processing of
nutrients. While SDA can increase overall energy expenditure, its effect is relatively
small compared to other factors such as physical activity and basal metabolic rate
Balanced Diet:
A balanced diet refers to a diet that includes all the essential nutrients in the right
amounts to support good health and prevent nutritional deficiencies. The specific
requirements for a balanced diet may vary depending on factors such as age, sex,
body size, physical activity level, and health status. However, a balanced diet
generally consists of the following food groups in appropriate proportions:
Fruits and vegetables: These provide vitamins, minerals, and fiber. It is

recommended to consume at least 5 servings of fruits and vegetables daily,
including a variety of different colors to ensure a wide range of nutrients.
Whole grains: These provide fiber, vitamins, and minerals. Whole grains include
brown rice, whole wheat bread, oats, and quinoa.
Lean proteins: These provide essential amino acids that the body needs to build and
repair tissues, and help maintain muscle mass. Good sources of lean proteins
include lean meats (such as chicken, fish, and turkey), beans, lentils, tofu, and eggs.
Low-fat dairy products: These provide calcium and vitamin D, which are important
for strong bones and teeth. Good sources of low-fat dairy include milk, yogurt, and
cheese.
Healthy fats: These provide essential fatty acids that the body needs for various
functions, such as maintaining healthy skin and hair, and supporting brain function.
Good sources of healthy fats include nuts, seeds, avocados, olive oil, and fatty fish
(such as salmon and tuna).

In addition to consuming a variety of foods from these food groups, it's also
important to pay attention to portion sizes, limit added sugars and sodium, and stay
hydrated by drinking plenty of water.
Overall, a balanced diet provides the body with the essential nutrients it needs to
function optimally, support good health, and reduce the risk of chronic diseases.
Food Pyramid:
The food pyramid is a visual representation of a balanced diet that was created by
the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) to help people make healthier
food choices. The food pyramid has undergone several changes over the years, and
in 2011, the USDA introduced the MyPlate system as a replacement for the pyramid.
However, the basic principles of the food pyramid still apply.
The food pyramid is divided into six sections, with each section representing a
different food group. The bottom section of the pyramid is the largest, and it
represents the food group that should be consumed in the largest quantities. The
following is a detailed breakdown of each section of the food pyramid:
Grains: This section of the pyramid is the foundation of the diet, and it includes
foods such as bread, pasta, rice, and cereal. It is recommended to consume 6-8
servings of grains per day, with at least half of these being whole grains.
Vegetables: This section of the pyramid includes all types of vegetables, including
dark green, red, and orange vegetables, as well as legumes. It is recommended to
consume 3-5 servings of vegetables per day.
Fruits: This section of the pyramid includes all types of fruits, fresh, canned, frozen,
and dried. It is recommended to consume 2-4 servings of fruits per day.
Milk and dairy: This section of the pyramid includes milk, cheese, and yogurt, which
are good sources of calcium and other important nutrients. It is recommended to
consume 2-3 servings of dairy per day, choosing low-fat or fat-free options when
possible.
Meat, poultry, fish, beans, eggs, and nuts: This section of the pyramid includes a
variety of protein sources, both animal and plant-based. It is recommended to
consume 2-3 servings of protein per day.

Fats, oils, and sweets: This section of the pyramid is at the top, and it includes foods
that should be consumed in moderation, such as butter, margarine, and sweets.
The food pyramid is a useful tool to help people make healthier food choices and
ensure that they are getting all the necessary nutrients for good health. However, it is
important to keep in mind that everyone's dietary needs are different, and a balanced
diet may look slightly different for each person based on their age, sex, body size,
physical activity level, and health status.
Food Exchange list:
A food exchange list is a system for categorizing foods based on their macronutrient
content, specifically carbohydrates, proteins, and fats. The system was initially
developed to help people with diabetes to manage their blood sugar levels, but it can
also be used as a general tool for meal planning, weight management, and healthy
eating.
A food exchange list typically includes several categories of foods, and each
category contains foods with similar nutritional content. For example, the starch

category may include foods like bread, cereal, rice, pasta, and crackers, while the fruit
category may include foods like apples, bananas, oranges, and berries. Within each
category, foods are further classified according to their macronutrient content, with
specific serving sizes provided for each food.
The categories in a food exchange list may vary, but a typical list includes the
following:
Starches: This category includes foods high in carbohydrates such as bread, cereal,
pasta, rice, crackers, and starchy vegetables like potatoes, corn, and peas. One
serving of starch may contain around 15 grams of carbohydrates, 3 grams of protein,
and 1 gram of fat.
Fruits: This category includes whole fruits, fruit juices, and dried fruits. One serving
of fruit contains around 15 grams of carbohydrates and little to no fat or protein.
Vegetables: This category includes non-starchy vegetables like broccoli, spinach,

carrots, and tomatoes. One serving of vegetables contains around 5 grams of
carbohydrates, 2 grams of protein, and little to no fat.
Milk and dairy: This category includes milk, yogurt, and cheese. One serving of milk
or dairy contains around 12 grams of carbohydrates, 8 grams of protein, and little to
no fat.
Meat and meat substitutes: This category includes foods like lean meat, poultry, fish,
tofu, and other plant-based protein sources. One serving of meat or meat substitute
contains around 7 grams of protein and little to no carbohydrates or fat.
Fats: This category includes foods like butter, margarine, and oils. One serving of fat
contains around 5 grams of fat and little to no carbohydrates or protein.
By using a food exchange list, individuals can plan their meals and snacks to ensure
they are consuming the recommended amount of each macronutrient while also
maintaining variety in their diet. It is important to work with a healthcare provider or
registered dietitian to develop a food exchange plan that is tailored to an individual's
specific needs and goals.
Nutritional requirements for Different age Groups
Nutritional requirements refer to the amounts and types of nutrients that an

individual needs to maintain good health, support growth and development, and

prevent nutritional deficiencies and chronic diseases. Nutrients are substances that
are essential for growth, metabolism, and other physiological functions in the body,
including carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins, minerals, and water. The specific
nutritional requirements for an individual depend on various factors such as age,
gender, body weight, physical activity level, and medical conditions. Adequate and
balanced nutrition is essential for optimal health and well-being at all stages of life.
Nutritional requirements for infants:
Infants have specific nutritional requirements to support their growth and

development during the first year of life. The primary source of nutrition for infants is
breast milk or infant formula, which provides all the necessary nutrients for growth
and development.
Here are some specific nutritional requirements for infants:
Energy: Infants require approximately 100-120 kcal/kg/day, depending on their age

and growth rate.
Protein: Infants require approximately 1.5-2.2 g/kg/day of protein to support growth

and development.
Fat: Infants require approximately 40-50% of their total energy intake from fat, which
is important for brain development and energy storage.
Carbohydrates: Infants require approximately 60-65% of their total energy intake

from carbohydrates, which provide energy for growth and development.
Vitamins and minerals: Infants require adequate amounts of vitamins and minerals,
including vitamin D, iron, and calcium, to support bone health and other important
functions.
Breast milk or infant formula provides all the necessary nutrients for infants, and it is
not recommended to introduce solid foods before 4-6 months of age. As infants
grow and their nutrient requirements change, it is important to introduce a variety of
nutrient-dense foods to ensure optimal nutrition. Consultation with a pediatrician or
a registered dietitian can provide guidance on the introduction of complementary
foods and appropriate nutrition for infants.

Nutritional requirements for adults:
The nutritional requirements for adults vary depending on several factors, including
age, gender, body size, physical activity level, and overall health status. Generally,
adults require a balanced diet that provides adequate amounts of essential nutrients,
including:
Carbohydrates: Adults should consume at least 130 grams of carbohydrates per day
to meet the body's energy needs.
Proteins: Adults should consume 0.8 grams of protein per kilogram of body weight
per day to support muscle growth and repair.
Fats: Adults should aim to consume 20-35% of their total daily calories from healthy
sources of fat, such as nuts, seeds, and fatty fish.
Vitamins and minerals: Adults require a range of vitamins and minerals, including
vitamin A, vitamin C, vitamin D, vitamin E, the B vitamins, calcium, iron, and zinc.
Fiber: Adults should aim to consume 25-30 grams of fiber per day to support
digestive health and reduce the risk of chronic diseases.
Water: Adequate water intake is essential for maintaining optimal health, and adults
should aim to consume at least 8-10 cups of water per day.
Nutritional requirements for pregnancy:
During pregnancy, a woman's body undergoes significant changes, and her

nutritional requirements increase to support the growth and development of the
fetus. The following are some of the key nutritional requirements for pregnancy:
Calories: Pregnant women require an additional 300-500 calories per day, depending
on their pre-pregnancy weight and physical activity level.
Protein: Protein needs increase during pregnancy to support the growth and
development of the fetus, and pregnant women should aim to consume 75-100
grams of protein per day.
Folate: Folate is important for preventing birth defects, and pregnant women should
aim to consume 600-800 micrograms of folate per day.

Iron: Iron requirements increase during pregnancy to support the growth of the fetus
and the expansion of the mother's blood volume. Pregnant women should aim to
consume 27 milligrams of iron per day.
Calcium: Calcium is important for fetal bone development, and pregnant women
should aim to consume 1,000-1,300 milligrams of calcium per day.
Vitamin D: Vitamin D is important for calcium absorption and bone health, and
pregnant women should aim to consume 600-800 international units (IU) of vitamin
D per day.
Omega-3 fatty acids: Omega-3 fatty acids are important for fetal brain and eye
development, and pregnant women should aim to consume at least 200 milligrams
of docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) per day.
Nutritional requirements for old:
As people age, their nutritional needs may change. Some important nutritional
requirements for older adults include:
Protein: Older adults need more protein to maintain muscle mass and strength.
Calcium and Vitamin D: These nutrients are important for bone health and can help
prevent osteoporosis.
Fiber: Adequate fiber intake can help with digestion and may reduce the risk of heart
disease and certain types of cancer.
Vitamin B12: This vitamin is important for nerve and blood cell health and is
commonly deficient in older adults.
Water: Older adults are at an increased risk for dehydration, so it's important to drink
plenty of water throughout the day.
It's important for older adults to eat a well-balanced diet that includes a variety of
nutrient-dense foods. Consulting with a healthcare provider or registered dietitian
can also be helpful in addressing individual nutritional needs.

Nutritional Status:
Nutritional status refers to the condition of a person's health as it relates to their diet
and nutrient intake. It reflects whether an individual is getting enough nutrients and
energy to support their growth and overall well-being.
A person's nutritional status is influenced by many factors, including the quality and
quantity of food they eat, their lifestyle habits, health status, and access to food.
Good nutritional status means that a person is consuming a balanced diet that
meets their daily energy and nutrient requirements. On the other hand, poor
nutritional status can lead to malnutrition, which can have serious health
consequences and may increase the risk of various diseases.
Nutritional status can be assessed through various methods, including dietary

assessment, biochemical tests, and anthropometric measurements. Healthcare
professionals may use these methods to evaluate an individual's nutritional status
and identify areas where dietary changes or other interventions may be needed to
improve their health.
Assessment methods:
Nutritional status assessment is the process of evaluating an individual's dietary

intake, physical health, and overall wellbeing to determine whether they are receiving
adequate nutrition. There are two main types of nutritional status assessment
methods: direct and indirect.
Direct methods of nutritional status assessment involve measuring the body's

composition or nutrient stores directly. Some examples include:
Bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA): a non-invasive method that uses electrical

currents to measure body fat and muscle mass.
Dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA): a type of X-ray that measures bone density
and body composition.
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI): a non-invasive imaging technique that can be

used to measure body composition.
Indirect calorimetry: a method that measures the body's energy expenditure by

analyzing oxygen and carbon dioxide levels in the breath.

On the other hand, indirect methods of nutritional status assessment involve
evaluating a person's overall health and nutrition based on factors such as
anthropometric measurements, dietary intake, and blood tests. Some examples
include:
Anthropometric measurements: these include measurements of height, weight,

waist circumference, and body mass index (BMI).
Dietary assessment: this involves analyzing a person's dietary intake through

methods such as food diaries or 24-hour recalls.
Blood tests: these can be used to measure nutrient levels in the body, such as iron or
vitamin D.
Physical examination: a healthcare professional may perform a physical exam to

assess overall health and nutritional status.
Overall, both direct and indirect methods of nutritional status assessment can be
useful in evaluating an individual's overall nutritional health. The choice of method
will depend on factors such as the purpose of the assessment, the available
resources, and the individual's health status.
Malnutrition:
Malnutrition refers to any imbalance in a person's intake of nutrients,

including both undernutrition (not enough nutrients) and overnutrition
(too much of certain nutrients)
Undernutrition specifically refers to the inadequate intake of nutrients

necessary for proper growth and development, leading to a variety of
health problems including stunting, wasting, and micronutrient
deficiencies.
Undernutrition:
Undernutrition is a form of malnutrition that occurs when an individual does not

consume sufficient nutrients required for proper growth and development. It can
affect people of all ages, but children are particularly vulnerable, as they require more
nutrients for growth and development.

Undernutrition can take many forms, including:
Stunting: Stunting occurs when a child does not receive enough nutrients to support
normal growth and development. It results in a child being shorter than expected for
their age.
Wasting: Wasting occurs when a child is not getting enough calories, causing them
to lose weight and become thin.
Micronutrient deficiencies: Micronutrient deficiencies occur when an individual does

not consume enough vitamins and minerals required for proper bodily functions.
This can lead to health problems such as anemia, goiter, and night blindness.
Undernutrition is a significant global health issue, particularly in low-income

countries and regions affected by conflict or natural disasters. According to the
World Health Organization (WHO), 144 million children under the age of five are
stunted, and 47 million are wasted. Undernutrition can have serious long-term
consequences, including impaired cognitive development and lower educational
achievement. This can, in turn, lead to reduced earning potential and a lower quality
of life.
There are many factors that contribute to undernutrition, including poverty, lack of
access to nutritious food, poor sanitation, and hygiene. In some cases, cultural
practices or traditions can also contribute to undernutrition, such as restrictive diets
or early marriage and childbirth.
Addressing undernutrition requires a comprehensive approach that includes

increasing access to nutritious food, improving education and awareness around
proper nutrition, and improving sanitation and hygiene. Governments, NGOs, and
other organizations can play a role in addressing undernutrition by implementing
programs that provide food assistance, improve agricultural productivity, and
promote healthy behaviors.
In conclusion, undernutrition is a significant global health issue that can have serious
long-term consequences, particularly for children. Addressing undernutrition requires
a multi-faceted approach that addresses the root causes of the problem, including
poverty, lack of access to nutritious food, and poor sanitation and hygiene. By
working together, we can help ensure that all individuals have access to the nutrients
they need to live healthy and productive lives

Vitamins :
Vitamins are organic compounds that are essential in small quantities for the proper
functioning of the body. They are necessary for various physiological processes such
as growth and development, energy production, immune function, and maintenance
of overall health. Vitamins cannot be synthesized in sufficient quantities by the body,
and therefore, they must be obtained through the diet or supplements. There are 13
essential vitamins, including fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E, K) and water-soluble
vitamins (B vitamins and vitamin C). Each vitamin has a specific role in the body and
deficiency of any vitamin can lead to various health problems.
Classification of Vitamins and there Functions:
Vitamins can be classified into two main categories: fat-soluble vitamins and
allwater-soluble vitamins. Here is a detailed classification of vitamins:
Fat-soluble vitamins:
Fat-soluble vitamins are those that dissolve in fats and oils and are stored in the
body's fatty tissues. These vitamins are absorbed along with dietary fats and are not
easily excreted, so excessive intake can lead to toxicity. The four fat-soluble vitamins
are:
Vitamin A (retinol): essential for vision, immune function, and growth and
development.
Vitamin D (calciferol): helps the body absorb calcium and phosphorus, important for
bone health.
Vitamin E (tocopherol): acts as an antioxidant, protecting cells from damage caused
by free radicals.
Vitamin K (phylloquinone and menaquinone): plays a role in blood clotting and bone
metabolism.
Water-soluble vitamins:
Water-soluble vitamins dissolve in water and are not stored in the body to the same
extent as fat-soluble vitamins. Excess water-soluble vitamins are usually excreted in
the urine. The eight water-soluble vitamins are:
Vitamin B1 (thiamine): helps convert food into energy and is important for nerve
function.
Vitamin B2 (riboflavin): important for energy production and cell function.
Vitamin B3 (niacin): important for energy production and maintaining healthy skin
and nerves.
Vitamin B5 (pantothenic acid): helps produce hormones and is important for energy
production.

Vitamin B6 (pyridoxine): involved in protein metabolism and nervous system
function.
Vitamin B7 (biotin): important for metabolism and healthy skin, hair, and nails.
Vitamin B9 (folic acid or folate): important for cell growth and division and can
prevent certain birth defects.
Vitamin B12 (cobalamin): important for red blood cell formation, nerve function, and
DNA synthesis.
In addition to the above categories, there is also a category of vitamin-like
compounds called coenzymes, which are essential for many metabolic processes in
the body. One example of a coenzyme is coenzyme Q10
Minerals:
Minerals are naturally occurring inorganic substances that are essential nutrients for
the human body. They are required in relatively small amounts, but play a crucial role
in maintaining various physiological functions such as building strong bones and
teeth, regulating body fluids, and producing energy. Some common dietary minerals
include calcium, iron, magnesium, potassium, sodium, and zinc. These minerals can
be obtained through a balanced diet that includes a variety of nutrient-rich foods,
such as fruits, vegetables, dairy products, and whole grains.
Classification of Minerals and there Functions:
Minerals can be classified into two categories: macrominerals and trace minerals.
Macrominerals: These are required in larger amounts by the body and include
calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, sodium, potassium, chloride, and sulfur.
Functions of Macrominerals:
Calcium: Essential for building strong bones and teeth, nerve and muscle function,
blood clotting, and regulating blood pressure.
Phosphorus: Required for energy production, building strong bones and teeth, and
maintaining healthy cell membranes.
Magnesium: Important for muscle and nerve function, regulating blood pressure, and
maintaining healthy bones and teeth.
Sodium: Regulates fluid balance in the body, nerve and muscle function, and blood
pressure.
Potassium: Helps to maintain fluid and electrolyte balance, nerve and muscle
function, and regulating blood pressure.
Chloride: Helps maintain fluid and electrolyte balance and plays a role in digestion.

Sulfur: Important for the structure of proteins, such as hair and nails.
Trace Minerals: These are required in smaller amounts by the body and include iron,
zinc, copper, manganese, selenium, iodine, and fluoride.
Functions of Trace Minerals:
Iron: Important for transporting oxygen in the blood and energy production.
Zinc: Important for immune function, wound healing, and cell growth and division.
Copper: Helps form collagen, bone and connective tissue, and plays a role in iron
metabolism.
Manganese: Helps to form bone and connective tissue and plays a role in energy
metabolism.
Selenium: Important for antioxidant function and immune function.
Iodine: Required for the production of thyroid hormones, which regulate metabolism.
Fluoride: Important for the formation of strong teeth and bones.
It's important to note that each mineral has multiple functions in the body, and a
deficiency in any of these minerals can lead to various health problems.
Dietary Sources:
Dietary sources of vitamins and minerals vary depending on the specific nutrient.
Here are some examples of dietary sources of common vitamins and minerals:
Vitamin A: found in foods such as liver, fish, dairy products, and orange or yellow
fruits and vegetables.
Vitamin B1 (thiamin): found in foods such as whole grains, fortified cereals, beans,
and nuts.
Vitamin B2 (riboflavin): found in foods such as dairy products, leafy green
vegetables, and whole grains.
Vitamin B3 (niacin): found in foods such as meat, poultry, fish, and fortified cereals.
Vitamin B5 (pantothenic acid): found in foods such as meat, poultry, fish, and whole
grains.
Vitamin B6 (pyridoxine): found in foods such as meat, fish, poultry, nuts, and beans.
Vitamin B7 (biotin): found in foods such as egg yolks, nuts, and whole grains.
Vitamin B9 (folate): found in foods such as leafy green vegetables, beans, and
fortified cereals.

Vitamin B12 (cobalamin): found in foods such as meat, poultry, fish, and dairy
products.
Vitamin C: found in foods such as citrus fruits, strawberries, kiwi, and bell peppers.
Vitamin D: found in foods such as fatty fish, egg yolks, and fortified dairy products.
Vitamin E: found in foods such as nuts, seeds, and vegetable oils.
Vitamin K: found in foods such as leafy green vegetables, broccoli, and soybeans.
Calcium: found in foods such as dairy products, leafy green vegetables, and fortified
plant-based milks.
Iron: found in foods such as red meat, poultry, fish, beans, and fortified cereals.
Magnesium: found in foods such as leafy green vegetables, nuts, seeds, and whole
grains.
Potassium: found in foods such as bananas, potatoes, beans, and dairy products.
Sodium: found in foods such as table salt, processed foods, and some dairy
products.
Zinc: found in foods such as meat, poultry, fish, and fortified cereals.
Copper: found in foods such as liver, shellfish, nuts, and seeds.
Manganese: found in foods such as whole grains, nuts, and leafy green vegetables.
Selenium: found in foods such as fish, poultry, and nuts.
Iodine: found in foods such as seaweed, fish, and dairy products.
Fluoride: found in foods such as fluoridated water and tea.
It's important to note that the nutrient content of foods can vary depending on the
method of preparation and cooking, as well as the source of the food. A balanced
diet that includes a variety of nutrient-rich foods is the best way to ensure adequate
intake of vitamins and minerals.
RDA Deficiencies and Excess:
RDA (Recommended Dietary Allowance) is the average daily level of nutrient intake
that is sufficient to meet the nutrient requirements of nearly all healthy individuals. It
is used as a guideline to help people ensure they are meeting their nutrient needs
through their diet.
Deficiencies:
If nutrient intake is consistently below the RDA, a deficiency can occur. Nutrient
deficiencies can lead to various health problems. For example:
A deficiency in vitamin C can lead to scurvy, a disease that causes weakness,

fatigue, and bruising.
A deficiency in iron can lead to anemia, which can cause fatigue, weakness, and
shortness of breath.

A deficiency in vitamin D can lead to rickets, a condition that causes soft and weak
bones.
Excess:
Consuming too much of certain nutrients can also have negative health
consequences. Consuming levels of a nutrient above the tolerable upper intake level
(UL) can lead to toxicity or adverse effects. For example:
Excess consumption of vitamin A can cause dizziness, nausea, and even liver
damage.
Consuming excessive amounts of iron can lead to iron overload, which can cause
organ damage and other health problems.
Consuming excessive amounts of sodium can increase blood pressure and increase
the risk of heart disease and stroke.
It's important to note that the RDA is not a one-size-fits-all recommendation and
individual nutrient needs can vary based on age, gender, activity level, and other
factors. It's important to talk to a healthcare provider or registered dietitian for
personalized guidance on nutrient intake.
RDA, deficiencies, and excess for some of the major nutrients:
Vitamin C:
RDA: 90 mg/day for men, 75 mg/day for women
Deficiency: A deficiency of vitamin C can lead to scurvy, which causes symptoms
such as weakness, fatigue, and bruising. Other symptoms can include joint pain and
swollen gums.
Excess: Consuming high levels of vitamin C from supplements can lead to digestive
upset, including nausea, diarrhea, and abdominal cramps.
Iron:
RDA: 8 mg/day for men, 18 mg/day for women
Deficiency: A deficiency in iron can lead to anemia, which can cause fatigue,
weakness, and shortness of breath. Iron deficiency anemia can also cause
headaches, dizziness, and pale skin.
Excess: Consuming excessive amounts of iron can lead to iron overload, which can
cause organ damage and other health problems. Symptoms of iron overload can
include abdominal pain, joint pain, and fatigue.
Vitamin D:
RDA: 600-800 IU/day
Deficiency: A deficiency in vitamin D can lead to rickets, a condition that causes soft
and weak bones. In adults, vitamin D deficiency can lead to osteoporosis, which
increases the risk of fractures.

Excess: Consuming excessive amounts of vitamin D from supplements can lead to
toxicity, which can cause symptoms such as nausea, vomiting, and kidney damage.
Calcium:
RDA: 1000-1300 mg/day depending on age and gender
Deficiency: A deficiency in calcium can lead to weak bones, which can increase the
risk of fractures. In children, calcium deficiency can lead to rickets.
Excess: Consuming excessive amounts of calcium can lead to kidney stones,
constipation, and other digestive problems. It can also interfere with the absorption
of other minerals such as iron and zinc.
Sodium:
RDA: 2300 mg/day or less
Deficiency: Sodium deficiency is rare, as most people consume more than the RDA.
However, in rare cases, low levels of sodium can cause symptoms such as
confusion, seizures, and coma.
Excess: Consuming excessive amounts of sodium can increase blood pressure and
increase the risk of heart disease and stroke. It can also contribute to fluid retention
and bloating.
It's important to note that the RDA is not a one-size-fits-all recommendation and
individual nutrient needs can vary based on age, gender, activity level, and other
factors. It's important to talk to a healthcare provider or registered dietitian for
personalized guidance on nutrient intake. Additionally, it's important to aim for a
balanced diet that includes a variety of nutrient-rich foods and to avoid consuming
excessive amounts of any one nutrient.

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UNIT 1 - Foods of Plant Origin

Cereals typically have a structure consisting of three parts:

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Functional Properties of Cereals:

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Fermentation: Cereals can be used as a source of fermentable carbohydrates, which

Texturization: Cereals can be processed to create a range of textures, such as flakes,

The functional properties of cereals are important in food processing and

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Carbohydrates: Millets are primarily composed of carbohydrates, with starch being

Antioxidants: Millets contain several antioxidant compounds, including phenolic

Functional Properties of Millets:

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These functional properties make millets a versatile ingredient in various food

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Functional Role in Food Products:

Thickener: Pectin is used as a thickener in many food products, such as yogurts,

Emulsifier: Pectin is used as an emulsifier in many food products, such as

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Beverages: Pectin is used as a thickener and emulsifier in many beverages, such as

Confectionery: Pectin is used in the production of confectionery, such as gummy

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Functional Role in Food Products:

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Gums have a wide range of applications in the food industry, including:

Confectionery: Gums are used in many confectionery products such as gummies,

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Its Role in nutrition:

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Supporting gut microbiota: Certain types of dietary fiber can be fermented by

Carbohydrates: Pulses are a good source of complex carbohydrates, which are

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Anti-nutritional factors of Pulses:

Protease inhibitors: These compounds can interfere with protein digestion by

Effect of cooking Pulses:

Cooking pulses can have several effects, including:

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Reduction of anti-nutrients: Cooking can reduce the levels of anti-nutrients such as

Carbohydrates: Legumes are a rich source of carbohydrates, including both simple

Vitamins: Legumes are a good source of several vitamins, particularly B vitamins

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Phytonutrients: Legumes contain a variety of beneficial plant compounds, including

Anti-nutritional factors of Legumes:

Oligosaccharides: Legumes contain oligosaccharides, which can cause gas and

These anti-nutritional factors can be reduced or eliminated by various methods,

Effect of cooking Legumes:

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Increased mineral bioavailability: Cooking legumes can break down anti-nutrients

Reduction of anti-nutrients: Cooking legumes can reduce the levels of anti-nutrients

Pulses toxic constituents:

Phytohaemagglutinin: Phytohaemagglutinin is a type of lectin found in red kidney

Lathyrogens: Lathyrogens are compounds found in some pulses, such as chickpeas

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Flatulence-causing oligosaccharides: Some pulses, such as beans and lentils,

It's detoxification process:

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Vegetables and Fruits:

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