‘All believers are primalists underneath’: Towards a new

appreciation of Old Testament religion as primal religion

Gillian M. Bediako © 2007
Akrofi-Christaller Institute of Theology, Mission and Culture
Akropong-Akuapem, Ghana

Public Lecture at Calvin College

Meeter Center Lecture Hall
Grand Rapids, Michigan
25 July 2007

Introduction: Understanding ‘primal’ and its place in Christian history

In view of the fact that it ought to have been Professor Andrew Walls giving a lecture
here this evening, I thought it would be appropriate to introduce my topic with a
quotation from one of his writings. ‘All believers … are primalists underneath’.1 But
what is meant by ‘primal’, and why is it important for us as Christians to pay attention to
it for understanding ourselves and our faith? This statement draws our attention to one
important feature of primal religion, but which we are largely unaware of, and that is, the
fact that it constitutes the fundamental substratum to all subsequent religious experience,
providing universal, basic elements of human understanding of the Transcendent and the
world, essential and valid religious insights that may be built upon or suppressed, but
which cannot be superseded.2 Primal means more than primeval or archetypal, in that it
gives account of an enduring consciousness of the spiritual nature of the universe that
translates into coherent religious beliefs and ways of living religiously.
What makes primal religion significant for Christians is the historical fact that primal
religion has constituted the most fertile soil for the reception of the Christian gospel
throughout Christian history. The primal religions have constituted the religious
background of the majority of Christians of all ages and places, including Christians of
European ancestry, as the gospel spread first to the Gentile peoples of the Mediterranean
basin and then a few centuries later to the peoples of Northern and Western Europe,
whom the civilised Romans called the ‘barbarians’. Of course, in the past century, the
massive expansion of Christian faith on the continents of Africa, Latin America, the
Pacific and parts of Asia merely serves to confirm this pattern and make it visible and
concrete.
This extremely positive response to the Christian gospel among peoples of a primal
background does not derive from any inherent weakness or inferiority in primal religion
with respect to other religious traditions, for the new creative stages in Christian thought

1
Andrew F. Walls, ‘Primal religious traditions in today’s world’, in his The Missionary Movement in
Christian History, Studies in the Transmission of Faith (Edinburgh/Maryknoll, NY: T & T Clark/Orbis
Books, 1996), pp.120-21.
2
Walls, ‘Primal religious traditions in today’s world’, p.121.
 2

and life that have tended historically to emerge out of this encounter demonstrate that it
has been the primal spirituality, now infused with Christian faith, that has taken Christian
expansion to a new stage, often coming to the rescue of tired or imperilled forms of
Christianity. Again, this is a feature of our time. It is the forms of Christian life, thought
and worship in the primal settings of Latin America, parts of Asia and the Pacific, and
especially in Africa and the African Christian communities now established in the
African Diaspora, that hold the potential for revitalising the contemporary church in the
West.

The legacy of the Enlightenment in Western perceptions of primal religion

We may find this historical link between primal religion and Christian expansion rather
puzzling or at best unfamiliar. This is not surprising. The tendency among Protestants, in
particular, to make sharp distinctions between nature and grace, natural and revealed
religion, or general revelation and special revelation have not disposed us to reflect
deeply on the dynamics involved in religious encounter as a feature of Christian
expansion. With respect to primal religion, there is a further problematic element. There
has long been a consensus in the West that the primal religions of the world, often
designated by the term ‘Animism’, were as backward and primitive as the people who
practised them. The term ‘Animism’ was first coined by the nineteenth century British
anthropologist, E. B. Tylor, to denote the religious system of traditional societies, and
was held to correspond to the presumed social, technological and moral inferiority of
these ‘uncivilised’ peoples. Tylor built up a picture of a religious system that was
‘unmoral’ and ‘devoid of that ethical element which to the educated modern mind is the
very mainspring of practical religion’.3 Of course, for Tylor, there was the need for the
modern mind to progress beyond religion altogether. For him, Christianity, with its belief
in spiritual reality, was also animistic! In all probability, Tylor never met any of the
people whose religious life and practice he wrote about. He was an armchair
anthropologist.
Yet at the World Missionary Conference held in Edinburgh in 1910, the ‘high-water mark
of the missionary movement from the West’,4 Tylor’s term, ‘Animism’, became the term
used by Western missionaries to describe ‘the religious beliefs of more or less backward
and degraded peoples all over the world’, as such people were described.5 These religions
were held to be the farthest removed from Christianity, at the bottom of a scale of
religions that rose through polytheism to monotheism, with Christianity being seen as the
highest and most civilised of the monotheistic faiths. . This sense of hierarchy among the
world's religions had been captured in the third edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica,
issued at the end of the eighteenth century, in the following terms:

3
E.B. Tylor, Primitive Culture, Researches into the Development of Mythology, Philosophy, Religion, Art
and Custom (2 vols) (London: John Murray, 1891 3 rev), Vol. 1, p.426.
4
Andrew F. Walls, The Cross-Cultural Process in Christian History (Edinburgh/Maryknoll, NY: T & T
Clark/Orbis Books, 2002), p.117.
5
W.H.T. Gairdner, Edinburgh 1910 – An Account and Interpretation of the World Missionary Conference
(London: Oliphant, Anderson & Ferrier, 1910), p. 139.
 3

When the different systems of religion that have prevailed in the world are comparatively
viewed with respect to their influence on the welfare of society, we find reason to prefer the
polytheism of the Greeks and Romans to the ruder, wilder religious ideas and ceremonies that
have prevailed among savages; Mahometanism, perhaps in some respects, to the polytheism
of the Greeks and Romans; Judaism however to Mahometanism and Christianity to all of
them.6

Edinburgh 1910 echoed this perception.Animism was thus described as ‘the humblest of
all possible teachers … and the least sublime of all the five great creeds’ – by which was
meant, Chinese religions, religions of Japan, Islam, Hinduism, and Animism.7 Animism
was held by many missionary participants not to provide any preparation for the Christian
gospel and even to have ‘no religious content’.8

The legacy of the Enlightenment in Western perceptions of the Old Testament

This generally negative perception of primal religion has continued to live on, as has also
a continuing perception of Christianity as civilised religion at the top of a hierarchy of
religions. These perspectives manifest themselves in a lack of awareness of what is
actually the driving force behind the massive shifts in Christian allegiance that are taking
place at the present time. But they are manifested in other ways too. For our purposes, I
wish to draw our attention to the profound unease that many Western Christians feel with
respect to the religious and cultural world of the Old Testament. As Professor Walls
commented in his presentation to our consultation by video-link earlier this week, the Old
Testament is viewed in the way one might think of a rather eccentric or outrageous old
relative – someone who belongs to the family, but whom we would prefer to keep out of
sight in a back room!
By contrast, it is evident that in the newer Christian manifestations among peoples of the
South who come from a primal religious background, the Old Testament is not in any
way perceived as strange or alien. Southern Christians find themselves very much at
home, religiously and culturally, in the Old Testament world, which was in fact the Bible
of the early Christians. When Paul wrote ‘according to the Scriptures’, he meant what we
now call the Old Testament. Kenyan Christian theologian, John Mbiti, articulates well
this experience in his comment that when Africans enter the world of the Bible, ‘they do
not have very far to go before they realise they are walking on familiar ground’.9 This
sense of familiarity with the Old Testament finds expression in many aspects of Christian
life and thought and in the forms of church structure that have developed.10 One scholarly
recognition of this is found in methods of classification, which set Independent Churches

6
‘Religions’, Encyclopaedia Britannica (17973), Vol. 16, p. 77.
7
Gairdner, Edinburgh 1910, p.141.
8
World Missionary Conference 1910: Report of Commission IV - The Missionary Message in Relation to
Non-Christian Religions (Edinburgh & London: Oliphant, Anderson & Ferrier, 1910), p.52.
9
John S. Mbiti, ’Christianity and East African culture and religion’, Dini na Mila, Vol. 3, No. 1 (May
1968): 4.
10
Philip Jenkins, in his book, The New Faces of Christianity, Believing the Bible in the Global South (New
York: OUP, 2006), provides a recent compilation of material demonstrating this in his chapter 3 on ‘Old
and New’.
 4

and other new religious movements along a spectrum that includes the extent or
otherwise of their ‘Hebraic’ tendencies.11
At this point, I would like to illustrate this Western Christian unease with the religious
and cultural world of the Old Testament by considering very briefly the thought of one
Protestant scholar came to acknowledge a primal substructure to the Old Testament.
William Robertson Smith was a young and brilliant Scottish Professor of Hebrew and
Old Testament in the Aberdeen Free Church College in the early 1870s, who became
preoccupied very early on with the relationship of the religion of the Old Testament to
the religions of the surrounding Semitic peoples. He came to the conviction, which has
since become widely shared by African theologians and biblical scholars, that ‘no
positive religion12…has been able to start with a tabula rasa and express itself as if
religion were beginning for the first time”.13 He was articulating the important insight
that the revelation of God never comes into a vacuum. It must always connect with
something in the religious consciousness of those to whom it comes. It became his
lifelong concern to discern the Semitic religious and cultural sub-structure upon which
the revelation of Yahweh came to be built up into the revealed religion of the Old
Testament, and to discern the continuities and discontinuities. He was concerned to
affirm the uniqueness of the religion of the Old Testament and of the Christian faith, but
in a non-doctrinaire, non-dogmatic manner that took into account the growing awareness
of religious plurality and its implications for communicating religious truth, the fact that
one cannot talk meaningfully about the gospel without connecting it to the religious
realities of the people one is speaking to.
While Smith had support in the church, the majority of the leadership of the Free Church
of Scotland (the evangelical wing that had broken away from the Church of Scotland in
the Disruption of 1843) did not see any validity in these concerns, and after a protracted
trial for heresy, the General Assembly condemned Smith as a heretic, barring him from
teaching in the Free Church College, though not defrocking him as a minister. The church
was deeply shocked that Smith found reflections of ‘primitive’ Semitic religion, with all
its negative associations, within the Old Testament, and it was his article, ‘Animal
worship and animal tribes among the Arabs and in the Old Testament’, which
precipitated the final judgement in the heresy trial.14 They believed Smith had also sold

11
Harold Turner was one such pioneer in developing a typology for new religious movements along such a
scale. See his, ‘Survey article: The study of the new religious movements of Africa, 1968–1975’, Journal
of Religion and Religions, 6 (Spring 1976), pp.88–98.
12
By ‘positive religion’ Smith meant religions that ‘trace their origins to the teaching of great religious
innovators…as organs of a divine revelation and deliberately departed from the traditions of the past’ in
contrast to the ‘old unconscious religious tradition…that inheritance from the past into which successive
generations…grew up…instinctively, taking it as a matter of course that they should behave and act as their
fathers had done before them’. (William Robertson Smith, Lectures on the Religion of the Semites, First
Series, The Fundamental Institutions (with introduction and additional notes by S.A. Cook; London: A & C
Black, 19273, p.1-2).
13
Smith, Religion of the Semites, p.2. Among African scholars who affirmed this point were Harry Sawyerr
and Edward W. Fasholé-Luke of Sierra Leone. See Gillian M. Bediako, Primal Religion and the Bible,
William Robertson Smith and his Heritage (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1997), p. 374.
14
Bediako, Primal Religion and the Bible, p. 201.
 5

out to the liberal German school of thought that devised what came to be known as the
‘Graf-Wellhausen hypothesis’, by which the evolutionary progress of the religion of the
Old Testament could be demonstrated on the basis of a presumed documentary
development dissected out from within the Old Testament text.
In fact, Smith was not a liberal after the manner of many of the German Protestant
theologians of the time. He maintained to the end of his life, as his sermons show, the
evangelical convictions of his youth and a concern to be, above all, an apologist for
Christian faith in an environment where Christian truth claims were being increasingly
challenged. As Smith expressed it:

The real difficulty lies not in any one institution of the Old Testament, but in the fact that the
Christian dispensation was preceded by an Old Testament dispensation at all. Let individual
limitations be spiritualised away as far as you please, it will still be true that the Old
Testament dispensation as such is full of national, local, temporary interests. It will still be
true that it was the history of a single nation that led up to the manifestation of Christ. 15

In other words, how can one claim universality for a religion that had such clearly
particular roots? This was the question Smith sought to address as an attempt to vindicate
the Christian faith.
But even this manner of expressing the problem shows he was a child of his time, and he
also followed the views of contemporary cultural anthropologists in his presumption that
the Semitic religious substructure of the revealed religion of the Old Testament was
‘primitive’ in nature.

[T]he superstitions [in Israel] with which the spiritual religion had to contend were not one
whit less degrading than those of the most savage nations…It does not appear that Israel was,
by its own wisdom, more fitting than any other nation to rise above the lowest level of
heathenism.16

As a result, his concern was to trace the evolutionary development that led to the revealed
religion of the Old Testament being built upon this primitive basis, beginning with the 8th
and 7th century prophets such as Amos, Hosea, Isaiah, Micah and Jeremiah. Religious and
cultural evolution thus came to define the relationship between the Semitic substructure
and the revealed religion of the time of the prophets. By a strange irony, the dichotomies
of nature and grace, natural and revealed religion, accepted within the Reformed
tradition, fitted in very well with this evolutionary conception of religious development in
the Old Testament.
From our vantage point of sharing in a world Christianity that lives and grows by
engaging with primal religion, one may say that Smith was asking important questions
but did not have the tools with which to answer them. We may also say that he typifies a
Western handicap in dealing with primal religion and its relation to the religion of the
Old Testament. First of all, there is the basic presumption of an evolutionary

15
William Robertson Smith, ‘On prophecy’ (1876), in J.S. Black & G. Chrystal (eds.), Lectures and Essays
of William Robertson Smith (Edinburgh: A & C Black, 1912), pp. 341–9 (346).
16
William Robertson Smith, ‘Animal worship and animal tribes among the Arabs and in the Old
Testament’ (1880), in Lectures and Essays, pp. 455–83 (482–3).
 6

development of religion from primitive beginnings that are viewed as virtually entirely
negative. In tracing the development of the institution of sacrifice, for example, Smith
judged the age of particular rites by how crude they appeared to be, and discerned the
origin of sacrifice in the rite that seemed to him the most crude.17 Levitical traditions
represented a higher form, but in fact, even the highest forms of sacrificial worship in the
Old Testament ‘present much that is repulsive to modern ideas and in particular it
requires an effort to reconcile our imagination to the bloody ritual which is prominent in
almost every religion which has a strong sense of sin’.18 For him, the superiority of
Christianity lay in its fulfilment of the work of the 8th and 7th century prophets, which he
perceived as the ‘sublimation of the contents of religion’, where people enjoy the
‘assurance of forgiveness, freedom of access to His holiness and joyful obedience to his
moral kingship’ in a pure and spiritual way, without need of external aids or ritual acts to
make that access possible.19
This leads us to a second Western handicap that Smith typifies, and that is in his view of
Christianity as the most civilised of all religions. Smith thus identified a series of
perceived antitheses between primal (primitive Semitic) religion and Christian faith,
which tend to override the continuities that he also discerned. He considered primal
Semitic religion as barbaric and crude, and lacking a sense of sin, as simple, not complex,
consisting of unconscious unhistorical traditions, as against the revealed historical
traditions of Christianity. He held it to be childish, immature and intellectually
inadequate, in contrast to the mature, historical and intellectual acuteness of Christian
thought. He considered it materialistic, irrational and incapable of conceptual thinking, in
contrast to the European Christian ideal of a rational spirituality capable of abstract
thought. He saw it as naturalistic religion, as against ethical religion, Christianity being
the most ethical of all religions.20
With respect to the biblical material, however, this understanding left Smith as a
churchman in a dilemma in two areas. First, if in its presumed evolutionary journey, the
revealed religion of the Old Testament emerged fully only in the age of the writing
prophets, what are Christians to make of the Ten Commandments, considered under this
scheme as too ethically advanced for the time of Moses and yet attributed to Moses in the
Scriptures as the foundation of the Torah? Second, if the institution of sacrifice as a
phenomenon remains ‘repulsive’ to Western Christian sensibilities, and Christianity
achieves the ‘sublimation of religious content’, what does that mean for our
understanding of the death of Christ as sacrifice? While Smith did not deal explicitly with
these two issues, there is evidence from his writings that neither of them was
satisfactorily resolved in his mind. What is most striking is his silence on the death of
Christ as sacrifice in his exegesis of biblical texts where this interpretation can scarcely
be avoided, such as the Epistle to the Hebrews. Smith was prepared to see Jesus in a

17
Bediako, Primal Religion and the Bible, p. 334–36.
18
William Robertson Smith, ‘Sacrifice’, in Encyclopaedia Britannica (18869) XXI, pp. 132–8 (138).
19
Smith, William Robertson, Prophets of Israel (London: A and C Black, 1882); also his article, ‘Prophet’,
for the Encyclopaedia Britannica (9th edition), Vol. 19, 1885, pp. 814-23 (819-20). For a fuller discussion,
see Ch. 8 of my Primal Religion and the Bible.
20
I identify these antitheses in my Primal Religion and the Bible, pp. 326–36.
 7

mediatorial role as High Priest, but said nothing about his role as the perfect sacrifice for
the sin of the world.21
It is possible to suggest, then, that when one begins to view the Old Testament (and the
Scriptures generally) less from the standpoint of Christian doctrine or typology and more
from the perspective of the phenomenology of religion, Old Testament religion and even
the fundamentals of Christian faith itself become less than congenial to modern Western
sensibilities. Perhaps we have returned to the days of Marcion, a man who achieved some
notoriety in the early church for considering the Old Testament, and much of the New
Testament also, as ‘barbarian’, when set against ‘civilised’ Greek culture and for wishing
to excise from the Bible these parts he considered uncongenial.
But we find ourselves also in a new situation since belief in the evolution of cultures and
religions became a new orthodoxy, with Western culture and Christianity seen as the
most civilised, and it is this Western Christian self-understanding that has shaped Old
Testament scholarship for almost two centuries. For it can be shown that the documentary
hypothesis derived to a considerable extent from these presumed antitheses of primitive
and civilised religion, as a means of gauging the age of texts and sections of text by their
perceived level of advancement away from primitive forms.22 Even if Old Testament
scholars are no longer so confident of the documentary hypothesis or that it gives us
‘assured results’ in elucidating the Old Testament, modern scholarship continues to build
upon it or pay lip service to it in one way or another. Most introductions to the Old
Testament still speak of ‘the Yahwist’, ‘the Elohist’ and ‘the Priestly writer’, and still
assign the corresponding documents, or traditions, or schools of thought, to specific eras,
following the old assumptions.
Where evangelical scholars have sought to distance themselves from this evolutionary
perspective, it has sometimes been on predetermined dogmatic and doctrinal grounds that
have not challenged its roots in its assumptions about the nature of primal religion.
Where evangelical scholars have sought to suggest greater antiquity for traditions
considered late or a more positive role for oral tradition in the preservation of history, or
to discern an underlying religious unity in the Old Testament over against the tendency to
polarisation,23 these have been minority voices that have not overturned the general
consensus. The contemporary postmodernist counter-tradition, while making much of
‘the Other’ and foregrounding hitherto marginalised ‘readings’, betrays a lack of real
engagement with primal religious realities and the convictions of Christians from a
primal background. 24 Western biblical scholarship of the past two centuries, therefore,
has been geared to making sense of the Old Testament in categories it has found
congenial, largely oblivious to what could be learnt from primal contexts.

21
For an extensive discussion of this issue, see Bediako, Primal Religion and the Bible, pp. 369–72.
22
Bediako, Primal Religion and the Bible, Ch. 3.
23
For specific examples, see Bediako, Primal Religion and the Bible, pp. 251–53.
24
John J. Collins, The Bible after Babel, Historical Criticism in a Postmodern Age (Grand Rapids:
Eerdmans, 2005).
 8

Turning things upside down: What African primal religion in its encounter with
Christian faith brings to our attention
Yet the massive movement of peoples from a primal religious background into the church
and the consequent expansion of Christian life across the South, affords us an
unprecedented opportunity to discover what these present realities can reveal about the
Old Testament.
For if it is the case that persons from a primal background are the ones who embrace the
Christian gospel the most readily, who find that ‘on entering the Bible, they do not have
far to go before they find themselves on familiar ground’, and whose God, hallowed from
ancient times, is now revealed in the translated Scriptures to be the God and Father of our
Lord Jesus Christ, then this has far-reaching ramifications for how we understand the
nature of primal religion, the nature of Old Testament religion and the nature of Christian
faith itself.
For this lecture, I am focusing on African evidence, partly because I am most familiar
with it, but also because there is a depth of African scholarship that has sought to argue
for a preparation for the gospel in African primal religions.25 I should also indicate that
what I share here reflects my own learning in and from Africa. The observations I make
merely open a window on what could constitute a new field in biblical studies from the
South.
If African primal religions, so long presumed primitive and therefore without an elevated
concept of deity, in fact bear witness to a High God who is sufficiently ethically elevated
to be identified as the Creator of the universe and the God and Father of our Lord Jesus
Christ, to whom the Scriptures in African mother tongues testify, then we need not be
suspicious of ancient testimony in the Scriptures to a Supreme Deity of similar nature. It
becomes possible to understand the giving of Torah to Moses as an authentic historical
memory, as well as the subsequent struggle between ethical and unethical forms of primal
religion. Because of the African experience of recognising in their Creator God the God
and Father of our Lord Jesus Christ on the basis of shared attributes, when the gospel
came, we have opportunity to understand in a new way the Old Testament recognition of
El ’Elyon, Elohim and Yahweh, as one and the same, with these and all the other names
ascribed to him in the Old Testament existing side by side, and giving account of aspects
of religious experience.
We need not dismiss the patriarchal narratives as the retrojections of a later age, on the
grounds, for example, that the religious experience and practice of Abraham, Isaac and
Jacob could not have any religious or ethical distinctiveness from those of their
neighbours. The new religious movements that have developed in Africa and elsewhere
in the encounter of primal religion with Christian faith, bear witness to the religious
dynamics that create distinctives in religious experience and expression within such

25
John Mbiti is perhaps the most notable of the pioneer generation. Kwame Bediako represents a
subsequent generation of African Christian theologians who argues for and seeks to demonstrate the primal
substructure to modern African Christian thought. See his Christianity in Africa, The Renewal of a Non-
Western Religion (Edinburgh/Maryknoll, NY: Edinburgh University Press/Orbis Books, 1995), ‘The primal
imagination and the opportunity for a new theological idiom’, pp. 91–108.
 9

societies.26 The career of Moses in the Old Testament narrative has much in common
with the careers of the founders of new religious movements around the world.
The evidence of high moral values and codes of ethics in indigenous traditions, in their
prayers, proverbs and myths, for example, can help us to see that the evolutionary
constructs upon which so much of Western biblical scholarship has been built, were little
more than a figment of the imagination, a demonstration of an unfortunate Western
tendency to be ignorant about other peoples. While the intellectual and cultural processes
of the Enlightenment led to advances in science in many fields, it did not lead to greater
knowledge and understanding of other peoples. The eminent Swedish biologist, Carl
Linnaeus, in his System of Nature (1735), advanced scientific understanding through his
general classification of flora and fauna. However, his division of mankind into two
species, homo sapiens and homo monstrosus, and his acceptance of the reality of
‘monstrous men’ show that he was, in this respect ‘subservient to unexamined medieval
ideas’.27
A deep appreciation of indigenous cultures reveals that other presumed antitheses
between primal and civilised – simple as against complex, lacking in abstract thinking,
materialistic as against spiritual28 - are without foundation. Traditional societies have
been shown to have highly complex structures and it can take an outsider many years to
begin to understand the intricacies of social relationships. Drum language in West Africa
is just one example of indigenous capacity for abstraction, as are also artistic symbols
that have proverbial and often spiritual meanings, such as the logo of the Nagel Institute,
Akoma Ntoaso, in the Akan language of Ghana, which means ‘linked hearts’. It was
chosen to express the Institute’s commitment to be a part of a world Christianity. Far
from being materialistic, indigenous societies are built upon the foundational belief that
reality is primarily spiritual in nature.29 Ritual, far from being evidence of narrowly
materialistic perceptions devoid of theological reflection, as William Robertson Smith
thought, is deeply symbolic and sacramental in nature, as is also cosmic dance, where
every gesture has meaning and communicates an awareness of the spiritual realm, as well
as being embodied prayer. Furthermore, the concrete nature of primal thought as
26
Turner, ‘Survey article’. See also his, ‘Primal religions of the world and their study’, in Victor C. Hayes
(ed.), Australian Essays in World Religions (Bedford Park, South Australia, 1977), pp. 27–37.
27
See Margaret Hodgen, Early Anthropology in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries (Philadelphia:
University of Pennsylvania Press, 1964), p.425-6, commenting on, Sir Charles Linné, A general system of
nature, through the three grand kingdoms of animals, vegetables, minerals, systematically divided into
their several classes, orders, genera, species and variations… (London: Lackington, Allen and Co., 1806),
I, p.9. A more recent observation about the way the West remains ignorant of other cultures is that by
Lamin Sanneh: ‘When we …strip and materialise cultural forms to construct our categories of the real and
the ideal, we exploit a procedure incapable of enlightening us about either, for the argument forces us to
take as real ideal notions and their cultural configuration, with the result that cultural perceptions become
philosophical conceptions, qualitative analogies [become] literal facts and representation [becomes]
identity.’ Lamin Sanneh, Encountering the West, Christianity and the Global Cultural Process: The
African Dimension, Maryknoll: Orbis Books, 1993, p. 130.
28
William Robertson Smith shared all these perspectives. See Ch. 9 of my Primal Religion and the Bible
for an extensive discussion.
29
Kwame Gyekye, An Essay on African Philosophical Thought – The Akan Conceptual Scheme
(Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1995rev. ed.), p.69.
 10

evidenced in language has resulted in Bible translations that make the Word of God more
immediate and relevant to everyday life than the Bible in languages that have a
predilection for abstraction, such as English.
The tenacity of African cultural values despite the massive onslaught they have endured
in the past four centuries, taken together with the accelerating attrition of historical
memory and traditional values in the modern literate West, may perhaps also give the lie
to the widespread view, which Robertson Smith also exemplified, that oral traditions are
less reliable than literary traditions in the preservation of a people’s memory. African
Christians may perhaps be in a better position to understand the dynamics behind the oral
transmission and the writing down of the biblical records than modern Western
Christians. In other words, plumbing the depths of African religion and culture can help
us appreciate without apology the religious and cultural world of the Old Testament.

The Old Testament from Africa for the world

If, then, the development of African Christianity and other forms of Southern Christianity
overturns many of the presumptions underlying Western biblical studies, biblical scholars
from societies that have not lost their primal memory have the opportunity to do fresh
exegesis and interpretation of the Old Testament, building on the more solid foundations
of religious and cultural affinities and shared experience of religious itinerary. The
various forms of primal religion in the world can become a vital resource for a fresh
appreciation of the Old Testament in the testimony they bear to shared primal perceptions
of the spiritual nature of reality, perceptions that include a deep awareness of
transcendence in immanence, with the physical world as sacrament of the spiritual, a
deep sense of the numinous in religious experience,30 of the creaturehood of humanity
and of human participation in a personal universe, common processes of relating to the
Transcendent through sacrifice and mediation, and shared anticipation not just of afterlife
but of a better existence to come.
The Old Testament, in turn, then becomes a paradigm, a key, for interpreting the religious
itineraries of peoples from a primal background, illuminating the diverse trajectories that
have prepared them to welcome Jesus Christ as the one who saves them within their
world, or recalling them from trajectories that may be taking them away from Jesus.31
In his chapter on ‘The primal imagination and the opportunity for a new theological
idiom’, in his book, Christianity in Africa, The Renewal of a Non-Western Religion’,
Kwame Bediako indicates how ‘the primal imagination may help us restore the ancient
unity of theology and spirituality’ because it ‘restores to theology the crucial dimension
30
Rudolf Otto gives a very profound elucidation of the Numen and the numinous, words he coined from
ancient Roman primal religion to convey the ‘wholly other’ nature of ‘the Holy’, which he felt was missing
in European Christianity as he knew it. See his book, The Idea of the Holy, An Inquiry into the Non-
rational Factor in the Idea of the Divine and its Relation to the Rational (Oxford: Oxford University Press,
(2nd edition), 1950, reprinted 1977). He argues, in other words, that truly religious experience is irreducible
to other categories.
31
Don Richardson, in his popular book, Eternity in their Hearts (Ventura, CA: Regal Books, 1984rev ed), pp.
41–48, cites the fascinating story of the Santal people of India, who realised, when the gospel was first
preached to them, that they were being called back to the worship of Thakur Jiu, the Creator God, after
having abandoned him for lesser spirits.
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of living religiously for which the theologian needs make no apology’. 32 It is possible to
argue that the primal world-view can restore to biblical studies the unity of the Christian
Scriptures of the Old and New Testaments in a common religious outlook, so that the
Bible becomes once again a contemporary living witness to the presence and activity of
the living God in the world, in which persons and communities of faith everywhere may
participate.
I wish to conclude by giving just one example of what may come to light when we take
primal religion and world-view seriously as the substructure of Christianity. The words
are from Hebrews 12:18-24.

You have not come to a mountain that can be touched and that is burning with fire; to
darkness, gloom and storm; to a trumpet blast or to such a voice speaking words that those
who heard it begged that no further word be spoken to them, because they could not bear
what was commanded, "If even an animal touches the mountain, it must be stoned."…

But you have come to Mount Zion, to the heavenly Jerusalem, the city of the living God. You
have come to thousands upon thousands of angels in joyful assembly, to the church of the
firstborn whose names are written in heaven …to Jesus, the mediator of a new covenant and
to the sprinkled blood that speaks a better word than the blood of Abel.

At first sight, it might appear that the author of Hebrews is describing a disjunction, a
stark contrast between old and new, between law and grace. Yet that would be to
overlook what is common to both images. For Christians from a primal background can
identify with both of these images in terms of the religious experience they articulate.
Mount Zion presents us with the primal world of numinous presence just as Mount Sinai
did, and the source of both is the same Living God.
What we see here is in fact an articulation of the biblical paradigm of the transformation
of religious experience from the old covenant community to the new, from Sinai to Zion,
where the difference comes with the change of perception of that world and the change of
relationship with that world that Jesus brings. In his capacity as ‘the mediator of a new
covenant’, whose ‘sprinkled blood speaks a better word than the blood of Abel’, Jesus
has, through his sacrifice of himself, achieved the ending of estrangement, alienation and
the consequent sense of terror, to which the primal religious sense bears witness. With his
establishing of the reign of God, symbolised by ‘Mount Zion’ and ‘the heavenly
Jerusalem’, there is also the ending of spiritual chaos as the whole range of spiritual
presences are brought into line, so that it is angels ‘in joyful assembly’ who predominate
and, together with the ancestors, ‘the church of the firstborn whose names are written in
heaven’, constitute an eternal covenant community. This biblical paradigm can therefore
describe what can happen wherever persons and communities from a primal background
discover who Jesus is in their world of religious experience and what he has done for
them in it.33 It is meant to describe the religious experience of us all.

32
Bediako, ‘The primal imagination and the opportunity for a new theological idiom’, p. 105.
33
A clear example of this is the transformation that took place in early Irish Celtic religious experience
following the encounter with the gospel. See Gillian M. Bediako, ‘”Be thou my vision”: The Lorica and
early Irish Christian worship in African perspective’, Journal of African Christian Thought, Vol. 8, No. 2
(December 2005): 46-52.
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Conclusion: Rescuing the memory of Western Christians

There is often a sense among Western Christians that the primal world is remote from
their experience. Some feel this way about the Old Testament and the biblical world in
general also. Yet we shall do well to remember that primal religion is the Western pre-
Christian heritage too and that it inspired creativity in mission and scholarship that made
an enduring impact on the development of Western Christianity. I think particularly of
the example of the Celtic Christianity of early Ireland.34 It is my observation and also my
personal experience that recovery of the primal vision in Christian faith can be mediated
to present generations of Western Christians through fellowship with Christians and
Christian communities that have not lost their primal vision. It is possible to learn from
them, from the fervour of their worship and prayer, from the way they read and
participate in the Christian Scriptures of Old and New Testaments, and from the practical
outworking of their Christian faith in life and witness. It is possible to discover, as the
twentieth century British anthropologist, Godfrey Lienhardt discovered from his own
direct personal experience in Africa, that

It is not finally some mysterious ‘primitive philosophy’ that we are exploring but the farther
potentialities of our own thought and language. 35

In recovering the primal vision and the immediacy of the Scriptures, we shall be
rediscovering the ‘farther potentialities’ of our own faith, as well as discovering a
common humanity with others and new ways of being Christian in our contemporary
environment of religious and cultural plurality. For as Andrew Walls observed, ‘All
believers … are primalists underneath’. Learning to appreciate Old Testament religion as
primal religion will be for our own good!

© Gillian M. Bediako
Akrofi-Christaller Institute of Theology, Mission and Culture
Akropong-Akuapem, Ghana

34
Among the many books on the subject, see, for example, Timothy Joyce, Celtic Christianity, A Sacred
Tradition, A Vision of Hope (New York: Orbis Books, 1998); Ian Bradley, The Celtic Way (London: DLT,
1993).
35
Godfrey Lienhardt, writing about the study of ‘primitive society’, in ‘Modes of Thought’, in The
Institutions of Primitive Society (Oxford: Blackwell, 1961), pp.96-97, quoted in Lamin Sanneh,
Encountering the West, p. 240.