Physical Sciences 2 and Physics E-1ax, Fall 2014 Experiment 2

Experiment 2: Conservation of Momentum

• Learning Goals
After you finish this lab, you will be able to:
1. Use Logger Pro to analyze video and calculate position, velocity, and acceleration.
2. Use the equations for 2-dimensional kinematics to calculate the speed of a projectile.
3. Determine how uncertainties in individual measurements “propagate” into
uncertainties for calculated quantities.
4. Use your video measurements, kinematic analysis, and skills in error propagation to
determine whether momentum is conserved for the “collision” involving the Gauss Gun.
Introduction: Please read all of this BEFORE you come to lab.
• Basic error propagation
Chapter 2 of Taylor gives a few formulas for propagation of error, which is the process
by which we can determine the uncertainty of a quantity which was not itself measured
directly, but instead calculated from one or more measured values. Error propagation
answers the question, “how do the uncertainties in the measured values propagate to the
uncertainty in the final answer?”
The simplest way to answer this question is also the crudest, but it has the virtue of being
quite straightforward to understand and apply: assume the worst-case scenario in each
direction, and look at the range of values you get for a final answer.
For example, suppose I have measured the values A = 22 ± 3 and B = 15 ± 2, and I am
interested in the quantity C = A – B. The best guess value of C is just the mean value of
A minus the mean value of B, which is 22 – 15 = 7. Now I can estimate the uncertainty
by looking at the possible values of A and B that will make C as big as possible, and as
small as possible. To make C as big as possible, A needs to be as big as possible (25) and
B needs to be as small as possible (13), so C could be as big as 25 – 13 = 12. Similarly, C
could be as small as 19 – 17 = 2. The range of values of C is from 2 to 12, so the “worst-
case” uncertainty for C is 5, and I would say that C = 7 ± 5.
No matter how complicated the expression is for the final quantity whose uncertainty we
want to know, this simple process will do the trick, although sometimes you will have to
think carefully about whether you “want” A to be big or small in a given expression in
order to make C big or small. The equations for the uncertainty of a difference and
uncertainty of a product given in Taylor were derived from this method too. If you are
comfortable with those equations, you can use them instead of applying the method
directly. The two are entirely equivalent, but applying the formulas is probably faster if
you understand how.
As you might imagine, the worst-case method tends to overestimate the actual
uncertainty of the final quantity. (If A and B have independent random errors, then it
would be pretty unlucky to have A be as large as possible at the same time that B is as

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Physical Sciences 2 and Physics E-1ax, Fall 2014 Experiment 2

small as possible.) But for now, the worst-case method is preferable because it is easy to
understand and use, and it does give results that are quite close to the best answer.
• Momentum
You’ve already learned about momentum in the first few weeks of lecture, section, and
homework. But here is a summary of the big ideas:
- The total momentum of an isolated system is conserved (it doesn’t change).
- The momentum of a single object is its mass times its velocity. Momentum is a vector.
- The total momentum of a system is the vector sum of the momenta of each object in the
system.
- An isolated system is one that has no interactions with anything outside of the system.
- A system can be considered to be functionally isolated if there is no net external force
on the system.
- The impulse on a system is defined as the change in the system’s total momentum
between some initial state and some final state (final momentum minus initial
momentum).
- For an isolated system, therefore, the impulse is zero no matter what the initial
and final states are chosen to be.
- For a non-isolated system, the impulse on the system during some interaction is
given by the average external force on the system multiplied by the time duration
of the interaction.
• The Gauss Gun: Is Momentum Conserved?
The main goal of this lab is to determine whether the momentum of the balls and magnet
are conserved during the firing of the Gauss Gun. In other words, can we treat the Gauss
Gun as a functionally isolated system during the interaction? You already saw the Gauss
Gun in lab 1:

You have 3 identical ball bearings (mass mb) and a magnet (mass mm). Initially, a ball is
moving with velocity v1,i = v1,i xˆ towards the stationary magnet-ball-ball  complex. Just
after they collide, the ball-magnet-ball complex recoils with velocity recoil = −v recoil x ,
 v ˆ
while the last ball flies off with velocity v 2,f = v 2,f xˆ .
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Physical Sciences 2 and Physics E-1ax, Fall 2014 Experiment 2

You will measure the speed of the incoming ball v1i

and the speed of the recoil vrecoil using a video camera
and the video analysis tools in Logger Pro. But the
outgoing ball will be moving too quickly to catch it on
the video.
So you will measure the speed v2,f of the ball that flies
off by seeing where it lands on the floor (using carbon
paper, just like you did in Lab 1). You will need to
find an equation for the speed v2,f of the launched ball
in terms of the length L that it travels and the height h
from which it was launched.
Your ultimate goal will be to calculate the initial momentum of the entire Gauss Gun
(magnet plus all three balls), find the final momentum, and compare the two. You will
need to propagate the uncertainty of the measurements of mass, speed, and length to
estimate the uncertainties of the momentum. As we discussed in Lab 1, if you want to
know if two quantities are equal, you need to know the uncertainties of these quantities.
• Calculating the uncertainty of a slope
As with individual measurements, we can approximate   the uncertainty associated
with linear fit parameters. A simple way of doing this is to draw the steepest and
shallowest lines that are consistent with
the error bars on the points, and calculate
the slope for each.
If there are vertical error bars the three
lines (best fit, steepest, and shallowest)
might look like the graph shown at right:
We can approximate the uncertainty in
the slope as:

Here δm  is the uncertainty in the slope, mmax is the slope of the steepest line (found by
using the lowest possible value for the first point and the highest possible value for the
last point), and mmin is the slope of the shallowest line (found by using the highest
possible value for the first point and the lowest possible value for the last point).

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Physical Sciences 2 and Physics E-1ax, Fall 2014 Experiment 2

Experiment 2: Lab Activity

• Follow along in this lab activity. Wherever you see a question highlighted in red, be sure
to answer that question, or paste in some data, or a graph, or whatever is being asked.
Your lab report will be incomplete if any of these questions remains unanswered.
Who are you? Take a picture of your lab group with Photo Both and paste it below along
with your names.

• Tutorial:
Before setting up the equipment, work through the Logger Pro tutorial number 12:
Video Analysis (in the Tutorials folder under Experiments).
• Materials:
Many of the materials are the same as in Lab 1:
A magnet:

Some steel balls:

A long track with a ramp:

You’ll also have some blank sheets of paper, some carbon paper, and a 2-meter stick.
In addition, for this lab you’ll also have a digital video camera on a tripod, a level so
you can make sure that your Gauss Gun is level, some lubricant to reduce friction on the
track, and a balance so you can measure the masses of the balls
and the magnet.
• Set up the experiment
Set up the Gauss Gun as you did in Experiment 1: place it right at
the edge of the track. Release a ball near the bottom of the ramp
so it strikes the magnet slowly and causes the Gauss Gun to fire.
Take note of where the launched ball lands on the floor, and tape a
sheet of white paper in that spot. Then place a sheet of carbon
paper (ink side down) on the paper where the ball will land. Set
up the video camera so you can capture the Gauss Gun clearly. Be
sure that the camera can capture the entire recoil of the magnet
system until it comes to rest.
Take a few minutes to play around with the setup and plan how
you will arrange the various pieces (video camera, balls, magnet,
track, carbon paper). You’ll only have time to analyze a single run,
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so be sure everything is set up correctly. A very small amount of lubricant (just a drop or
two) on the track will help reduce friction.
If Logger Pro is still open from the tutorial, quit it now. Then make sure that the camera
is plugged in, turned on, and connected to the computer, and open Logger Pro.
Go to the “Insert” menu and select “Video Capture.” If the settings are not visible, click
“Show Settings.” For the “Video Input” select ZR830. The video resolution should be
set to 720 x 480. Set the “Video Compression” to H.264 SD. Then click on “Options”
and set the Capture Duration to 20 seconds.
When you are ready to record, tape a fresh sheet of white paper to the floor, put the
carbon paper in place, and be sure that the balls are all set and aligned. Then click Start
Capture. Release ball 1 near the bottom of the ramp so that it rolls slowly towards the
magnet, and watch the collision closely.
When the video capture finishes, make sure all of the following things are true:
- Ball 1 approaches the magnet smoothly (no bouncing or wobbling as it rolls).
- Collision does not impart any significant y-velocity (vertical motion) to any part of the
system (no bouncing).
- Recoiling magnet system comes to rest on the track, and the entire recoil (until
everything comes to rest) is recorded in the video capture.
- You can identify which carbon paper mark was left by the ball during your actual run.
If any of the above is not true, delete the video capture and repeat the experiment. It
doesn’t take long to do, but it does take a lot of analysis, and you don’t want to waste
your time analyzing data from an incomplete run.
Remember, you don’t need to be able to see ball 3 shoot off in the video capture. We
expect that you won’t, actually, because it goes too fast. That's why we have the carbon
paper setup.
• Analyzing the data

Is momentum conserved? You will need to measure the momentum of the system
before the collision and after the collision. The table below summarizes your results; you
will fill in the relevant quantities as you go along.
Momentum  before  collision   Momentum  after  collision  
Value   Uncertainty   Value   Uncertainty  
Mass  of  ball  1   Mass  of  1-­‐-­‐-­‐M-­‐-­‐-­‐2  
Mass  of  M-­‐-­‐-­‐2-­‐-­‐-­‐3   Mass  of  ball  3  
Vel.  of  ball  1   Vel.  of  1-­‐-­‐-­‐M-­‐-­‐-­‐2  
Vel.  of  M-­‐-­‐-­‐2-­‐-­‐-­‐3   Vel.  of  ball  3  

Momentum   Momentum  
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Physical Sciences 2 and Physics E-1ax, Fall 2014 Experiment 2

Before the collision:

• Measure the relevant masses (with uncertainty!) and enter them in the table above.
The balance reads to the nearest hundredth of a gram. That means that when you
measure a mass using the balance, the reading error on the mass is 0.01 g.
If you use the balance to measure the mass of a magnet, you might get an inaccurate
reading because of an attractive force between the magnet and the metal inside the
balance. To get an accurate measurement, put an inverted plastic beaker on top of the
balance and re-zero it before putting the magnet on top. That way the magnet will be
several inches away from anything metal while it is being weighed.
• Use video analysis to find the position of ball 1 before the collision as a function
of time. Remember, you’ll have to set the scale for the video. Use the length of the
magnet-ball complex itself to set the scale. Refer to the Tutorial named “12 Video
Analysis” if you need a reminder on how to do this. You’ll need to measure the length
of the magnet-ball complex with a ruler:
Length of magnet-ball complex:

- You might need to tilt your axes to make sure all the motion is in the x-direction. This
can happen if your video camera is not aligned perfectly, and track is not quite
horizontal. Click the “set origin” button in the video analysis window (the third one
down from the top right corner). Click near the lower left corner of the video window
and a set of yellow axes will appear. You can rotate the axes by dragging the big
yellow dot up or down slightly. Adjust the axes until the x-axis is aligned with the
Gauss Gun track.
- Once you have done this, we are no longer interested in the y-motion (there shouldn't
even be any y-motion), so change the settings on the graph so that it only shows you x vs
t. (We also don’t want it to show vx or vy. You’ll make your own determination of
velocity.)
• Make sure you include error bars in your x vs t graph. You may assume that the
uncertainty in the x measurements is ±0.2 cm (2 mm).
Use a linear fit to an appropriate section of the x vs t graph to determine the velocity
of ball 1 before the collision. Paste your graph of x vs t, with the fit, below.
Insert graph here:

Velocity of ball 1 before collision:

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Physical Sciences 2 and Physics E-1ax, Fall 2014 Experiment 2

Using the method described in the introductory materials, calculate the uncertainty in
the slope that results from error bars of this size. This is the uncertainty in the velocity
of ball 1. Be sure to write out your calculations clearly, take a picture using Photo
Booth, and paste in your calculations below.

Uncertainty in velocity of ball 1:

Photo of the calculations you used to find the uncertainty in the velocity of ball 1:

Record the masses and velocities in the main data table above.
After the collision:
• Measure the relevant masses and record them (with uncertainty) in the main data table
above.
In the same video capture, you can track the motion of the recoiling 1-M-2 trio after the
collision. However, unlike the incoming ball 1, we do not expect that 1-M-2 moves at
constant velocity after the collision. It has some velocity right after the collision, but later
it is observed to come to rest. So there must be a net force acting on it.
Using the video analysis tools, add a new trail and plot the position of the 1-M-2 trio
from the first frame after the collision (which we'll call t0) until it comes to rest.

The best model of the forces acting on the recoiling trio predicts that it will undergo
constant acceleration from time tc to tr. If the motion really is constant acceleration,
what kind of curve will describe the x vs t graph?
A:

Try fitting an equation of the form below and find the best-fit values of A, B, and C.
(Note that t0 is a constant—the time of the first frame after the collision—not a parameter
to be fit.)

x = A (t − t0 ) + B (t − t0 ) + C
2

Paste the graph, with fit, here:

What is the physical meaning of the constants A, B, and C in terms of the usual kinematic
quantities? From the fit in the graph above, what was the initial velocity vrecoil of the
recoiling magnet complex just after the collision (at time t0)? Be sure to include units,
and think carefully about the sign of the x-component:
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Physical Sciences 2 and Physics E-1ax, Fall 2014 Experiment 2

vrecoil,x =

Based on previous experience, we can estimate the uncertainty of this velocity vrecoil to
be approximately 5 cm/s.
• Using the carbon mark left by ball 3 when it hit the floor, measure the quantities h and
L from the figure in the introduction. Include an estimate of your reading errors.

h=

Uncertainty of h =

L=

Uncertainty of L =

Plug in your numbers above, and the accepted value of g, to the expression you found
in the introduction, and get the x-velocity of ball 3 just after the collision:
Velocity of ball 3 =

Use error propagation to calculate the uncertainty in the velocity of ball 3 based on
your estimated uncertainties in h and L. You may neglect any uncertainty in g. Be
sure to write out your calculations clearly, take a picture using Photo Booth, and paste in
your calculations below.

Uncertainty of velocity of ball 3 =

Photo of the calculations you used to find the uncertainty in the velocity of ball 3:

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Physical Sciences 2 and Physics E-1ax, Fall 2014 Experiment 2

Calculate the x-component of the total initial momentum, with uncertainty, as well as
the x- component of the total final momentum, with uncertainty. Write these here and
in the table. Be sure to write out your calculations clearly, take a picture using Photo
Booth, and paste in your calculations below.

pix =

Uncertainty =

pfx =

Uncertainty =

Photo of the calculations you used to find the uncertainty in calculations of momentum:

• Conclusion

The big question! What can you conclude from your data about momentum
conservation in the Gauss gun system?

What is the most important thing you learned in lab today?

What aspect of the lab was the most confusing to you today?