The Science of Instruction

Reuben Dlamini, Ph.D.

Wits School of Education
October 7, 2024

ICT Literacy
The European Commission defines competencies related to digital literacy as the “knowledge, skills, attitudes (thus including abilities,
strategies, values and awareness) that are required to use ICT and digital media to perform tasks; solve problems; communicate; manage
information; collaborate; create and share content; and build knowledge effectively, efficiently, appropriately, critically, creatively, autonomously,
flexibly, ethically, reflectively for work, leisure, participation, learning, socializing, consuming, and empowerment” (Ferrari, 2013, p. 3).

 Digital Literacy Principles (Media

Awareness Network, 2010):
 Skills and knowledge to access
and use a variety of hardware
devices and software applications
 Adeptness to understand and
critically analyze digital content
and applications
 Ability to create with digital
technology

“The ability to use ICT and the Internet becomes a new form of literacy – ‘digital literacy’. Digital literacy is
fast becoming a prerequisite for creativity, innovation and entrepreneurship and without it citizens can
neither participate fully in society nor acquire the skills and knowledge necessary to live in the 21st century”
(European Commission, 2003, p. 3).
 meet the needs of discreet learning
communities

Access is pedagogy think about the diverse needs of my students

and make moves to support them.

classroom design is never monolithic

a wide variety of classroom types and needs

inclusion and exclusion each classroom experience deserves to be

treated as unique

be responsive to broadening the scope of

potential within the learning environments
course design which demonstrates a
responsive approach
ACCESS AS PEDAGOGY
Digital Information Literacy - DIL
 Digital information literacy (DIL)—generally defined as the ability to obtain,
understand, evaluate, and use information in a variety of digital technology
contexts—is a critically important skill deemed necessary for success in
higher education as well as in the global networked economy.
 The components of DIL are:
 Accessing, evaluating, and managing or organizing sources
 Integrating or synthesizing information from multiple sources
 Creating and communicating information to audiences
 Using or applying information to solve problems
 Understanding of ethical and legal issues surrounding information use.
Central to Teaching,Training & Facilitation [Digital or Not]

 Instructional Equity…Students must be central to our design and

development of courses to improve the quality of learning and promote the
sustainability of their cognitive development.
 Three underlying principles: construction of knowledge; disciplined inquiry;
and value beyond school (Treacy and O’Donoghue, 2014).
 Students are generally categorised into ability groups based on their academic
achievements, which are referred to as ability classes: high, medium and low.

 Must adopt an integrative approach in our teaching instead of following

separate subject approach which has a deadening effect on the experiences
of students as they are unable to make connections or develop a deeper
understanding of new information derived from disconnected disciplines.

 Technocentric approach to building capacity that focuses on simply

supplying new technologies in educational environments…while teachers
are left on the periphery.
Consequences: Convergence vs. Divergence
 Convergence was formerly defined as the merging of value
chains…(Boers, Ercan, Rinsdorf, & Vaagan, 2012).
 Convergent thinking involves the ability to bring concepts and
materials from a variety of sources...
 Divergent teaching encourages learners to be active in their
learning [flexibility, imagination, learning through play, creative
projects]
 Convergence vs Divergence in Education:
 Integrative/Interactive/Transformative Pedagogies…
 Traditional approaches to teaching whereby the focus is on the
teacher are no longer suitable [new forms of classroom engagement]
 There is a clash of cultures…Disruptive???
 Traditional Routines vs. Digital & Interactive Environment
[Development]
Convergent vs. Divergent
 Convergent vs. Divergent

Convergent Question Example Divergent Question Example

What are the components of [animal]’s diet? What might happen to [region]’s ecosystem if
[animal]s were [carn/herb/omn]ivores instead of
[carn/herb/omn]ivores?

There’s extensive debate in the scientific community Suppose that [phenomenon] never occurred. How
about [phenomenon]. What are the primary reasons would life within [community/region/country]
for [phenomenon]? function differently today?

What are the short-term causes of [historical event], Suppose that [causes of historical event] were
which originated outside of the country where it actually addressed by [world leader]. What might
occurred? have happened differently in [historical event]?

Reflecting on [book/play] in its entirety, what are Reflecting on [book/play] in its entirety, what might
the main reasons why [character] decided to [verb] have happened if [character] decided to [verb]
[context]? [context] earlier in the story?
Assessment
 Assessments should measure skill in accessing, organizing,  Assessment Techniques:
and communicating of information or feedback...  Multiple-choice items, interactive items (moving objects
on the screen), and performance based tasks that
 Assessments explicitly cover several skills related to require the use of simulated software.
proficient use of information sources, including evaluation,  Developing a research strategy; selecting search tools,
integration and synthesis, communicating, and applying the using features of search tools, and successfully
information to solve problems…students are not asked conducting searches; retrieving, evaluating, and
to make use of technology or demonstrate proficiency documenting sources
with ICT tools rather, students’ ability to compose a well-  Multiple-choice and true/false item types, which can
formed written response that includes accurate analysis provide valid information about students’ knowledge of
particular information literacy skills and concepts, but
of provided source materials. cannot provide much evidence of the extent to which
 Designing according to three proficiency levels, where the students effectively deploy those skills in the various
contexts of their use.
highest level requires multiple steps, use of varied
 More traditional format the emphasis is on established
technologies, and deployment of higher-order cognitive information literacy standards are more likely to
processes such as monitoring and integration. emphasize knowledge of concepts and skills (principles
for beginning research, for accessing and evaluating
 Defining information needs, accessing, evaluating, different kinds of information sources, or ethical and
managing, and integrating information, and most legal considerations) and less likely to emphasize
importantly for this particular assessment, the application reasoning and problem-solving (i.e., integration,
to problem-solving creation, or application).
 Diaries and journals as learning and assessment vehicles
 Making use of digital objects such as badges as a form of e.g. using tablets [Personal Digital Assistants]… have
assessment tool… the use of digital badges in videogames been shown to contribute to changes in critical
and explains how it aligns with quality assessment awareness, growth in autonomy, and transformations
practices from strategic approaches to learning to deeper and
authentic engagement with subject matter
Digital Education Ecosystem [The future we don’t know]
• Interdisciplinary instructional strategy that integrates technology, pedagogy
and content knowledge to achieving instructional equity among students/learners…

• Keeping students actively engaged in cooperative learning environments

where teachers are demonstrating creativity...

• Increasing students’ ability to integrate knowledge and skills to improve

problem-solving skills…

 Making learning disciplines highly relevant and meaningful to students to

address the absence of meaningful learning…

 Providing opportunities for active engagement and connecting curriculum to

the real world, thus providing authentic purposes for learning and solving
problems…

 Providing students with exciting learning experiences that are less disjointed
and relevant for solving actual problems…
PRINCIPLES: SCIENCE OF INSTRUCTION
• Applying the Multimedia Principle
• Applying the Contiguity Principle
• Applying the Modality Principle
• Applying the Redundancy Principle
• Applying the Coherence Principle
• Applying the Personalisation and
Embodiment Principle
 Applying the Segmenting and Pretraining
Principle
APPLYING THE MULTIMEDIA PRINCIPLE
Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning

 include words and graphics rather  Mayer’s multimedia

than words alone.
 “virtually all instruction has become
learning theory is based
multimedia” (Merrill, 2015, p. 49) on three assumptions:
 Multimedia presentations – active • Dual-channel assumption: According to
learning by mentally representing the Mayer, people have two separate channels for
processing auditory and visual information.
material in words and in pictures and
by mentally making connections
between the pictorial and verbal • Limited-capacity assumption: The theory
recognises that individuals have a limited
representations.
ability to absorb information at any one time.

• Active-processing assumption: The

multimedia learning theory suggests that
people should be actively engaged in the
learning process rather than passive receivers
of information.
APPLYING THE CONTIGUITY PRINCIPLE
Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning

 Aligning words to corresponding  Psychological Reasons for

graphics...
the Multimedia Principle:
• Information Acquisition/Acquiring
 audio narration may be presented Information
before or after the graphics it
describes…
• Knowledge Construction: learning is seen
as a process of active sense-making…active
The psychological advantage of integrating text processing is to mentally construct pictorial
and graphics (in space or in time) results from a and verbal representations of the material and
to mentally connect them…
reduced need to search for which parts of a
graphic correspond to which words, thereby
allowing the user to devote limited cognitive • Active-processing assumption: The
resources to understanding the materials. multimedia learning theory suggests that
people should be actively engaged in the
learning process rather than passive receivers
of information.
 APPLYING THE MODALITY PRINCIPLE
Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning
• The Modality Principle should be applied in e-learning
environments where graphics are complex, terminology
is familiar to the learner and the overall lesson is fast
paced (Clark & Mayer, 2011).
• For example, a diagram is displayed illustrating blood flow
through the heart after key terms have been presented
to the learner. The diagram will include text outlining the
anatomical structures while speech narration describes
the concept.
• Choose graphics, then write out a narrative that can be
used to describe the applicable concept.

• Then make use of media tols such as Voice Thread or

PowerPoint voice-over to provide a detailed description
of the displayed graphic (Clark and Mayer, 2011).
• Clark and Mayer (2011) recommend that under the
following circumstances both narration and onscreen
text descriptions should be present with a graphic:

• When English is not the learners first language

• When the words presented are technical
• When the words are unfamiliar
• When information is required for future reference
• Adding closed captioning to presentations is a simple way
to include onscreen text descriptions with speech
narration when presented with the above scenarios.
 APPLYING THE REDUNDANCY PRINCIPLE
Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning
 Mayer’s 12 principles of multimedia learning:
 Redundancy occurs when the same information is presented
concurrently in multiple forms or is unnecessarily elaborated. • Multimedia Principle: use words (text or narration) and
visuals (images, animations, or videos) rather than only one
channel.
 According to cognitive load theory, coordinating redundant information
with essential information increases working memory load, which may • Coherence Principle: making sure that words and visuals
interfere with learning. are closely aligned and complement each other.
• Signalling Principle: adding cues to draw attention to vital
 Eliminating redundant information removes the requirement to information.
coordinate multiple sources of information.
• Redundancy Principle: avoid presenting the same
information in multiple formats simultaneously.
• Spatial Contiguity Principle: align visuals and text, so
learners can more easily understand the relationships
between them.
• Temporal Contiguity Principle: presenting words and
pictures at the same time rather than sequentially…ensure
the voiceover plays along with the animation.
• Segmenting Principle: breaking down complex
information into smaller, manageable chunks.
• Pre-training Principle: know the basics: definitions, terms
or critical concepts before diving into the details.
• Modality Principle: a balance b/t text and visuals, as too
much text can overwhelm students.
• Voice Principle: real presenters rather than machines make
voice overs, human touch still preferred.
Text Accompanied by a Simple Visual (Left) Led to Better
• Personalisation Principle: use a conversational tone to
Understanding of Circulation Than an Anatomically Correct engage learners.
Detailed Visual (Right)…(Butcher, 2006)
• Image Principle: complementary visuals can often be more
effective than having a speaker’s image.
APPLYING THE COHERENCE PRINCIPLE
Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning

 …avoid adding any material that does

not support the instructional goal…
 Question(s) to ask:
 Is this image 100% necessary to help with
 Mayer and Moreno (2003) use the comprehension?
term weeding to refer to the need to  Does this message use simple enough
uproot any words, graphics, or sounds language so the audience will understand?
that are not central to the  If there is a ton of information on the screen,
how is the learner supposed to know what is
instructional goal of the lesson. the most important part?
 For example, in order to counter high
e‐learning dropout rates, some  Harp and Mayer (1998), extraneous
designers attempt to spice up their pictures (and their text captions) can
materials by adding entertaining or interfere with learning in three ways:
motivational elements such as  Distraction - by guiding the learner’s limited
dramatic stories, pictures, or attention away from the relevant material and
towards the irrelevant material,
background music.  Disruption - by preventing the learner from
 Adding interesting but unnecessary building appropriate links among pieces of
relevant material because pieces of irrelevant
material to e‐learning can harm the material are in the way.
learning process.  Seduction - by priming inappropriate existing
knowledge (suggested by the added pictures),
which is then used to organize the incoming
content.
APPLYING THE PERSONALISATION AND EMBODIMENT PRINCIPLE
Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning

 include words and graphics rather than  Harp and Mayer (1998),
words alone. extraneous pictures (and their
 “virtually all instruction has become text captions) can interfere with
multimedia” (Merrill, 2015, p. 49)
learning in three ways:
 Multimedia presentations – active
learning by mentally representing the  Distraction - by guiding the learner’s
material in words and in pictures and by limited attention away from the relevant
mentally making connections between material and towards the irrelevant
the pictorial and verbal representations. material,
 Disruption - by preventing the learner
from building appropriate links among
pieces of relevant material because
pieces of irrelevant material are in the
way.
 Seduction - by priming inappropriate
existing knowledge (suggested by the
added pictures), which is then used to
organize the incoming content.
APPLYING THE SEGMENTING AND PRETRAINING PRINCIPLE
Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning

 complexity of a
lesson…interrelationship between
elements.
 humans learn best when information
is presented in segments, rather than
one long continuous stream…
 humans learn more efficiently if they
already know some of the basics:
understanding basic definitions, terms,
or concepts before beginning the
learning experience.
Thank You
REFERENCES
 Boers, R., Ercan, E., Rinsdorf, L., & Vaagan, R. W. (2012). From convergence to
connectivism: Teaching journalism 2.0. Online journal of communication and
media technologies, 2(4), 52-64.
 Clark, R. C., & Mayer, R.E. (2011). Applying the Modality Principle. In R. Taff
(Ed.), E-Learning and the Science of Instruction. (pp. 115-130). San Francisco,
CA: Wiley.
 Siemens, G. (2004). Elearnspace. Connectivism: A learning theory for the
digital age. Elearnspace. org.
 https://u.osu.edu/dove.76/access-pedagogy/
 https://elearning-essentials-2020.weebly.com/modality-principle.html