ElectricVehicles &

Electric
Vehicles &
Technologies
Course Code: EEE-445
Course Title: Smart Grid
S A NCOY B A RUA ,
A S S I S TA N T P R O F E S S O R ,
D E P T. O F E E E , C U E T
References
❑Text Book: “Smart Grid: Networking, ❑Text Book: “Introduction to Smart Grid,
Data Management and Business Model” Concepts, Technology and Evolution” – by
– by Hussein T. Mouftah Salman K. Salman
❑Chapter 13: Electric Vehicle the Mobile ❑Chapter 9: Smart Grid Enables the
Portion of the Smart Grid Integration of Electric Vehicles.
❑Articles: 13.4.1, 13.4.2, 13.4.3, 13.4.4 ❑Articles: 9.2, 9.6
SANCOY, EEE,CUET 9/23/2024 2

Types of EVs
Electric drive vehicles may be divided into three types as follows:
1. Hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs)
2. Plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs)
3. All-electric vehicles (EVs)

Types of EVs
1. Hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs)

An HEV is a type of EV that uses a combination of a conventional ICE and an electric
motor for propulsion. HEVs use different technologies to improve efficiency and reduce
emissions; such technologies include
• Using regenerative breaking,

• Using the ICE to generate electricity to recharge batteries or power the electric motor,
• Using the electric motor during most of the time and reserving the ICE for propulsion only
when needed.

1.Hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs)
Features:
• HEVs are not PEVs, since they can operate autonomously without need of recharging
batteries using the power grid. Therefore, no impact on the power grid is expected from
proliferation of this type of EV.
• The idea of using an electric motor is that the extra power provided by it results in a
smaller engine. This in turn results in better fuel economy while maintaining the
performance.
• HEVs combine the benefits of high fuel economy and low emissions with the power and
range of conventional vehicles.

1.Hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs)
Features:
• HEVs do not require a plug to charge the battery.
• Charge using regenerative braking power and the internal combustion engine.
• Capture the energy normally lost during braking by using the electric motor as a
generator, storing the captured energy in the battery.
• Energy from the battery provides extra power during acceleration and auxiliary power
when at standstill.
• Ref: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=q1KNKhGo4c0

Regenerative Breaking:
WHAT IS REGENERATIVE BRAKING AND HOW DOES IT WORK?
❑ Regenerative braking is a mechanism found on most hybrid and full-electric

vehicles. It captures the kinetic energy from braking and converts it into the
electrical power that charges the vehicle’s high voltage battery. Regenerative
braking also slows the car down, which assists the use of traditional brakes.
❑ In a conventional braking system, a car slows down due to friction between the
brake pads and rotors. But this system is highly inefficient when it comes to
conserving energy. Nearly all of the kinetic energy propelling your car forward is
lost as heat when you apply the brakes. That’s a lot of wasted energy!
❑ Regenerative braking solves this problem by recapturing upwards of 70% of the

kinetic energy that would otherwise be lost during braking. The amount of energy
recovered depends on your car model and driving behavior.
Regenerative
Breaking

Regenerative Breaking:
HOW DOES REGENERATIVE BRAKING PROVIDE ELECTRICITY?
❖ Regenerative braking turns kinetic energy into electricity by reversing the process
that drives the car forward. In electric cars, the drivetrain is powered by a battery
pack that powers a motor (or motors), creating torque–rotational force–on the
wheels. In other words, electrical energy from the battery becomes mechanical
energy that spins the wheels.
❖ With regenerative braking, the energy from your spinning wheels is used to
reverse the direction of electricity - from the electric motor(s) to the battery. All you
have to do is remove your foot from the accelerator or, in some cases, press the
brake pedal to activate regenerative braking. The electric motor not only acts as
an electric generator, but it also helps slow your car down because energy is
consumed by the wheels as they rotate the shaft in the electric motor.
❖ Ref: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=stq2E3sZYg0

2. Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicles (PHEV)
❑A PHEV is a type of EV that has an ICE and an electric motor (like an HEV) and a
high-capacity battery pack that can be recharged by plugging in the car to the electric
power grid (like a BEV).
❑The benefits offered by PHEVs include using electricity from the grid to charge the
battery that costs less if charging is done during certain time and reduces petroleum
consumption compared with conventional vehicles.
❑PHEV batteries can be charged either by –

(i) An external electric power source
(ii)Internal combustion engine (ICE), or
(iii)Regenerative braking power

2. Plug-in hybrid electric vehicles
Features:
❑PHEVs are equipped with larger battery packs compared with HEVs. This makes it
possible for current PHEV models to travel about 10–40 miles using only electric power.
This is commonly referred to as the all-electric range of the vehicle.
❑If a PHEV is driven using only its internal combustion engine, its fuel economy will
be comparable to that of an HEV of a similar size. However, if an PHEV is fully
charged, the obtained stored electric energy can be used to drive it for only a shorter
distance compared to its all-electric range.

Features:
❑There are 2 basic PHEV configurations:
1. Series PHEVs or, extended range electric vehicles (EREVs):
❖ Only the electric motor turns the wheels; the ICE is only used to generate electricity.
❖ Series PHEVs can run solely on electricity until the battery needs to be recharged.
❖ The ICE will then generate the electricity needed to power the electric motor. For
shorter trips, these vehicles might use no gasoline.

Features:
❑There are 2 basic PHEV configurations:
2. Parallel or blended PHEVs:

➢ Both the engine and electric motor are mechanically connected to the wheels
➢ Both propel the vehicle under most driving conditions.
➢ Electric only operation usually occurs only at low speeds.

3. All-Electric Vehicles
➢ Electric vehicles are equipped with only an electric motor. These types of vehicles use a
battery to store the electrical energy that drives the motor.
➢ EV batteries are charged by plugging the vehicle into an electric power source.
➢ Some agencies, such as the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), consider EVs
as zero-emission vehicles even though generation of the electricity they use may
contribute to air pollution.
➢ This is because EV motors produce no exhaust and therefore no emissions.
➢ EVs are considered to help reducing petrol consumption because they use no other fuel.

Types of Motors in EVs
1. DC Series Motor,
2. Brushless DC Motor,
3. Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motor (PMSM)
4. Three-phase AC Induction Motors
5. Switched Reluctance Motors (SRM)

Types of EV charging systems
➢ Development of an EV market requires reliable interface infrastructure. This means

that enough pairing residential plugs and public charging stations must be
developed in large scale to meet the fast growing demand resulting from the
continued increase in EVs penetration.
➢ In general EV charging systems/stations, or EV supply equipment (EVSE), may be

classified into 03 types. They are described by their charge ‘‘level’’ as –
i. Level 1 (L1),
ii. Level 2 (L2), or
iii. Level 3 (L3)

L1 AC charging systems
➢L1 charging systems use a standard 110/120 V outlet and takes 11–20 h
to charge a fully discharged EV.
➢ L1 charging systems are designed to be portable and are suitable for on-
road emergency situations, whereby an EV’ battery charge runs low and
it is needed to plug its charger into a readily available outlet.
➢L1 charging systems are relatively slow.

L2 AC charging systems
➢ Operating voltage of L2 stations is specified at between 208 and 240 V and will
charge between 12 A and 80 A.
➢ Usually takes place at home when the driver is having rest or sleeping.
➢ Some Charging Stations, such as AV’s EVSE-RS+, include robust communication

capability and can be ‘‘plug in’’ to the Smart Grid.

L3 DC Charging stations
➢ L3 charging stations are DC fast charging systems, specifically designed for

commercial installations such as auto plants, airports, and retail distribution
centers.
➢ Charging time of these stations is in minutes instead of hours.
➢Ideal for public charging infrastructure that can be used for charging large
vehicles with large size batteries such as those used for buses and commercial or
service fleets with very little recharging downtime.

BATTERY AND CHARGING/DISCHARGING
WIRed chaRGInG technoloGy
A PEV charger circuit consists of 3 stages.
1st 2nd 3rd

BATTERY AND CHARGING/DISCHARGING
A PEV charger circuit consists of 3 stages.
❖1st stage consists of an input filter and a full-bridge rectifier to convert AC power to
DC power.
❖2nd stage is a boost converter with a power factor correction stage to condition the
input current as a sinusoidal waveform. The boost converter is required to step up
input voltage (generally 120V/240V) to a level compatible with the electric vehicle
battery voltage (300–400V).
❖3rd stage isolates the battery from the supply power system. It comprises a full-bridge
forward (DC–DC) converter with a low-pass filter connected to its output terminals.
❖The manner in which power is delivered to the batteries is crucial to battery life; hence,
a charger also includes a control circuit for battery power management.
❖PEV battery chargers often raise voltage regulation concerns. Mathematical or

simulation models are used to evaluate the concerns.

WiReless ChaRGInG TechnoloGy
Ref: https://www.michigan.gov/mdot/travel/mobility/initiatives/wireless-charging-roadway

WiReless ChaRGInG TechnoloGy
❖Wireless charging is an emerging technology that uses time-varying magnetic fields to
transfer electric power over an air interface to charge an electrical load.
❖With an interoperability industry standard (SAEJ2954), wireless charging of PEVs has

become a tangible reality. Wireless charging is possible when the PEV is on the move, or
stationary.
❖Successful deployment of wireless PEV charging depends on achieving high end-to-end

system efficiency (85% – 90%).
❖There are 02 primary side power supply architectures predominantly being used for
wireless electric vehicle charging systems:
1) Series LC resonant (SLC) and
2) Hybrid series–parallel resonant (LCL) topologies.
WIReless chaRGInG technoloGy
Basic architecture of an inductive wireless PEV charging system is as follows.
✓ In the primary side, the 50/60 Hz utility AC input is converted to a regulated DC

voltage by a power conditioner with a power factor correction just like a wired
charger.
✓ A pulse width modulated (PWM) inverter can be used here.

✓ A switching network converts the DC
energy to high-frequency (HF) AC energy
(square wave) at the required operating
frequency.
✓ Power flow regulation is also achieved through the modulation of this HF signal. Then,
step-up or step-down high-frequency transformers are used to couple the energy to the
next stage, which is the matching network.
✓ Key aspect of the matching network is a very low loss (high Q) energy storage element
used for coupling, which shall reduce the volt-ampere (VA) rating of the power supply.
This stage is also commonly referred to as an impedance matching network, or a
resonant tank.

✓ Across the air interface, the secondary side also has
similar functional blocks.
✓ Front end of the secondary network is another

matching network of energy storage elements that
serves the same purpose as the one on the primary side.
✓ A number of different topologies is possible here. For example, a parallel resonant

arrangement with partial series compensation has constant current source characteristics.
✓ Then, different types of AC/DC power conversion schemes can be implemented on the
secondary side so as to actively shape the power flow.

Coordination of PEV Charging
❑Expected widespread penetration of electric transportation requires smart
and coordinated charging strategies. There are many research works that
study the impact of PEV integration in electricity markets and regulation
service.
❑The PEV’s highest value is expected from the provision of regulation.
Usually, PEVs respond to regulation signal requests based on the
automatic generation control (AGC) system of the utility operator.
❑Researchers have proposed a new entity, the electric vehicle aggregator
(EVA), as an intermediary module between the utility and a large number
of PEVs to ensure successful coordinated charging.

❑PEVs have fairly flexible demand that can be modeled as a stochastic process.
❑ In addition to peak demand shifting and charging cost reduction, charging

strategies shall be based on frequency regulation and/or real-time balancing of
power.
❑In fact, the G2V charging process is a stochastic optimization problem applied
to a Markov decision problem with number of uncertainties.
❑A G2V Markov decision problem can also be solved using mixed integer linear
programming and stochastic dynamic programming.

❑The G2V charging process in general has multiple courses of uncertainty. This has
to be optimized considering:
1. The hourly price of energy,
2. The hourly price of regulation service, and
3. The integrated hourly energy output of the AGC, which maintains system AC
frequency.

❑A few initial steps of modeling the vehicle charging problem are
described here.
❑The objective is to minimize the total expected cost to charge the PEV.
❑Let, at the beginning of a unit time, when the PEV is plugged in, the smart
charger decides on 02 key decision variables:
i. A baseline charge rate, 𝑷𝒉 (kW),
ii. A varying charge rate, 𝜟𝑷𝒉 (kW)
❑These two variables depend on battery SOC and the control signal from the
AGC.

❑Hence, the instantaneous charging rate can take any value between 𝑷𝒉 +
𝚫𝑷𝒉 and 𝑷𝒉 − 𝚫𝑷𝒉 (provided Δ𝑃ℎ < 𝑃ℎ ). Note that 𝑃ℎ + Δ𝑃ℎ shall be less
than the maximum power rate of the charger.
❑Then, the charge rate at any time within the unit time can be given by a
random variable 𝑃𝑡 .
Here, 𝑹𝒕 is the unitless rate control factor transmitted by the AGC that
can take either positive or negative values.

❑Therefore, the state of charge after a charging duration of (T + ΔT) can be
given by –
❑Assumed that 𝑹𝒕 is a time-varying control signal that controls the

instantaneous charging rate of each PEV.
❑Hence, 𝑅𝑡 is generated from the AGC based on instantaneous loading

and frequency characteristics and indirectly acts as a coordinating agent.

❑The charging will continue until the expected SOC is reached or the user
unplugs the PEV.
❑Coordinated PEV charging can be optimized under various constraints

such as minimization of charging costs or minimization of network peak
load.
❑It can be shown that, for a given asset, minimizing peak load can be
captured by minimizing the square of the combined network load of the
uncontrollable household load plus the controllable PEV load. Here,
constraints are the result of driving and battery parameters.

Economic Considerations of PEV Charging & Discharging
❑In order to appropriately schedule the simultaneous charging and

discharging of a large number of vehicles, PEVs shall be modeled as an
integral part of the grid.
❑Many researchers have been evaluating the technical feasibility of the

scheme and have developed models and optimal and suboptimal
solutions.
❑Peak hour energy supplied by the PEV to the grid depends on the
battery capacity, which represents the maximum amount of energy that
can be extracted from the battery.

❑Battery capacity is affected by permanent capacity loss (PCL) that depends
on charge and discharge rates, usage, and age.
❑PCL depends on the chemistry of the battery and is unavoidable. This is

sometimes assumed to be directly proportional to charge rate and
discharge rate.
❑PCL causes financial loss to PEV owners, which is a hurdle for V2G
realizations.
❑Simple equivalent circuit model of the PEV is shown in the Figure, where 𝑽𝟎
is the open circuit voltage, 𝑹𝟏 and 𝑹𝟐 are internal resistances, and 𝑪 is the
capacitance.
Electrical equivalent circuit representation of a basic PEV battery.
❑The circuit parameters may be different for different charging and

discharging rates, these can be assumed constant for 20% < SOC < 80%.
❑But these change exponentially during 0% SOC to 20% SOC due to the
electrochemical reaction inside the battery.

❑The terminal voltage 𝑉𝑡 can be written as –
❑Notations:
• Q = Nominal capacity of the battery (Ah),
• I = Charging/discharging current (A),
• 𝑆𝑂𝐶𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 = Current State of Charge,
• 𝑆𝑂𝐶𝑚𝑎𝑥 = Maximum State of Charge,
• 𝑆𝑂𝐶𝑚𝑖𝑛 = Minimum State of Charge.
❑ Energy required to charge the battery can be written as –

Economic Considerations of EV Charging & Discharging
❑ Energy required to discharge the battery can be written as –
❑ The total processed energy for all vehicles
❑ Usually, the battery is not 100% efficient. If the battery efficiency is

𝜼, then the amount of energy available for transportation is 𝜼𝑬𝒄 .

❑ PEV owner would have to pay the grid operator an amount of Tg2v
given by –
Here, charged by the utilities:

• 𝑹𝒑𝒆𝒂𝒌−𝒈𝟐𝒗 , 𝑬𝒑𝒆𝒂𝒌−𝒈𝟐𝒗 = Energy price ($/kWh) and the energy quantity
(kWh) during peak hours,
• 𝑹𝒐𝒇𝒇−𝒑𝒆𝒂𝒌−𝒈𝟐𝒗 , 𝑬𝒐𝒇𝒇−𝒑𝒆𝒂𝒌−𝒈𝟐𝒗 = Energy price ($/kWh) and the energy

quantity (kWh) during off-peak hours,

❖ The energy available to the grid from the battery is also 𝜼𝑬𝒅 . The utility
would have to pay the PEV owner an amount of Tv2g given by –
❖These expressions can be easily expanded more than two charging periods.
Here, paid by the utilities:

• 𝑹𝒑𝒆𝒂𝒌−𝒗𝟐𝒈 , 𝑬𝒑𝒆𝒂𝒌−𝒗𝟐𝒈 = Energy price ($/kWh) and the energy quantity (kWh) during
peak hours,
• 𝑹𝒐𝒇𝒇−𝒑𝒆𝒂𝒌−𝒗𝟐𝒈 , 𝑬𝒐𝒇𝒇−𝒑𝒆𝒂𝒌−𝒗𝟐𝒈 = Energy price ($/kWh) and the energy quantity (kWh)
during peak hours.
➢Usually, a portion of the energy (say, 𝑬𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒏𝒔𝒑 ) is reserved for

transportation purposes and the battery is never depleted below this level
while supplying to the grid.
➢Let the reserved portion is K times the total available energy (K < 1,
typically K = 1/3).
➢Then, the energy available for the grid is 𝐸𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑝 Τ𝑘.

➢Note that every time charging and discharging is done, 𝟏 − 𝜼 % of

energy is lost.
➢Therefore, if the battery lifetime is 𝑵𝒄 number of charging and

discharging cycles, 𝟏 − 𝜼 𝑵𝒄 amount of energy is lost during its lifetime.
➢The depreciated value of the battery after N cycles can be given by

𝑵
𝑩𝟎 , where 𝑩𝟎 is the original value of the battery. There will be other
𝑵𝒄
losses too.

➢Therefore, for economic feasibility, the cost of energy charged to the PEV
by the utility shall be more than the –
1. Cost to generate the electricity plus,
2. Losses in transmission plus,
3. Operational and management costs.
➢ The price of energy charged by the PEV shall be more than that paid
to buy the energy.
➢ The additional cost shall include the battery depreciation cost, which shall
include the fact that the battery size should be (1/K) times bigger than the
energy it can supply.
Markov Stochastic Technique in EV Charging Problems
➢A Markov chain is defined as a mathematical framework consisting of

random variables that transition form one state to another based on
probabilistic rule.

The Markov stochastic technique is often employed in Electric Vehicle (EV)

charging problems to model and optimize various aspects of the charging
process, especially in environments with uncertainty or random
behaviour. Here are some ways it's applied:
i. Stochastic Modelling of EV Charging Demand

ii. Optimal Charging Scheduling
iii. Energy Pricing and Load Balancing
iv. Prediction of Charging Station Utilization
v. Battery Degradation Modeling

1. **Stochastic Modelling of EV Charging Demand**:
❑ The arrival times and charging needs of EVs are uncertain and can be
modelled using a Markov chain.
❑ Each state in the Markov model can represent the charging demand at
different times of the day.
❑ Transitions between states represent the changes in demand as new

vehicles arrive or leave.

2. **Optimal Charging Scheduling**:
❑ By treating the charging process as a Markov Decision Process (MDP),

optimal charging strategies can be developed.
❑ In this case, the states of the Markov chain represent the battery levels
or charging statuses of EVs.
❑ While the transitions depend on the charging rates, arrival/departure

of EVs, or changes in electricity prices.
❑ The goal is to optimize the charging schedule while minimizing costs

or maximizing battery life.
3. **Energy Pricing and Load Balancing**:
❑ Markov chains can model the fluctuating nature of energy prices and
the charging load on the grid.
❑ This helps in designing pricing mechanisms and load balancing

strategies for EVs, ensuring that charging occurs at optimal times,
such as during off-peak hours.

4. **Prediction of Charging Station Utilization**:
❑ The Markov process can be used to predict the future states of

charging stations (e.g., idle, partially full, fully occupied) based on
historical data.
❑ This helps operators manage station availability and provide real-time

information to users about station status.
Calendar & Weather Combined
Features
1.2 98.22% 97.85% 97.76% 97.47%
1
0.8
0.6 0.275
0.4 0.154
0.105 0.165
0.115 0.218
0.124 0.129
0.2
0
LSTM Bi-LSTM RNN GRU
MAE 0.105 0.115 0.124 0.129
RMSE 0.154 0.165 0.218 0.275
R2 Value 98.22% 97.85% 97.76% 97.47%
MAE RMSE R2 Value

5. **Battery Degradation Modelling**:
❑ Markov stochastic techniques can also model the degradation of EV

batteries during the charging process.
❑ Transitions between states might represent different stages of battery

health, allowing for predictive maintenance or charging strategies
that prolong battery life.
In summary, the Markov stochastic technique provides a robust framework to

model the uncertainties in EV charging, optimize resource allocation, and
manage energy consumption efficiently.

Thank You

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Electric

SANCOY, EEE,CUET 9/23/2024 2

SANCOY, EEE,CUET 9/23/2024 3

1. Hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs)

• Using regenerative breaking,

SANCOY, EEE,CUET 9/23/2024 4

SANCOY, EEE,CUET 9/23/2024 5

SANCOY, EEE,CUET 9/23/2024 6

❑ Regenerative braking is a mechanism found on most hybrid and full-electric

❑ Regenerative braking solves this problem by recapturing upwards of 70% of the

SANCOY, EEE,CUET 9/23/2024 8

SANCOY, EEE,CUET 9/23/2024 9

❑PHEV batteries can be charged either by –

SANCOY, EEE,CUET 9/23/2024 10

SANCOY, EEE,CUET 9/23/2024 11

❑There are 2 basic PHEV configurations:

1. Series PHEVs or, extended range electric vehicles (EREVs):

SANCOY, EEE,CUET 9/23/2024 12

❑There are 2 basic PHEV configurations:

2. Parallel or blended PHEVs:

➢ Both propel the vehicle under most driving conditions.

➢ Electric only operation usually occurs only at low speeds.

SANCOY, EEE,CUET 9/23/2024 13

➢ This is because EV motors produce no exhaust and therefore no emissions.

SANCOY, EEE,CUET 9/23/2024 14

SANCOY, EEE,CUET 9/23/2024 15

➢ Development of an EV market requires reliable interface infrastructure. This means

➢ In general EV charging systems/stations, or EV supply equipment (EVSE), may be

SANCOY, EEE,CUET 9/23/2024 16

➢L1 charging systems are relatively slow.

SANCOY, EEE,CUET 9/23/2024 17

➢ Some Charging Stations, such as AV’s EVSE-RS+, include robust communication

SANCOY, EEE,CUET 9/23/2024 18

➢ L3 charging stations are DC fast charging systems, specifically designed for

➢ Charging time of these stations is in minutes instead of hours.

SANCOY, EEE,CUET 9/23/2024 19

1st 2nd 3rd

SANCOY, EEE,CUET 9/23/2024 21

❖PEV battery chargers often raise voltage regulation concerns. Mathematical or

SANCOY, EEE,CUET 9/23/2024 23

SANCOY, EEE,CUET 9/23/2024 24

❖With an interoperability industry standard (SAEJ2954), wireless charging of PEVs has

❖Successful deployment of wireless PEV charging depends on achieving high end-to-end

✓ In the primary side, the 50/60 Hz utility AC input is converted to a regulated DC

✓ A pulse width modulated (PWM) inverter can be used here.

SANCOY, EEE,CUET 9/23/2024 27

✓ Front end of the secondary network is another

✓ A number of different topologies is possible here. For example, a parallel resonant

SANCOY, EEE,CUET 9/23/2024 28

SANCOY, EEE,CUET 9/23/2024 29

❑ In addition to peak demand shifting and charging cost reduction, charging

SANCOY, EEE,CUET 9/23/2024 30

1. The hourly price of energy,

2. The hourly price of regulation service, and

SANCOY, EEE,CUET 9/23/2024 31

SANCOY, EEE,CUET 9/23/2024 32

SANCOY, EEE,CUET 9/23/2024 33

❑Assumed that 𝑹𝒕 is a time-varying control signal that controls the

❑Hence, 𝑅𝑡 is generated from the AGC based on instantaneous loading

SANCOY, EEE,CUET 9/23/2024 34

1. Stochastic Modelling of EV Charging Demand: