Common Diseases of Goat and Sheep

Clostridial Diseases
A. Enterotoxemia Type C, or Bloody Scours, can occur in two distinct forms.
The first form, known as struck, is seen in adults that do not normally exhibit clinical signs.
Ulcerations of the small intestine are noted upon necropsy.
The second form, known as enterotoxic hemorrhagic enteritis, occurs in lambs or kids
within the first few days of life. It causes an infection of the small intestine, resulting in
bloody diarrhea or sometimes death without clinical signs.
Enterotoxemia is often related to indigestion. It is predisposed by an
overabundance of milk, possibly due to the loss of a twin. The risk of enterotoxemia can
be reduced with adequate hygiene at parturition, such as eliminating dung or dirt tags in
the wool and cleaning udders.
B. Enterotoxemia Type D, also known as Pulpy Kidney or Overeating Disease, is seen more
frequently in sheep than goats. It can occur in lambs less than two weeks old, those
weaned in feedlots, those on high carbohydrate diets, or sometimes in animals on lush
green pasture. It normally affects the largest, fastest growing lambs or kids. A sudden
change in feed causes this organism, which is already present in the gut, to reproduce
quickly, resulting in a toxic reaction. In some cases, animals exhibit uncoordinated
movements and convulsions before death.

C. Tetanus, or Lockjaw, is caused by Clostridium tetani, when the bacteria gains entry to the
body through a contaminated break in the skin. Most cases of tetanus in sheep are
secondary to tail docking and castration, especially when rubber bands are used in the
process. Animals with tetanus become rigid, exhibit muscle spasms, and eventually die.
Treatment is usually unsuccessful, but the disease can be prevented with vaccination and
good hygiene. Tetanus can be transmitted to humans, so care should be taken when
handling an outbreak.
It is important to vaccinate, especially with CD&T, at appropriate times to utilize
the vaccine to the herd’s best advantage. If ewes and does have not been vaccinated with
CD&T before, or if more than a year has passed since their last vaccination, they should
be vaccinated twice with CD&T, with the last vaccination occurring 20 days before
parturition. They would then only need one annual booster in subsequent years about 30
days before lambing/kidding. The vaccination 30 days before parturition will confer
passive immunity to the offspring via the colostrum. These maternal antibodies will
 protect the offspring for five to eight weeks. Lambs and kids should then be vaccinated at
six to eight weeks, and given a booster shot two to four weeks later.

Soremouth
Soremouth, also known as Contagious Ecthyma, is a viral skin disease. The condition is
caused by a Pox virus that requires a break in the skin to enter the body. Clinical signs of a
soremouth infection include scabs or blisters on the lips, nose, udder and teats, or sometimes at
the junction of the hoof and skin of the lower leg. Soremouth results in loss of condition,
depressed growth rates, increased susceptibility to other diseases, and death by starvation, since
affected animals are less willing to eat while the infection persists. The most serious problem with
sore mouth, however, is in susceptible lactating females that have never been infected or
vaccinated, as they can get the lesions on the teats. This makes it painful for them to allow their
offspring to nurse, which can lead to premature weaning and even mastitis.
There is a commercial vaccine available. Normally, the infection will resolve itself in one
to four weeks, with immunity lasting for several years. Soremouth is transmitted by direct contact
with affected animals or contact with equipment, fences, feed, and bedding that have been
exposed to the virus.
The condition will resolve on its own, but can be treated topically with iodine/glycerin
solution. It is important to not use a brush or other utensil to rub or abrade the area of a sore
mouth lesion as it will spread it further on the face or other tissue. Often, the best way to deal
with sore mouth lesions is to leave them alone and let them clear up over time. If flies or other
insects are a concern, treat the affected area with an insecticide.
It is important for handlers to wear gloves when dealing with soremouth, as the virus is
contagious to humans. When humans contract sore mouth, it is termed orf. It can cause painful
and contagious lesions on the skin, very often on the hands or fingers. Care should be taken when
handling animals with soremouth, handling animals that have been recently vaccinated, and
handling the vaccine.
The vaccine is a live virus that, when applied, actually causes the disease locally. The live
vaccine for soremouth will cause soremouth lesions at a specific location on the body chosen by
the handler. A hairless area of the animal, such as the inside of the ear, under the tail, or inside
of the thigh, is scratched, and the vaccine is applied to this area. Because the vaccine is a live
virus, it is important to only vaccinate for the virus if it is already present in the herd, as it will
introduce the virus if it is not already there. Producers that have closed herds/flocks and don’t
have sore mouth probably have no need to vaccinate for sore mouth. Once soremouth is
introduced to an operation, either from vaccination or other means, it usually returns yearly to
susceptible animals.
Internal and External Parasites
Parasites pose a significant threat to the health of small ruminants. Parasites can damage
the gastrointestinal tract, and result in reduced reproductive performance, reduced growth rates;
less productive animals in terms of meat, fiber and milk; and even death.
General clinical signs that an animal is suffering from a parasitic infestation include
diarrhea, weight loss or reduced weight gain, unthriftiness, loss of appetite, and reduced
reproductive performance. Factors that may affect an individual’s susceptibility to parasitism
include natural genetic resistance, age, and reproductive stage.
Goats are generally more susceptible to internal parasites than sheep. The groups most
susceptible to parasitism are young animals, lactating ewes and does, and those in late gestation
or around the time of parturition. The animals least susceptible to parasites are mature, dry ewes.
Internal Parasites. Several types of internal parasites affect sheep and goats, and all sheep and
goats have a low level of parasite activity. However, excessively high parasite levels are often
detrimental to the health of the animal.

A. Internal Parasites
The most common internal parasite is the Roundworm that lives in the abomasum
and small intestine of sheep and goats. There are several types of roundworms that infect
sheep and goats, including Telodorsagia (Ostertagia) circumcincta, Haemonchus contortus,
and Trichostrongylus colubriformis.
The most dangerous parasite affecting sheep and goats is the Gastrointestinal roundworm
Haemonchus contortus, also known as the Barber pole worm. This voracious bloodsucking
parasite has a tremendous capacity to reproduce through egg-laying. Clinical signs include
anemia (pale mucous membranes), edema, protein loss, and death. Animals suffering from
Haemonchus contortus become weak and lethargic, often straggling at the back of the herd
when driven a distance. Edema, or the accumulation of fluid under the skin, is usually seen as
a swelling of the lower jaw, a condition known as bottle jaw.
Tapeworms can cause weight loss, unthriftiness, and gastrointestinal upset. A tapeworm
infection can be diagnosed by yellowish-white segments in the feces. Lambs and kids become
resistant to tapeworms quickly, so infections are most common in animals younger than four
or five months of age. The biggest problem with tapeworms is that producers can actually see
the segments in fecal matter and can become overly concerned. Infections by other internal
parasites are more serious than a mild tape worm infection.
Coccidia are protozoan parasites that damage the lining of the small intestine. Since the small
intestine is an important site of nutrient absorption, coccidia can cause weight loss, stunted
growth, and diarrhea containing blood and mucous. Other clinical signs include dehydration,
fever, anemia, and breaking of wool or hair. Fly strike and secondary infections can also result
from coccidiosis. Coccidia are usually found in animals in confinement or intensive grazing
systems, as a result of poor sanitation, overcrowding, and stress. Animals between one and
six months of age in feedlots or intensive grazing systems are at highest risk for coccidiosis.
Outbreaks of coccidiosis can be controlled by implementing good sanitation techniques,
providing clean water, rotating pastures, and avoiding overstocked pens. Outbreaks of
coccidiosis can be treated with sulfa drugs. Coccidiostats can be administered to inhibit
coccidial reproduction.
Anthelmintics are drugs that either kill egg-laying adults or kill larvae before they grow
into adults and become capable of laying eggs. An anthelmintic is normally administered as
an oral drench, a thick liquid suspension deposited at the back of the animal’s tongue. There
are challenges associated with using anthelmintics, since few are approved by the FDA for use
in small ruminants (although many are safe), and resistance to the drugs can develop due to
overuse and improper dosing.
Fecal Egg Count (FEC) Tests can be done to determine when it is necessary to deworm,
and to help determine the level of pasture contamination. A system known as FAMACHA has
been developed to identify those animals affected by Haemonchus that require anthelmintic.
In this method, producers observe the color of the conjunctiva of the lower eyelid to
determine the level of anemia that an animal is experiencing. The goal of FAMACHA is to delay
resistance by only selectively treating animals in a herd that are showing signs of a parasitic
infection. Sheep and goat producers should be trained in the use of the FAMACHA system as
it can reduce the need for anthelmintic use and delay anthelmintic resistance.

B. External Parasites
External parasites may damage the fleece and reduce pelt value. Parasites common to
sheep or goats include Lice, Keds, and Mites. External parasites are especially common in the
winter when sheep or goats are in closer confinement. Pour-on treatments are a common
form of management for many external parasites, and are more effective on shorn sheep or
short-haired goats. The many species of lice that parasitize sheep and goats are generally
divided into chewing lice and sucking lice.
Chewing lice feed from dead skin cells, while sucking lice feed by sucking blood. Lice can be
detected by the presence of their eggs, called nits, which are not susceptible to insecticides.
Sheep or goats exhibiting wool or hair loss should be checked for nits. Chewing lice are
eradicated with pour-on topical insecticides, while sucking lice can be treated with specific
anthelmintics that control them.
Keds pierce the skin and suck blood, and are usually found on the neck, shoulders, and flanks.
Ked bites are very irritating to sheep, causing them to scratch, rub, and bite themselves, which
 damages the wool. Keds also cause wool discoloration, which further reduces the value of the
fleece. Ked bites affect the hide quality as well. Shearing sheep will remove most adult keds
and larvae, and is especially important before lambing. Further treatment with pour-on
insecticides after shearing or injection of Ivermectin are both effective methods to wipe out
a ked infestation. Unlike lice and keds, mites burrow beneath the skin instead of living on the
surface. This irritates the skin, causing the sheep and goats to itch, which results in wool or
hair loss and lesions or scabs.
Mange can be diagnosed by doing a skin scraping. Administering injectable Ivermectin or
topical insecticides can help affected animals.

Respiratory Problems
Respiratory infections, or pneumonia, are a common and serious disease in sheep and
goats. A number of different types of pneumonia complexes affect sheep and goats. Many times,
a combination of viral and bacterial agents infect the lungs as a result of stress such as weaning,
transport, change of weather, poor air quality (high ammonia in confinement or dusty conditions
in corrals), or a combination of factors.
Clinical signs of pneumonia include fever with a temperature over 104°F, along with a
moist, painful cough and dyspnea (difficulty breathing). Anorexia and depression may also be
observed in an animal suffering from pneumonia.
Treatment of pneumonia upon diagnosis involves administration of antibiotics. Because
there are different types of pneumonia, it is important to work with a veterinarian to identify the
type of pneumonia present and determine the most effective treatment.
To reduce the incidence of pneumonia, it is important to implement optimal sanitation
and air quality practices in herd housing. Making sure buildings have adequate ventilation and
reducing dust are very important. Any environmental condition that irritates the lungs gives
infectious agents a chance to affect the animal. Minimize transportation stress, and quarantine
new animals before introducing them to the rest of the herd to prevent the spread of outside
pathogens. Provide good nutrition and water, and supplement with trace minerals to enhance
immune function as necessary.

Foot Scald/Footrot
Footrot is a bacterial infection prevalent in warm, moist areas. Footrot is caused mainly
by the synergistic action of the bacteria Fusobacterium necrophorum and Dichelobacter
nodosus. The D. nodosus bacteria can cause various degrees of involvement of the sole. Footrot
can have a range of clinical signs, depending on the specific strain(s) of D. nodosus present. Foot
scald infects only the area between the toes and often clears up quickly with treatment or with
improving environmental conditions. Virulent footrot is much more of a problem, as the bacteria
enter the hoof and digest the hard, horny tissue of the sole that protects the fleshy tissue of the
hoof. Virulent footrot in sheep and goats causes much economic loss and increased management
effort. Once it infects a herd/ flock, it is difficult to eradicate.
Clinical signs of foot scald include redness and inflammation between the toes and a bad
odor. In advanced cases, the hoof horn becomes under run and actually can separate from the
hoof wall. Foot scald and footrot can cause lameness, reduced weight gain as animals are less
willing to move to feed, and decreased reproductive capabilities. These conditions result in
production losses, treatment and prevention costs, premature culling, and reduced sale value of
infected animals. Both sheep and goats are susceptible to footrot. Moreover, some of the
different strains of D. nodosus affect both animal species.
In general, goats are usually less severely affected by footrot than are sheep. Footrot
commonly appears on a farm when an infected sheep or goat is brought into the herd. The D.
nodosus bacteria can not live in the environment for more than about 14 days, so almost always,
the source of the bacteria in an unaffected herd/flock is a carrier animal. Footrot occurs more
commonly when feet are not trimmed frequently enough and in crowded housing situations.
Some individuals are genetically more susceptible than others, and 5 to 10 percent of infected
sheep become chronic carriers of footrot.
These animals should be culled to prevent them from re-infecting the rest of the herd.
While not as likely as with carrier animals, footrot can also be spread on boots, tires, feeders, or
handler’s hands, so care must be taken if footrot is present in the herd. Producers should not
purchase animals with footrot or from infected flocks, and should not use areas or vehicles that
infected sheep have inhabited. Quarantine any new additions to the herd for 30 days, and trim
feet before introducing them to the other animals.
To prevent footrot, it is absolutely imperative to avoid the introduction of the disease to a
footrot-free herd/flock. Other management tasks that help maintain good foot health include
regular hoof trimming and sound nutrition. Foot soaking baths using zinc sulfate can be
constructed to treat footrot in conjunction with systemic treatment.
Vaccines are effective 60 to 80 percent of the time, and can be used with other
management practices to reduce the prevalence of footrot. A combined treatment plan of foot
trimming, foot baths, vaccination, and antibiotic treatment (for the most severe cases), can be
effective in controlling the physical clinical signs of footrot. To eliminate footrot from the herd
takes a dedicated and laborintensive plan of action that includes treating animals, separating
infected from non-infected animals, and culling of animals that can not be cured.
Caseous Lymphadenitis
Caseous lymphadenitis (CL) is a condition that affects the lymphatic system, resulting in
abscesses in the lymph nodes and internal organs. When it affects the internal organs, CL
becomes a chronic wasting disease, with economic losses due to reduced hide value and carcass
trimming.
CL can also result in decreased weight gain, wool growth, milk production, and
reproductive capabilities. Affected animals are often culled early and may die. Caseous
lymphadenitis is caused by the bacteria Corynebacterium pseudotuberculosis. An abscess can
develop either at the location where the bacteria enters the body or at a lymph node nearby.
From there, the infection can spread through the blood or lymphatic system, causing abscesses
to form in other lymph nodes or internal organs throughout the body.
The organs most commonly affected are lung, liver, kidneys, and their associated lymph
nodes. Abscesses, though not painful, grow slowly over time, and may rupture if close to the skin.
The disease is spread by direct contact with an infected animal or through contaminated
equipment or a contaminated environment. While infected animals may show no clinical signs,
CL can cause anemia, anorexia, weight loss, and fever.
Caseous lymphadenitis is a significant human health risk as well, since it has zoonotic
potential. The disease can be contracted by humans through consumption of raw milk from
infected sheep and goats, or if humans come in contact with infected carcasses and the bacteria
enters a break in the skin. The spread of CL to humans can be prevented by reduced contact with
contaminated objects, and through the pasteurization of milk before consumption.
A vaccine for this disease is available in two forms. The first is a toxoid for the bacteria
causing CL alone, and the second can be combined with the CD-T vaccine. The vaccine works best
in animals that do not already show signs of CL infection. Do not vaccinate for CL in the last
trimester of pregnancy to avoid vaccine-induced abortions. The vaccination does not treat for
existing infections; animals must be vaccinated prior to exposure for the vaccine to be effective.
The use of this vaccine is controversial, and producers should seek the advice of a veterinarian
before making it a part of their herd management program. It does not provide complete
protection, so cases will still occur on a farm infected with CL, but the incidence will decrease.

Listeriosis
Listeriosis is a bacterial infection caused by the bacteria Listeria monocytogenes. Natural
reservoirs for the bacteria are the soil and the GI tracts of mammals. Sheep and goats usually
ingest L. monocytogenes by grazing pastures contaminated by feces containing the bacteria. The
bacteria can also gain entry to tissue via wound or inhalation. Listeriosis is also a concern when
animals are consuming ensiled forages such as haylage or corn silage. Try to not feed the moldy
portion of silage to animals and limit soil contamination when putting up silage, as listeriosis is
most prevalent in the soil and in molded areas of silage. Listeriosis can result in abortion,
septicemia, or meningoencephalitis.
Clinical signs of listeriosis include anorexia, depression, disorientation, facial paralysis,
excessive salivation, and in severe cases, affected animals may fall on their sides and exhibit
involuntary running movements. Abortions due to L. monocytogenes usually occur during the
third trimester of gestation, and may occur at a rate of up to 20 percent in affected sheep flocks.
Encephalitis and abortion do not usually occur simultaneously in a flock. L. monocytogenes affects
sheep and goats of all ages and both sexes. Onset is fast, and death may occur 24 to 48 hours
after onset of clinical signs. Diagnosis of listeriosis is confirmed by isolation and identification of
L. monocytogenes, usually from the cerebrospinal fluid. Bacteria have also been isolated from
nasal discharge, urine, feces, and milk of affected animals. This sheep has caseous lymphadenitis.
Listeriosis should be treated aggressively with high doses of penicillin or tetracycline,
along with supportive therapy, including fluids and electrolytes. As L. monocytogenes can be
transmitted to humans who handled aborted lambs or kids, or during necropsy of septicemic
animals, precautions should be taken. While cases of human listeriosis are rare, mortality rates
can be as high as 50 percent, and there is the risk of abortion for pregnant women who contract
the bacteria.

Abortive Diseases
Abortion refers to a female losing her offspring during pregnancy or giving birth to weak
or deformed babies. Abortions can be due to infectious or non-infectious agents.
A. Non-infectious abortions can be caused by trauma such as fighting or rough handling, but
are much less common.
B. The main infectious agents that cause abortion in sheep and goats are Vibriosis
(Campylobacter), Chlamydia (also known in sheep as Enzootic Abortion of Ewes or EAE),
Toxoplasmosis, and Leptospirosis to a lesser extent. In addition, Border disease virus,
Cache Valley virus, Listeria, and Salmonella have been known to cause abortion in sheep
and goats. Care should be taken when handling aborted fetuses or placentas, as all the
pathogens that cause abortion in sheep and goats can be transmitted to humans.
Campylobacter infections result in late pregnancy abortions or stillbirths. They are seen
much more commonly as a cause of abortion in ewes than in does. If the abortions are
due to an infection by Campylobacter bacteria, infected animals are often responsive to
either tetracycline or sulfa drugs to prevent further abortions. A vaccine is available to
prevent Campylobacter infections.
Chlamydia infections cause abortions during the last 2 to 3 weeks of gestation, resulting
in stillbirths and weak offspring. Ewes and does infected by this bacterium rarely abort
more than once, but can continue to shed the bacteria from their reproductive tract,
infecting other herd members. It is likely the infectious agent is Chlamydia bacteria if the
abortions occur in ewe lambs or young ewes. Abortions due to Chlamydia bacteria can be
stemmed by treating ewes with tetracycline given in the feed or by injections. There is
also a vaccine for Chlamydia. If ewes or does contract toxoplasmosis early in gestation,
they usually reabsorb the fetus. When infected later in gestation, abortions are common.
Campylobacter and Chlamydia
Campylobacter and Chlamydia bacteria are often spread to a noninfected herd or
flock when a purchased animal is introduced from another farm. Feeding high doses of
tetracycline prior to lambing or kidding has been effective in reducing Chlamydia and
Campylobacter abortions. Ewes or does should not be fed on the ground, as
Campylobacter and Chlamydia are transmitted by ingestion of materials in contact with
infected feces or fetal and placental fluids. Vaccination for Campylobacter and Chlamydia
is important for flock or herd health as well.
Toxoplasma
Toxoplasma abortions are unique in that Toxoplasma is a protozoan parasite, not a
bacteria, so the manner in which ewes are infected is different. Toxoplasma is a parasite
of cats and rodents, who shed the agent into the environment (hay or feed) through their
feces, where it can be ingested by sheep or goats. The only treatment for toxoplasmosis
is prevention. It is important for producers to cover stored feed and discourage stray cats
from hanging around barns that house gestating ewes or does. Feeding a coccidiostat,
such as Monensin or Decoquinate, mixed into feed can also be effective in preventing
abortion due to toxoplasmosis. Not all coccidiostats are FDA approved for sheep and
goats, so a veterinarian should be consulted if this method is considered, as several can
be effective.
Leptospirosis
Leptospirosis, caused by the bacteria Leptospira interrogans, can cause abortion
in goats, though sheep are less susceptible. It is generally transmitted when animals come
into contact with standing water, such as a lake or pond, with the bacteria. Clinical signs
of infection may also include anemia and icterus. Icterus, also known as jaundice, is a
condition where the skin and white of the eyes appear yellow due to an accumulation of
bilirubin in the blood caused by the breakdown of red blood cells. It can be a symptom of
anemia or liver disease. A diagnosis of Leptospirosis can be made conclusively by testing
the dam’s urine, the aborted fetus, or the placenta.

Q fever
 Q Fever is a bacterial infection that can cause abortion, especially in goats, but also
in sheep. It is caused by the bacteria Coxiella burnetii, which are shed in milk, urine, feces,
placental tissue and amniotic fluid, as well as spread through the air. Pasteurization is
effective in killing the bacteria in milk. Clinical signs in ruminants include anorexia,
abortion, and lesions.
The disease is usually diagnosed by bacteria from an infected placenta, which will
be covered with a gray-brown secretion. Outbreaks can be managed by administration of
oral tetracycline, separating pregnant animals inside from the rest of the herd, and
burning or burying reproductive waste. The disease can be spread to humans, especially
farmers, veterinarians, and researchers who assist in the birthing process, who often
exhibit flu-like clinical signs. Even if a specific infectious agent is suspected as the cause of
abortion in a herd or flock, it is still necessary to submit an aborted fetus and placenta to
a diagnostic lab for confirmation.
It is important to include the part of the placenta where lesions are present as this
is critical to identification. Producers can work with veterinarians when packaging and
shipping the fetus and placenta. To prevent the spread of infectious agents while waiting
for results from the diagnostic lab, aborting ewes or does must be isolated from the rest
of the herd, and aborted fetuses or placentas should be removed from the pen. Specific
management practices can help to reduce the incidence of infectious abortions in the herd
or flock. Any new additions to the flock or herd should be quarantined or, if they are
pregnant ewes or does, penned separately until they give birth.

Polioencephalomacia
Polioencephalomacia is a condition found usually in feedlot lambs between 5 and 8
months of age, but can affect sheep of all breeds, sex, and ages. Losses are most often sustained
in animals on a high plane of nutrition.
There are two levels of this disease, subacute and acute. In the subacute form, animals
show signs of incoordination, weakness, tremors, blindness, and depression. In the acute form,
lambs are found dead or comatose, experiencing involuntary muscle contractions or seizures.
Body temperature is not affected. At necropsy, lesions in the central nervous system and necrosis
of the cerebral cortex of the brain are found.
Polioencephalomacia is thought to be caused by thiamine deficiency as a result of diets
or water containing toxic levels of sulfur. A thiamine-like substance is produced in the rumen
during digestion of high-sulfur diets. This thiamine-like substance competes for thiamine
receptors in the rumen and binds some of the receptors in the place of thiamine. As a result, less
thiamine is absorbed by the body, even though thiamine production in the rumen is sufficient.
This decreased thiamine absorption results in neuronal degeneration and death of brain cells.
Traditional diets do not contain high levels of sulfur.
Polio seems to be endemic to certain farms, probably due to types of feedstuffs or water
available. Some water wells contain high levels of sulfur in the water, and some feedstuffs are
known to contain high levels of sulfur. Fish products and by-products from corn distillation for
ethanol (distillers’ grains) have high levels of sulfur. If polio is a problem on specific farms or if
feed ingredients with high sulfur content are fed, then thiamine should be routinely added to
grain mixes fed to sheep and goats.
A diagnosis of polioencephalomacia can be made when clinical signs such as blindness are
observed in animals with normal temperatures, or lesions are found during necropsy. To treat the
condition, thiamine hydrochloride can be administered twice daily for several days. Affected
animals should be isolated to provide easy access to feed and water. Intravenous (IV) fluids,
electrolytes, and nutrients can be given using a stomach tube if necessary. Complete recovery
depends on the extent of damage done to the brain.

Mastitis
Mastitis refers to an inflammation of the mammary glands due to a bacterial infection.
Udder damage, often caused by mastitis, is one of the leading causes of culling in sheep and goat
operations. The risk of developing mastitis increases with poor sanitary conditions, systemic
infection, or trauma inflicted by offspring. Mastitis can occur as an acute or chronic condition, and
may be localized to a single gland or both.
Mastitis can be diagnosed through physical examination of the udder of the animal or by
looking at a sample of milk from an affected gland on a strip cup against a black background.
Acutely mastitic mammary glands are warm, swollen, and painful, and may produce milk that is
abnormal in consistency or color. If mastitis becomes septic, meaning that bacteria have entered
the bloodstream, the condition may be accompanied by signs of fever, anorexia, depression, and
lethargy. In chronic mastitis, the main symptom observed is offspring that are failing to thrive, as
affected dams are reluctant to let them nurse.
Mastitis can be treated with both intramammary and systemic antibiotics treatment. If
mastitis is a chronic problem in an operation, then the causative agent should be cultured, and
antibiotic choice based upon those results. It is helpful to work with a veterinarian to develop a
mastitis control strategy, as individual cases, even if treated properly, result in udder damage.

White Muscle Disease

White muscle disease is a degenerative muscle disease found in sheep and goats. It is
caused by a deficiency of selenium and/or vitamin E. Selenium deficiency is associated with areas
where the soil is deficient in selenium, while a vitamin E deficiency reflects poor forage quality.
White muscle disease is most often seen in newborns and fast-growing animals.
White muscle disease may affect skeletal muscles, heart muscle, or both. When the
skeletal muscles are affected, the animal will arch its back with a hunched appearance, and have
a stiff gait. When the heart muscle becomes affected, the animal may present with difficulty
breathing; fever; and frothy, blood-stained nasal discharge.
Other clinical signs associated with selenium and vitamin E deficiency that may be seen
along with white muscle disease include reproductive losses such as lower conception rates, fetal
re-absorption, dystocia, retained placenta, reduced milk production, reduced semen quality, and
reduced immune response.
White muscle disease can be treated with an injection of both vitamin E and selenium
since the condition may be caused by a deficiency in one or both. Affected animals will usually
respond to a single treatment within 24 hours, and a second dose of vitamin E (though not
selenium) may be given if individuals are unresponsive. Treatment should not exceed two doses
on a short-term basis.

Selenium and Vitamin E deficiencies

Selenium and vitamin E deficiencies occur when animals are fed feedstuffs low in one or
both compounds. Indiana and Kentucky, and most surrounding states, are known to have
selenium deficient soils. The disease can be prevented through feed and mineral
supplementation. Injections of selenium and vitamin E can also be given, but a producer should
get advice on the use of these injections from a veterinarian.

Pregnancy Toxemia
Pregnancy toxemia (ketosis) affects ewes or does during late gestation. It occurs more
commonly in sheep than goats. It occurs most commonly in either fat or thin animals that carry
two or more feti. The condition develops when the ewe or doe cannot ingest enough nutrients
to meet both the glucose requirements of the growing fetus and her own body metabolism.
During early gestation, the dam’s increased appetite is enough to encourage her to compensate
for the increased nutrient needs. By late gestation however, the growing feti are taking up more
space in the dam’s abdomen, and she is often physically incapable of eating enough to meet her
needs unless more nutrient-dense feeds are provided.
If adequate energy is not available to the gestating ewe or doe, she can metabolize body
fat to meet her own nutrient requirements. When fatty acids are metabolized at high rates,
ketone bodies are produced, which can be dangerous in high levels. The condition where excess
ketones are present in the bloodstream, known as ketosis, results in depression and anorexia until
the ewe or doe becomes too weak to stand.
Producers can take steps to prevent pregnancy toxemia by properly managing the weight
of ewes or does throughout the year, and especially prior to breeding and during gestation. Ewes
and does should be body-condition scored at breeding, as overweight and excessively thin ewes
or does are at a higher risk for ketosis. They can also be ultra sounded during pregnancy to
determine fetal number, and animals gestating multiples can be fed and managed differently than
those with singles. If possible, ewes or does should then be divided into two pens and managed
differently during gestation to minimize their risk of toxemia.
While it is acceptable for overweight ewes or does to lose weight during the first two
trimesters, they should be gaining weight by the third trimester. Feeding grains with increased
energy density during the third trimester, or about six weeks prior to lambing or kidding, will help
to prevent pregnancy toxemia. Providing higher quality hay is also a good idea for gestating ewes
or does. Shearing ewes also makes it easier to monitor body condition and causes increased feed
intake.

Lactic Acidosis
Ruminal lactic acidosis, often referred to as grain overload, develops as a result of animals
consuming large quantities of carbohydrates. Excessive consumption of carbohydrates,
specifically grain, results in a lowered rumen pH. The lowering of ruminal pH, or making the
stomach more acidic, occurs because the microbial population of the rumen is not able to
metabolize high levels of lactic acid produced during starch breakdown.
In general, sheep or goats with the condition demonstrate symptoms of discomfort,
anorexia, teeth grinding, muscle twitching, ruminal stasis, and diarrhea that may be off in color
with a watery consistency. The type and intensity of clinical signs depends on acid quantities,
which in turn depend on the amount of starch consumed and the ability of microorganisms to
metabolize the acids. In sub-acute acidosis, animals may simply decrease intake of high grain or
starch diets, while in severe acute cases of grain overload, animals can become extremely sick
and the mortality rate is high.
To avoid inducing lactic acidosis in sheep and goats, high grain diets should be introduced
slowly over a period of 10 to 14 days to allow rumen microbial adjustment to the diet. Dietary
buffers, such as limestone or calcium carbonate, can also be fed to neutralize acid present in the
rumen and keep appetite and feed intake high. Do not store grain in areas where sheep or goats
can access it easily. Carbohydrate engorgement, resulting in lactic acidosis, can be potentially fatal
and result in large economic losses for the producer.
Copper Toxicity
Sheep are especially sensitive to copper poisoning, which may occur in either an acute or
chronic form. Acute poisoning can result from accidentally providing excess amounts of copper
in mineral mixes or incorrectly balanced grain rations. Low levels of molybdenum or sulfate in the
diet can also affect copper metabolism and often predisposes sheep to chronic copper poisoning.
Chronic copper poisoning is brought about when sheep ingest too much copper over an
extended period of time. Sheep are especially sensitive to copper in their diet, because they do
not excrete copper from the body as efficiently as other species. Ingested copper is bound very
tightly in the liver. When the liver becomes saturated, large amounts of copper are released into
the bloodstream, resulting in destruction of red blood cells and further tissue damage. Often,
sheep do not even exhibit noticeable clinical signs before death.
Preventative management strategies are the best way to minimize the risk of copper
toxicity in sheep. This includes providing only feed that is formulated for sheep—with the
appropriate levels of copper. Be wary of beef and dairy products as they may contain high levels
of copper. Feeds and forages can be tested for levels of copper, molybdenum, and sulfur.
Molybdenum can be supplemented at a rate of 3 ppm if levels are low. Treatment of sheep
with copper toxicity should be done by a veterinarian. It usually involves drenching or feeding
ammonium molybdate, sodium sulfate, and penicillamine over several weeks. Recovery is
variable, so prevention is the best way to reduce the incidence of copper toxicity.

Nutrition and General Management

Nutrition is vital for raising healthy livestock and for proper reproductive management.
Flushing, or feeding females so that they gain weight prior to breeding, will help them to conceive.
Forages should be used as much as possible when feeding sheep and goats, but producers may
need to supplement with protein or energy, depending on nutritional demands.
Important times to supplement are during late gestation, during lactation, during growth
of replacement breeding stock, and prior to breeding. Minerals and salt should also be provided
year-round in a block, mixed in feed, or loose. Minerals used should be designed and formulated
for the species of animal being fed. Goats should be fed minerals formulated for goats, and sheep
should be fed minerals formulated for sheep.
Remember to pay particular attention to copper content of feeds and minerals used for
sheep as they are very susceptible to copper toxicity. Proper mineral nutrition can enhance the
immune system of animals. Well-fed livestock are more resistant to diseases and parasites, so
balanced rations appropriate for production stage should be fed in order to maintain body
condition and control losses due to parasitism and infectious diseases. Any changes in feeding
should be made gradually.