Course: Plan Implementation and Management (8617)

Level: B.Ed (1.5 Years) Semester: Autumn, 2022

Q.1 Identify different modern technologies that may help in school

mapping.
Ans:
INTRODUCTION SCHOOL MAPPING
No systems of education, however, new or unique it may, represent a
complete breakaway with or a departure from what already existed
prior to that. The system existing before the introduction of a new one
forms the basis on which the subsequent edifice of a new one maybe
raised. The previous systems includes in it a certain type of structure;
several types of educational institutions having some equipment and
facilities etc.; personnel having a very wide variety of knowledge, skills,
experiences; certain rules an deregulations; and lastly, a policy making
and administrative structure. There may be a difference in the level of
development of different systems but each one of the, in one way or
the other, does possess the features. The figures pertaining to these
aspects at the time of start provide the baseline data in respect of all
these things which help the planner to start this activity.
Before an educational planner can take any start for the development
of education in future, he should invariably pose certain basic questions
to himself and see answers to them. These questions are as under:
i. What are the existing school facilities?
ii. How far are these facilities being utilized
 iii. How to ensure their best use? iv. How would the new
educational facilities be distributed, if any?
As it is clear from the above questions, the exercise to answer to them
would involve a series of activities aiming at the process of:
i. Stocktaking, and
ii. Diagnosis of the whole situation which we may call diagnostic
stocktaking.
So the whole lot of activities involved in the entire process of diagnostic
stocktaking is known as “Educational Mapping.”
Before we proceed ahead with our discussion on school mapping, let us
take up, in brief, the difference between “Educational Mapping” and
“School Mapping”. Leaving aside the apparent difference between
these two terms, you would quite agree with the writer of these lines
that the ultimate objective of both of them is obviously to facilitate the
cause of promotion of education in the area. School mapping as we
would shortly see is; the dynamic process of identifying logically and
systematically the sites where educational facilities provided in the plan
are to be located. As educational facilities have been synonymous with
schools, the term has been rather narrowly conceived as school
mapping. So since the last decade, educational planners are engaging
din widening the concept of school mapping is one of educational
mapping.” Educational mapping is generally used in a wider sense as
compared to school mapping. According to the Ministry of Education
and Culture of Philippines (3:19:20) “While school mapping has been an
exercise in locating primary and secondary schools (and perhaps, also
colleges and universities), educational mapping encompasses all kinds
of facilities for all forms, types and levels of education.
To identify facilities which each community or geographical area would
need is the main function of educational mapping. It is a process of find
answers to the following questions with respect to either a community
or a geographical area.
i. A catalogue of educational needs (or learning needs) of the
society as a whole.
ii. An inventory of available educational facilities.
iii. A listing of facilities which are unutilized or under – utilized.
iv. A set of guidelines as to how the available facilities can be
reorganized by redistribution of either the facilities themselves
or their users.
v. A list of new facilities to be provided where they can be utilized
to the highest advantage.
The style for presenting these outcomes of the investigation in a
manner that they can be easily understood and readily used in decision
making is a map (in the case of school mapping) or atlas (i.e. series of
related maps, in the case of educational mapping). Hence, the use of
the term mapping in both case.
The process of investigation is the same for school mapping. The main
difference is that we concentrate in narrower objectives and aim at
identifying locations for the construction of schools / classrooms /
laboratories / workshops etc. evaluation of useefficiency,
reorganization and redistribution of facilities and maximization of use
continue to be the net outcomes of school mapping.
Educational mapping follows the same style and techniques as dose
school mapping. We seek solutions to the same problems that we listed
for school mapping. However, instead of identifying needs only in the
form of schools and facilities connected them, we work on all forms of
teaching learning situations to suit the conditions of the given
community or area. The needs relate not only to the school age
population but also to out of school youth and adults, and the facilities
we seek have to be obtained from all sectors of national life. Vocational
training facilities for trainees in functional literacy, on the job
apprenticeship program for the youth, mass media for adult education
and such other facilities for various elements of a lifelong educational
process are to be identified and located. The task of education mapping
is, therefore, more complex than that of school mapping.
The difference between educational mapping and school mapping,
discussed above, is obviously more academic than procedural in nature
except that the former has a wider scope of application as compared to
the latter. As mentioned above, both of the above exercises follow the
same methodology and aim, with variations, of course, on the
‘education’ or ‘schooling’ of the people living in the area. In the
literature the terms ‘education’ or ‘schooling’ are both used
synonymously. So for the purposes of our discussion in the following
pages of the unit we will not maintain any difference between
educational mapping and school mapping. The term “school mapping”
will be constructed to include the both.
MANAGEMENT TECHNIQUES TO SCHOOL MAPPING
Since school mapping a very comprehensive undertaking, comprises
numerous activities. At times, during the whole process, some of the
management techniques may be successfully utilized in it. Some of
these management techniques are briefly described below:
1. The Delphi Technique
The Delphi Technique may be used in making decisions at different
stages of school mapping. Basically, the technique stands for
referring a problem to the experts of obtaining their opinion on it. In
this way, the educational planner may use the technique for
determining priorities among objectives and also to provide some
basic information where no data exist (4:128). In Pakistan,
sometimes the baseline data required by the educational planner are
altogether missing or, if at all available, are not reliable. Here, the
Delphi Technique may be used to procure the necessary information
so as to provide the planner with relatively reliable information and
then determine his line of action in light thereof.
2. PERT
PERT is the acronym of Programme Evaluation and Review
Technique. As you would read in detail about this technique in
unit No.8 of this course, it is used for the purpose of project
implementation. School mapping, which consists of numerous
activities, has got large scope of the application of PERT in it.
Sequencing and timing of different independent, dependent and
dummy activities involved in the whole process of school mapping
may be successfully done through the application of PERT.
The IIEP Seminar Report (4:128) enumerated some more
techniques in this connection:-
1. Theory of location, including programming techniques to
identify areas of operation and to determine location of schools.
2. Operational research techniques: that may be used at
different stages of school mapping.
3. Cost – benefit analysis: this technique may be used to select
one from amongst the competing alternatives in order to achieve
a particular objective.
4. Systems analysis and design techniques: These are of
particular relevance to the school mapping process, since the amp
is both an information system and a dynamic tool for decision
making.
Q.2 Explain the role of decision making in financing of higher
education in Pakistan. Highlight different factors which a planner
should consider during the resources utilization.
Ans:
Introduction
Decision making is the study of identifying and choosing
alternatives based on the values and preferences of the decision
maker. Making a decision implies that there are alternative
choices to be considered, and in such a case we want not only to
identify as many of these alternatives as possible but to choose
the one that best fits with our goals, objectives, desires, values,
and so on.
Decision is a straight forward mental process. Every human being
makes decisions during every moment he is awake. He makes
choice from among several alternatives. Every choice is explicitly
or implicitly designed to achieve an objective. At a junction, one
meets on journey, one turns right or left according to the
destination one has in mind. Such decision like picking the correct
road is based on knowledge acquired either through past
experience or from information provided by road maps and other
travelers. Sometimes, the decision is made on the sport by
consulting an expert or somebody living in the area. In conducting
an organization towards a predetermined goal, the manager
makes similar choices in identically similar circumstances.
In general decision making process can be divided into the
following steps: Define the problem, Determine requirements,
Establish goals, Identify alternatives, Define criteria, Select a
decision making tool, Evaluate alternatives against criteria and
Validate solutions against problem statement.
The Complexity of Decision–Making in Education
Decision arises out of many different conditions. Some decisions
are prompted by the performance of daily routine work; some
come from need to change or to make more effective the
objectives or strategies, other decisions may be generated by
unexpected occurrences. Dale has classified decisions under five
heading. (6:8):
1. Decisions which are of routine nature.
2. Decisions which affect several areas.
3. Decision where uncertainty is a factor.
4. Decision where uncertainty is a dominant factor.
5. Decision about policies and strategies.
An example of each type is as follows:
A school administrator's decision to adjust the periods of a
teacher on leave is a routine work. Selection of visual aids for
classroom use affects several areas. Having an un tested assistant
with little experience, involves a limited risk and finally
transferring school teachers who are thought to be unfit by the
influential members of the community may bring massive
uncertainties.
Among the myriads of decisions which an educational manager
makes every day, there are a few which are more important than
others because they have the characteristic of guiding later
decisions as well as decisions made by others. These big decisions
which provide a framework within which others are to make their
decisions are known as policies. For example: A parent applies to
the manager for exemption of his child from school fees due to his
low income and the manager allows it. The manager, while
allowing it, gives instruction that children of all parents under
similar circumstances be exempted likewise.
i. Managers in the higher echelons of administration are
conscious of the fact that their decisions could become
policies. So when they have no intention of allowing them to
be policies they would specify clearly that the particular
decision shall only be a single shot decision. They
expressions commonly in use are it shall, however, not be a
precedent" and "it shall be without prejudice".
ii. Policies are very important for the working of an
organization. They make the action of each member of an
organization in a given set of circumstances more
predictable to other members. They guide action and enable
decisions made by different members of an organization to
follow a common path. In view of these uses of policies,
decisions which give rise to policies are made with greater
care and circumspection. Strategies are also a kind of
decisions or, sometimes, a better of related decisions
designed to meet unpredictable contingencies or resistances
and obstructions. A strategy, like a policy governs or guides
decisions made by different members of an organization. A
minister of education, determined to get qualified teachers
to contribute to rural education, may decide that promotion
to higher grades requires a certain number of years of
service in a rural school. He calls it "My strategy to
counteract the resistance of qualified teachers who refuse
 to work outside urban areas. A strategy has a time
dimension. It can remain operative only under
circumstances under which it was designed. When the
circumstances change, the strategy too has to be modified
to meet the new contingencies, resistances or obstructions.
A particular contingency under which strategies are
designed is when the available information is too
fragmentary 'and insufficient to formulate a policy.
Monahan has categorized the educational decisions of
substance and decisions of procedure. Decisions of
substance are primarily concerned with the aims, purposes,
content, emphases and tendencies of education
programmes. Where and what school buildings should be
constructed and how should they be equipped? Who should
be the administrators and other staff members? What-
should be the content and organization of the curriculum?
These and other many similar decisions are the decisions of
substance. The decisions of procedure are concerned with
the modes of operation which will bring about prior basis of
substance, for example, how the work of the teachers has to
be supervised and monitored and how the institutional
activities have to be made more effective and decisions
reliable procedure. It can safely by say that some decisions
are concerned with ends other are concerned with means.

Q.3 Critically review the various theories of organization with their

basic assumptions.
Ans:
INTRODUCTION TO ORGANIZATION
Organization is the process by which people and the tasks they perform
are related to each other systematically to help and achieve the
enterprise's objectives. It includes dividing up the work (division or
labor) among groups and individuals and linking the sub parts together
(coordination).
Organization concerns itself equally with the two aspect of:
(i) Division of labor and allotting workloads to individual and
groups of individuals. (e.g. departments, branches, Units) and.
(ii) Establishing lines of communication, influence and authority
among individuals and groups of individuals handling allotted
workloads and ensuring the coordination of their activities in
relation to the given objectives.
The major factors that contribute to the efficiency to an organization
are:
(a) Communication
(b) Motivation
(c) Human Relations
COMMUNICATION
"Behavior that results in an exchange of meaning is communication".
Communication is a dynamic process by which information is
exchanged in an organization. Every manager in an organization
performs several roles involving transmission of messages. They are
continuously communicating decisions from the top to the
subordinates. An effectiveness of each message is maximized.
Primarily communication is a purposeful act and as such its success or
failure is to be judged in relation to the purpose itself. When we try to
convey our thoughts, ideas, intentions, opinions and desires to another
person we use a variety of means, lunch as the spoken words, printed
words, graphs and pictorial representation facial expression, bodily
movements, gestures, action etc. The purposeful use of all these means
is very important in an organization because people act on the basis of
communication received by them. There is reasonable evidence that if
an organization is effective in its communication, it will be effective
overall.
Communication Theory
Communication, as a discipline, attempts to study the nature and
problems of communication. It involves the study of:
(i) Semantics
(ii) The problems of abstracting
(iii) The symbolic nature of words
(iv) The distortion of reality in language
(v) The confusion of meaning caused by various factors like
limitations of language and backgrounds in experience and
environment of the persons communicating to each other.
One of the root causes of, almost, all conflicts, and misunderstanding
among people is the problem of conveying to another person exactly
what one wants to convey.
MOTIVATION
Motivation may be defined as the discovery and the utilization of the
stimuli that would bring the desired behavior in a particular
individual. The child who does his homework for fear of being
castigated in class, the teacher who comes on time for fear of the
principal's rebuke, the principal who replies promptly all letters of
his In any case; no one creates or produces quality work when
motivated by fear. Example: The child who does his homework
neatly and regularly to enjoy the pleasure of being praised in class,
the teacher who works diligently to get himself recommended for a
promotion and the principal who spurs his staff to work harder to
see his school topping the list in Board Examination result are all
motivated by a reward. Rewarding is a positive motivation factor and
its advantage is that it is anxiety reducing and conducive to
innovative work.
HUMAN RELATIONS
The term "Human Relations" applies broadly to the interaction of
people in all types of endeavors in business, government, social
clubs, schools and homes. Much of this interaction is in organizations
where people work together in some sort of formal structure to
achieve an objective.
The human interacts that develop to recognize that both
organizational behavior and human relations cover the same subject
and having the same general goals of improved behaviors. The
definition of these two terms is an under:
(i) Organization Behavior: It is an academic discipline once med
with understanding and describing human behavior an
organization environment.
(ii) Human Relations: It goes one step further and applies behavior
knowledge in operating organization to build cooperation
towards organizational ends. It is action oriented and goal
directed. From the view point of a manager: Human Relation is
the integration of people into a work situation that motivates
them to work together productively, cooperatively and with
economic, psychological social satisfactions.
A key activity in human relation is motivating persons. A manager is
not restricting or pausing or driving them; rather, he is helping to
release and guide inner drives which they already have. People are
sources of greatness in any organization. In the world of work all
resources, expect than their input. Man alone can produce, through
motivated creativity, an output greater than sum of his inputs.
Both a person and an organization seek results effectively, that is,
with minimum inputs in relation to output. For an organization, this
is the idea of productivity of minimum cost for each unit of output.
Human relations seek to pay for itself economically and
psychologically by reducing costly forms of behavior and increasing
desirable forms of actions. In modern terms, it behavior pullulates in
the environment and improves the quality of life.
Q.4 Explain the developing management control instruments.
What are the effects of control on educational employees in the
context of Pakistan?
Ans:
INTRODUCTION TO CONTROL IN THE MANAGEMENT OF
EDUCATIONAL PERSONNEL
The goal of planning is to predict and affect the future environment.
Controlling is a companion activity that examines the past to see
whether what happened corresponds with what was planned.
Further, controlling involves taking action on any deviation that is
found between actual and palled occurrences. In this sense, control
may be considered a remedial activity. It should not be assumed that
because control is remedial in nature it is any less important than
planning. The actions and behaviors called for in a plan do not
automatically occur simply because the organization has committed
itself. Plans must be implemented, which is what most of this unit
discusses about. Implementation is begun by subdividing the plans
to make them operation and organizing people to carry them out.
Together, these two steps determine that behavior is to take place,
by whom, and to a large degree, how it is to be done. Still, there is
no guarantee that action will take place or that, if it does take place,
it will adequately complete the plans. To this end, managers must be
involved actively in the work of the organization as well as at the
more detached level of planning and organizing. First, they are the
decision-makers. They relate the plans to internal and external
pressures, as they arise. Second, they must communicate the
behaviors described in the plans to the employees. And tried,
managers must inter cede to start and maintain action through the
use of influence and leadership. The final step necessary to complete
the cycle is that of obtaining feedback about what has occurred and
taking corrective action as required. This is activity of control.
Control, as the fourth stage of the Management process and is the
process which ensures that all activities undertaken by an
organization are guided inward the accomplishment of the planned
objective of target. The essence of this process is to determine
whether an activity is achieving the desired results or not. For this
purpose, the manager has to have a clear idea of what the "desired
results" are.
DEVELOPING MANAGING CONTROL INSTRUMENTS
Organizational control instruments fall into a three level hierarchy.
The top most ones, which are quite formal, concern the overall
organization. Less formal, more specialized devices exist in each
department. Finally each person develops control tools which are
often informal and casual. These are sued to control his or her
special Job.
 The Control Hierarchy in a Large Organization
Organization Level Examples of Control Devices
Interdepartmental Organizational/divisional budgets meetings and
report: Financial statements and analyses; department managers'
performance evaluations: overall policies and procedures.
Interdepartmental Departmental budgets, meetings and reports:
departmental employees' performance evaluations; departmental
policies and rues which are made by the manager: personal
observation: Electro-mechanical controls on operating equipment.
Individual Self-evaluation of actual vs. projected job performance;
acknowledgment and departmental policies and rules; personal
policies and rules for discharging duties and responsibilities;
performance as judged by a supervisor on annual performance
evaluation; personal observation; conscience.
APPLICATION OF CONTROL
At this point, you may think that you understand the essentials and
idea of control, but you also probably feel the need for more specific
application of these ideas to organizations. We, therefore, turn here
to examples of applied control systems. In these examples, we show
how each of the elements appears in actual control systems. In
addition, we outline some of the special techniques for applying
these essentials to the operational areas.
Controlling Products
Some organizations specialize in purchasing products,
manufacturing products, or marketing products. Some do all
three. Regardless of the nature of this specialization, managers
need to control the path and timing of the flow of products,
the quantity of products available, and the quality of the
products. Therefore, we shall describe applications of
controlling products to meet each of their needs. Controlling
the timing and path of the flow .usually is called production
control. Controlling the quantity available is called inventory
control.
Controlling Finances
In any organization, there is a need to establish systems for
controlling revenues and costs. If costs exceed revenues over a
long period of time, the organization is not performing the
function expected of it. We shall discuss two systems for
controlling finances: standard costs and budgetary control.
Controlling Manpower However, many jobs, such as college
teaching, have as the product a service that is difficult to state
in numbers. In these cases, it is desirable to develop an index of
performance i.e. objectively measurable factors. This hours
taught by the instructor (number of students in classes’ timer
the-number of credit hours): It can also include subjective
rating systems, in which the superior rates quality on the basis
of some scale for instance, I through 10 for each factor
important to the job. This rating system can incorporate
opinions of the customer, student, or user of the produce. For
example, the quality of an instructor's performances could be
evaluated by the student in his class, by the employers of the
students when they take a first job, or by instructors who teach
courses that make use of the knowledge contributed by the
one being rated.
These examples of control systems apply the four basic
essentials of control and are representative of the large
number of control systems possible. You should constantly he
 aware of cases in your own practice where you might develop
your own tailored control system, using their same four
essentials as guides.

Q.5 Give the requisite corrective action the educational

manager should take to keep the cost down in the construction of
ideal secondary schools in your region.
Ans:
The assumption that existing administrative machinery would be
able to take on the responsibilities of implementation of additional
projects does not always hold good. Experience has shown that the
practice of having a separate project directorate, particularly for
large project, yield better results. A case in point is the establishment
of a Federal Implementation Unit and Provincial Implementation
Unit for the World Bank supported Third Education project. The
administrative structure as well as its costs were built in the project
which facilitated both the creation of the machinery and the
implementation of the project. Another example is that of the
creation of a hierarchy of bodies for opening mosque schools on a
large scale during 1982-83. A policy making National Coordination
Group was established under the chairmanship of the Minister of
Planning and Development. Group was established under the
chairmanship of the Minster of Planning and Development. For
implementation of the decisions of this Group, Federal and
Provincial Coordination Councils were established under Federal and
Provincial Secretaries of Education, respectively and at the grass
roots level, district Implementation Committees. Under a decision of
the National Coordination Group each concerned
Ministry/Department designated one of its officers for this purpose.
Thus, an administrative machinery charged with the responsibility
for the project was brought into being without additional cost.
Project Cost.
The project cost must be worked out in details. Normally the basis of
cost estimates must be given. For proper coasting of the project, it is
necessary to work to the details of all activities.
Most of the education projects have the following cost components;
(a) Building
Project must provide details of various categories of buildings
proposed to be constructed. Full justification for various facilities
and the space standards used must be furnished. The project
must relate building facilities to academic programmes and
student intake. The creation of facilities which are to be used very
sparingly has to be avoided. The use of collapsible partitions and
removable furniture allowed for multiple use of building facilities.
The cost of buildings must then be worked
(b) Equipment and Furniture
Quantities of various items of equipment and furniture required
for various purpose and building facilities should be worked out
and coasted. These should also be related to the academic
programmes and proposed intake.
(c) Library Books
The cost of journals and other requirements in the form of books
and literature should be estimated carefully.
(d) Development of course / Instructional Material
In some educational projects courses have to be developed and
special instructional materials have to be prepared, used with
 experimental groups and printed after revision. The cost of these
activities should be worked out on the basis of number of courses
to be developed and size of the groups for which these materials
are being developed.
(e) Staff Development
In some projects, provision has to be made for the training of
teachers / researchers. The costing must be base the type and
education of training, and per man-month cost involved.
(f) Staff Salary
Provision has occasionally to be made for staff salaries to be paid
out of project funds. This is permissible during the
implementation stage (a) in respect of staff required for
implementation, and(b) in respect of staff required for research /
programme development. Once the project has been executed all
staff has to be paid from the revenue budget.
Project Outcome
Once the inputs in the form of men and material are used to
implement a project, the results would begin to appear. In most
cases (not always in education sector), these results would be in
form of material or services of considerable monetary worth. For
example, on the completion of the Pakistan steel Mill project, it
would produce steel of various grades which would be sold in
local or foreign markets. Again, on the completion of a project for
laying pipeline between Sui to Quetta a certain amount of gas
would be supplied to domestic and commercial consumers in
Quetta which would yield some income. A project must spell out
in quantitative terms the outcome to be expected on completion
of the project. Wherever possible the monetary value of outcome
should be worked out. This would enable the decision maker to
weight project cost with outcome of the project in order to
decide whether it would be worthwhile to make investment.
In respect of most of the projects in social sector, it may be
possible to assign monetary value to the outcomes of the project.
For example, the outcome of a project for the improvement of
science education in high schools would be better understanding
of science among students. No money value can be assigned to
this outcome. However, in a few case sit may be possible to
monetize the outcome of an educational project. For example, a
project for the installation of printing presses at the textbook
Boards shall have outcome of considerable monetary value.
In any case every project must list the outcome in quantitative
terms whether money value can be put to the outcome or not.
Schedule of work
The project must indicate the likely starting and completion
dates, the estimated time required for different activities and the
annual phasing of the work. If proper attention is given to these
details at project preparation stage, the implementation of the
project would proceed according to schedule. Moreover, such
awkward situations would be avoided when costly equipment
arrives before the buildings are ready. Moreover proper financial
management is possible only when activities are started
according to the planned schedule.
Financing Phasing
Closely related to the schedule of work is the schedule of
investment. The annual financial phasing should be based on the
activities to be undertaken during each year: A project must be
the following:
(i) Purpose and objective.
(ii) Proposed intervention.
(iii) Adequacy and feasibility of proposed intervention.\
(iv) Administrative structure and implementation machines.
(v) Break up of project cost.
(vi) Project outcomes in quantitative terms (with money value,
if possible).
(vii) Schedule of work
(viii) Financing phasing.