1

Electric Current
• Electric current refers to the rate of flow of charge.
• The movement of charged particles called electrons constitutes
an electric charge and the conducting path through which
electrons move is called an electric circuit.
𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆, 𝑸
𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕, 𝑰 =
𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆, 𝒕
𝑸
𝑰=
𝒕
• SI unit of electric current is the ampere (A) after the famous
physicist Ampere.
• Sub-multiples of the ampere are milli-ampere(mA) and micro-
amperes (𝝁𝑨)
𝑰 𝒎 𝑨 = 𝟏 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 𝑨, 𝑰 𝝁 𝑨 = 𝟏 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟔 𝑨

2
 Electric Current
Definition of the ampere
• An ampere refers to an electric current that flows in a
conductor when a charge of 1 coulomb flows per unit
time
Total charge passing through a point in a circuit
• If 𝒏 electrons pass through a point and that each
electron carries a charge 𝒆 then the total charge 𝑸
passing through the point is equal to 𝒏𝒆 coulombs
i.e.𝑸 = 𝒏𝒆; 𝒃𝒖𝒕 𝑸 = 𝑰𝒕, ⇒ 𝒏𝒆 = 𝑰𝒕
𝒏𝒆 𝑰𝒕
𝑰= 𝒏=
𝒕 𝒆
𝑵𝑩: 𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒓𝒈𝒆 𝒐𝒏 𝒂𝒏 𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒏, 𝒆
= 𝟏. 𝟔 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟗 𝒄𝒐𝒖𝒍𝒐𝒎𝒃
3
 Measurement of Electric Current
• Electric current is measured using an ammeter.

The ammeter is connected in series with other components in

the circuit since it is an instrument of low resistance.
An appropriate scale should be chosen to safe guard the coil of
the ammeter from blowing up
Accuracy of each scale of the ammeter must be observed when
recording readings.

4
 Potential Difference (Voltage)
• Electric potential difference between two points refers
to work done (in joules) in moving one coulomb of
charge from one point to the other.
• The SI unit of potential difference is the volt (v).
• The battery is the source of power for moving charge through
the circuit.
𝒘𝒐𝒓𝒌 𝒅𝒐𝒏𝒆, 𝑾 𝒊𝒏 𝒋𝒐𝒖𝒍𝒆𝒔
𝒑𝒐𝒕𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒂𝒍 𝒅𝒊𝒇𝒇𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒆 =
𝑪𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆 𝒎𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒅, 𝑸 (𝒊𝒏 𝒄𝒐𝒖𝒍𝒐𝒎𝒃𝒔)
𝑾
𝒑. 𝒅 =
𝑸
A volt is defined as the energy needed to move one coulomb of charge
from one point to another.

5
 Measurement of Potential Difference
• Potential difference is measured using a voltmeter

• Zero error, if any, should be rectified using the adjustment

screw before using the voltmeter.
• The voltmeter is connected in across (in parallel) the
components in the circuit since it is an instrument of high
resistance.
• An appropriate scale should be chosen to safe guard the coil of
the voltmeter from blowing up.
• Accuracy of each scale of the voltmeter must be observed
when recording readings.
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 Current in series arrangement
• Consider the set-up below:

• When the switch is closed, it is observed that;

𝑹𝒆𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒐𝒏 𝑨𝟏 = 𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒐𝒏 𝑨𝟐 = 𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒐𝒏 𝑨𝟑 = 𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒐𝒏 𝑨𝟒
• Therefore, when components are connected in series, same
current flows through each of the components even if the
components are not identical

7
 Current in Parallel
• Consider the circuit shown below:

• When the switch is closed, it is observed that:

𝑹𝒆𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒐𝒏 𝑨𝟏 + 𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒐𝒏 𝑨𝟐 + 𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒐𝒏 𝑨𝟑 = 𝑹𝒆𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒐𝒏 𝑨𝟒
• Therefore, the sum of the currents in parallel circuits is equal to the
total current. The total current flowing into junction is equal to total
current flowing out.

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 Voltage in Series Arrangement
• Consider the set-up below

• When the switch is closed, it is observed that:

𝑹𝒆𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒐𝒏 𝑽𝟏 + 𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒐𝒏 𝑽𝟐 + 𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒐𝒏 𝑽𝟑 = 𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒐𝒏 𝑽𝟒
• Therefore, when components are connected in series, the sum
of the voltage drop across the components is equal to the
voltage supply.
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 Voltage in parallel Arrangement
• Consider the set-up below

• When the switch is closed, it is observed that:

𝑹𝒆𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒐𝒏 𝑽𝟏 = 𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒐𝒏 𝑽𝟐 = 𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒐𝒏 𝑽𝟑 = 𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒐𝒏 𝑽𝟒
• Therefore, when components are connected in parrallel, same
voltage across each of the components is equal even if the
components are not identical
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 Ohm’s Law
• Ohm’s law relates the voltage a cross the conductor and the
current flowing through it. It is after the physicist George Ohm.
It states that, “the current flowing through a conductor is directly
proportional to the potential difference a cross its ends provided
that temperature and other physical properties are kept constant”.

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 Ohm’s Law
• Mathematically, Ohm’s law can be expressed as:
𝑽∝𝑰
𝑽 = 𝑹𝑰
∴ 𝑽 = 𝑰𝑹
• Where 𝑉 is the potential difference, I is the current and R a
constant of proportionality called resistance.
• If several values of current and their corresponding values of
voltage for nichrome wire are obtained and a graph of voltage
against current plotted, a straight line through the origin is
obtained. SI unit of resistance is the ohm(Ω)
Definition of an ohm
• An ohm refers to the resistance of a conductor when a current
of 1 A flowing through it causes a voltage drop of 1 V across its
ends.
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 Ohm’s Law graph

• From the graph, voltage is directly proportional to the current and this is
graphical representation of Ohm’s law.
• The slope of the graph gives resistance. SI unit of resistance is the ohm(Ω)
∆𝑽 IKΩ = 103 Ω
IMΩ = 106 Ω Sub-multiples
=𝑹 1
∆𝑰 R
= Conductance Ω−1
S.I unit siemens (S)
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 Ohmic conductors and non-ohmic conductors
These are conductors which obey Ohm’s law e.g nichrome.
For ohmic conductors a graph of voltage against current is a straight line
through the origin.
Conductors which do not obey Ohm’s law e.g. thermistor,
thermionic diode, filament bulb, semiconductor diode etc. A graph of
voltage against current for non- ohmic conductors is not a straight.

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 Electrical Resistance
• Electrical resistance is the opposition offered by a
conductor to the flow of electric current.
It occurs when a charge flowing through a conductor has its movement
impeded by collisions with the atom and impurities in the conductor.
These collisions scatter the charges leading to the loss of their momentum
and energy in the form of heat.

A material with high

conductance has very low
electrical resistance e.g.
copper. Electrical resistance
is measured using an
ohmmeter.

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 Factors Affecting the Resistance of a Metallic Conductor
1. Temperature
• Resistance of a metallic conductor increases with temperature.
This is because heating increases the vibration of atoms thereby
increasing the collisions per cross- section area. The opposition to
the flow of electrons thus increases as temperature increases.
2. Length of the conductor
• The resistance of a uniform conductor of a given material is
directly proportional to its length i.e.

𝑹 ∝ 𝒍 … … . . (𝟏)
𝑹 = 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕 × 𝒍
𝑹
= 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕
𝒍

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 Factors Affecting the Resistance of a Metallic Conductor
3. Cross- section area of the conductor
• The resistance of a metallic conductor is inversely proportional
to its cross-sectional area, A. A conductor with larger
cross-sectional area has many free electrons to conductor hence
better conductivity.
𝟏
𝑹 ∝ … … … … . (𝟐)
𝑨
𝑹𝑨 = 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕
Combining equations (1) and (2) above;
𝒍
𝑹∝
𝑨
𝝆𝒍
𝑹=
𝑨
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝝆 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟
The SI unit of resistivity is the ohm meter (Ω𝒎)

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 Resistors
• These are conductors specially designed to offer particular
resistance to the flow of electric current. The symbol of
resistor is
Types of Resistors
1.Fixed Resistors. These are resistors designed to give fixed
resistance e.g. wire wound resistors, carbon resistors etc.

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 2.Variable Resistors
• These are resistors whose resistance can be varied.
a) Rheostat
• This is a two terminal variable resistor represented by any of
the symbols below in electrical circuits.

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 Variable Resistors
(b) Potentiometer
• This is a three terminal variable resistor represented by the
symbol below.

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 3. Nonlinear Resistors
• These are resistors in which current flowing through them does
not change linearly with the voltage applied. They include:
Thermistor
• This is a temperature dependent resistor whose resistance
decreases with increase in temperature. Its electrical symbol
is as below.

Light dependent resistor (LDR)

• Its resistance decreases with increases in light intensity

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 Methods of Measuring Resistance
Voltmeter-ammeter method

In this method, current𝑰 through the resistor R and corresponding

voltage 𝑽 across it are obtained and resistance of the resistor is
𝑽
determined using the expression 𝑹 = .
𝑰
Disadvantages of voltmeter-ammeter method
• It is not accurate since voltmeter takes some current and
therefore not all current passes through the resistor
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 Methods of Measuring Resistance
The meter-bridge method
• In this method a resistor of known resistance is used in the
determination of resistance of another resistor whose resistance is
not known.
• The figure below shows a set-up of Meter Bridge.

• The bridge is balanced by adjusting the variable resistor L until there

is no galvanometer deflection i.e. pointer at zero mark. At balanced
state:
𝑿 𝑳𝟏
=
𝑹 𝑳𝟐
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Example 1
In an experiment to determine the resistance of a nichrome wire using
the metre bridge, the balance point was found to be 38 cm mark. If the
value of the resistance in the right hand gap needed to balance the
bridge was 25Ω, calculate the value of the unknown resistor.

Solution
Since AB= 100 cm and AC = 38 cm, BC = 100 – 38 = 62 cm;
R 25
=
38 62
38 x 25
R=
62
= 15.32Ω
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 Resistors Networks
1. Resistors connected in series

𝑽𝑻 = 𝑽 𝟏 + 𝑽𝟐 + 𝑽𝟑
𝑰𝑻 𝑹𝑻 = 𝑰𝟏 𝑹𝟏 + 𝑰𝟐 𝑹𝟐 + 𝑰𝟑 𝑹𝟑
𝑩𝒖𝒕 𝑰𝑻 = 𝑰𝟏 = 𝑰𝟐 = 𝑰𝟑
𝑹𝑻 = 𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐 + 𝑹𝟑
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Example 2
Figure 5.29 shows three resistors in series connected to a power source. A current of 2 A
flows through the circuit.

Calculate
(a) The voltage drop across each resistor
(b) The voltage across the source
(c) The total resistance in the circuit
Solution
(a) V1 = IR1 (b) The voltage across the source is the sum of the p.d. drops
=2x2 across the resistor. Thus;
=4V VT = 4 + 12 + 16
V2 = IR 2 = 32 V
=2x6 (c) Total resistance, R T = R1 + R 2 + R 3
= 12 V = 2+6+8
V3 = IR 3 = 16Ω
=2x8
= 16 V
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 Resistor Networks
2. Resistors connected in parallel
• Consider three resistors 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑅3 connected in parallel as
shown below: 𝑰𝑻 = 𝑰𝟏 + 𝑰𝟐 𝑰𝟑
𝑽𝑻 𝑽𝟏 𝑽𝟐 𝑽𝟑
= + +
𝑹𝑻 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟑
𝑩𝒖𝒕 𝑽𝑻 = 𝑽𝟏 = 𝑽𝟐 = 𝑽𝟑
(𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒐𝒓𝒔 𝒊𝒏𝒔 𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒍)
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= + +
𝑹𝑻 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟑
𝑭𝒐𝒓 𝒏𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒐𝒓𝒔 𝒊𝒏 𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒍
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= + +
𝑹𝑻 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟑

If two resistors 𝑅1 𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑅2 are connected in parallel then the

equivalent resistance 𝑅𝐸 is given by
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝑹𝟏+𝑹𝟐
= + =
𝑹 𝑬 𝑹 𝟏 𝑹 𝟐 𝑹 𝟏 𝑹𝟐
𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝑷𝑹𝑶𝑫𝑼𝑪𝑻
𝑹𝑬 = =
𝑹𝟏 +𝑹𝟐 𝑺𝑼𝑴
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Example 3
The circuit diagram in figure 5.31 shows four resistors in parallel connected across a 3 V
supply.

Calculate:
(a) The effective resistance
(b) The current through the 8Ω resistor
Solution
1 1 1 1 1
(a) R = R +R +R +R
8 1 2 3 4
1 1 1 1
= 2 + 6 + 8 + 10
107
=
120
R 2 = 1.12Ω
p.d.across the resistor
(b) Current through the 8Ω resistor =
8
3
=
8
= 0.375 A
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Example 4
Two resistors of 6Ω and 3Ω in parallel are connected in series to a 4Ω resistor and a cell of e.m.f.
1.5 V. Calculate:
(a) The equivalent resistance of the circuit.
(b) The current through each of the resistors and the p.d across each.
Solution
6x3
(a) R AB =
6+3
=2
R AC = 2 + 4
= 6Ω
(b) Total current flows through the 4Ω resistor
Vr 1.5
1T = = = 0.25 𝐴
Rr 6
Now 13Ω + 13Ω = 0.25 A … … … … 1
But voltage across 6Ω= voltage across 3Ω
6 x 13Ω = 3 x 13Ω
13Ω = 213Ω … … … … … … … … … … (2)
Substituting (2) in (1):
13Ω + 213Ω = 0.25A
3 x 13Ω = 0.25
13Ω = 0.0833 A
Substituting in (2):
13Ω = 2 x 0.0833
= 0.167 A
V3Ω = 0.0833 x 6
= 0.5 V
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Electromotive Force (Emf) and Internal Resistance r
• Electromotive force (E) of the cell refers to the potential
difference across its terminals when no charge is flowing out of
it i.e. when the circuit is open.
• Terminal voltage (V) is the voltage drop across the terminals of
the cell or battery when charge is flowing out of it and it is due
to external resistance R.

Lost voltage is the difference between electromotive force and

terminal voltage and it is due to internal resistance of
battery/cell
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 Relationship between Emf (E), Terminal Voltage (V) and
Internal Resistance (r)
• Internal resistance (r) refers to the opposition offered by the
source of electromotive force to the flow of the current that it
generates.
• Consider a resistor 𝑹 connected in series with a cell of internal
resistance 𝒓
• The internal resistance of the cell r is considered to connected
in series with the external resistor, R
• The current flowing through the circuit is given by:
𝒆. 𝒎. 𝒇
𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕 =
𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆
𝑬
𝑰=
𝑹+𝒓
𝑬 = 𝑰(𝑹 + 𝒓)
𝑬 = 𝑰𝑹 + 𝑰𝒓 ⇒ 𝑬 = 𝑽 + 𝑰𝒓
• Where 𝑰𝑹 = 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒, 𝑰𝒓 = 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒
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 Experimental Determination of Internal Resistance and Emf
Method 1:Consider the set up below

If several values of current and their corresponding values of

voltage are collected and graph of voltage V against current I is
plotted. It is a straight line of negative slope cutting through the
voltage axis when extrapolated.
Using the equation 𝑬 = 𝑽 + 𝑰𝒓 and therefore 𝑽 = 𝑬 − 𝑰𝒓,
the slope of the graph gives the internal resistance (r) of the cell
while the voltage-intercept gives the Emf (E) of the cell.
32
 Experimental Determination of Internal Resistance and Emf
Method 2:Consider the set up below

• If several values of current and their corresponding values of

𝟏
voltage are collected and graph of reciprocal of current against
𝑰
R is plotted, a straight line with positive gradient which passes
𝟏
through axis is obtained.
𝑰
𝟏
• The gradient of the graph gives and therefore the electromotive
𝑬
force of the cell can be obtained while the R-intercept gives
𝟏 𝒓
internal resistance of the cell r. Also intercept =
𝑰 𝑬
33
Example 5
A cell drives a current 2.0 A through a 0.6Ω resistor. When the same cell is connected
to a 0.9 Ω resistor, the current that flows is 1.5A. Find the internal resistance and the
e.m.f of the cell.

Solution
Taking E as e.m.f. of the cell and R the
E=IR +Ir Since the e.m.f. is the same in both
From figure 5.46 (a); circuits;
E = (2.0x0.6)+2.0r 1.2+2r=1.35+1.5r
= 1.2+2r……………………(1) 2r – 1.5r=1.35 – 1.2
From figure 5.46 (b); 0.5r = 0.15
E = (1.5x0.9)+1.5r r=0.3Ω
E= 1.35+1.5r…………………(2) Substituting for r in equation (1);
E=(2.0x0.6)+2.0r E = 1.2 + 2r
= 1.2+2r……………………..(1) E = 1.2 + 2 x 0.3
From figure 5.46(b); E = 1.2 + 0.6
E= (1.5+0.9)+1.5r = 1.8 V P
E= 1.35+1.5r…………………(2) 34
Example 3
When identical cells are connected in parallel, see figure 5.47, the equivalent e.m.f. is
equal to that of only one cell. The equivalent internal resistance is equal to that of two
such resistors connected in parallel.

Figure 5.47 (a) simplifies to figure 5.47 (b).

Equivalent e.m.f. = 1.5 V
R R
Equivalent internal resistance R 2 = 2 2
R2 +R2
0.6 x 0.6
=
0.6+0.6
= 0.3Ω
1. Define the term “e.m.f ” of a cell.
2. Distinguish between electromotive force and potential difference
3. Distinguish between terminal voltage and e.m.f of a battery.
4. Define the volt.
5. Distinguish between open and closed circuit.
6. What is meant by the term “lost volts”?
7. State Ohms Law.
8. State the condition necessary for Ohms Law to be obeyed
9. State two conditions that are necessary for a conductor to obey Ohm’s law.
10. Other than temperature state the other factors that affect the resistance of
an ohmic conductor.
11. What causes electrical resistance in conductors?
12. Define a non-ohmic conductor
13. Define electric resistance.
14. Give a reason why fluorescent tubes are preferred to filament bulbs for
domestic lighting

36
15. Describe an experiment to verify Ohm’s law given a cell, ammeter,
voltmeter, switch, nichrome wire and connecting wires.
16. A battery is connected to an external resistor, R. State any two factors that
determine the magnitude of the current produced in the circuit.
17. State why the filament of a lamp is made of tungsten.
18. Three identical bulbs are connected in series with a battery. At first, the
bulbs shine brightly but gradually become dimmer. Using the same cells,
explain how you would increase the brightness of the bulbs.
19. In large circuits, large resistors in parallel are preferred to low resistors in
series. Explain.
20. Describe a laboratory experiment to verify ohm’s law, by use of appropriate
diagrams where necessary.
21. Figure below shows a voltmeter used to measure voltage through the
conductor. The student used the upper scale. State the reading from the meter.

37
22. The figure below shows a circuit that can be used to verify Ohm’s law.
Explain briefly how the setup can be used to verify ohm’s law.

23. Three identical bulbs are connected in series with a battery. At first, the
bulbs shine brightly but gradually become dimmer. Using the same cells,
explain how you would increase the brightness of the bulbs.
24. student learnt that a battery of eight dry cells each 1.5V has a total e.m.f of
12V the same as a car battery. He connected in series eight new dry batteries to
his car but found that they could not start the engine. Give a reason for this
observation.
25. A current of 0.08A passes in a circuit for 2.5 minutes. How much charge
passes through a point in the circuit?

38
26. What current will a 500Ω resistor connected to a source of 240V draw?
27. Two resistors of 4 and 2 in parallel are connected in series to a 3
resistor and a cell of 2.0V.
Calculate
a) Equivalent resistance of the circuit.
b) Current through each resistor.
28. Three identical dry cells each of e.m.f. 1.6 V are connected in series to a
resistor of 11.4Ω. a current of 0.32A flows in the circuit. Determine.
i) The total e.m.f. of the cell
ii) The internal resistance of each cell
28. When a resistor is connected across the terminals of a battery a current of
0.20A flows. What is the time taken for 2.0 coulombs of charge to pass a given
point in the circuit? If e.m.f of the battery is 4.0v and its internal resistance is
0.20hm determine the rate at which heat is produced in the resistor.
29. A cell supplies a current of 1.8A through two 2 resistors connected in
parallel. When the resistors are connected in series, the current is 0.6A.
Calculate the internal resistance of the cell.

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30. A cell drives a current of 8A through a 1.2 resistor when the same cell is
connected to a 1.8 resistor, the current that flows is 6.0A. Determine
i) The internal resistance.
ii) E.m.f of the cell.
31. A cell supplies a current of 0.5A when connected to a 2 resistor and
0.25A when connected to a 5 resistor. Find the e.m.f and the internal
resistance of the cell.
32. A wire of resistance X connected in series with a 1.5 V battery is found to
carry a current of 0.075 A. If the wire is now connected in parallel with an
identical wire, find the total current in circuit.
33. State the changes in brightness of the bulbs in the circuit diagram as the
switches S1, S2 and S3 are switched on one after the other.

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34. A student set up the circuit shown in Fig. 3. The lamps didn’t light when
she closed the switch S. Suggest a reason for this observation.

35. The circuit diagram in figure below has two switches P and Q. The
brightness of the lamp is observed when P only is closed and when P and Q
are both closed. Compare the brightness of the lamp in the two cases. State
a reason for your answer.

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36. You are provided with three resistors of 3Ω, 2Ωand1Ω. Arrange the
resistors in the circuit so as to have minimum resistance. Determine the
effective resistance in the above circuit.
37. Two resistors K and L are placed in the gaps of the metre bridge as shown.
i) State the purpose of the resistor M.
ii) Find the resistance K below if the Jockey balances the galvanometer at the
20cm mark
38. The cells shown in the figure below have each an e.m.f of 2.1V and
negligible internal resistance. Determine the reading of the voltmeter.

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