1

Defination Of Terms
Distance
• Distance is the actual length covered by a moving body. It has
no specific direction and it is therefore a scalar quantity. The
SI unit of distance is the metre (m)
Displacement, s
• This is the distance covered by a moving body in a specified
direction. Displacement is therefore a vector quantity.
• The SI unit of displacement is the metre (m)
Speed: This is the rate of change of distance covered by a
moving body. Speed is a scalar quantity. 𝒔𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅 =
𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒄𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒅
𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝒕𝒂𝒌𝒆𝒏
• For a body moving with a non-uniform speed,
𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒄𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒅
𝒂𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒔𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅 =
𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝒕𝒂𝒌𝒆𝒏
2
• Velocity :This is the change of displacement per unit time. It
can also be defined as the speed in a specified direction.
• Velocity is therefore a vector quantity.

𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕
𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 =
𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝒕𝒂𝒌𝒆𝒏
For a body moving with a varying velocity,

𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕
𝒂𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 = .
𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝒕𝒂𝒌𝒆𝒏
• The SI unit of velocity is the metre per second (ms-1).

3
Acceleration
• This is the change of velocity per unit time. It is a vector
quantity.
𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚
𝑨𝒄𝒄𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 =
𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝒕𝒂𝒌𝒆𝒏

𝒇𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 − 𝒊𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒂𝒍 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚

𝑨𝒄𝒄𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 =
𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝒕𝒂𝒌𝒆𝒏
𝒗−𝒖
• 𝒂= , where, 𝒗 is the final velocity, 𝒖 is the initial velocity
𝒕
and 𝒕 is the time taken.
• The SI unit of acceleration is the metre per square second (ms-2).

NOTE: The acceleration of a body at any instant is referred to as

instantaneous acceleration. If the velocity of a body decreases
with time, ie.. slowing down it is said to have a negative
acceleration or deceleration or retardation
4
Example 1

The velocity of a body increases from 72 kmh−1 to 144

kmh−1 in 10 seconds. Calculate its acceleration.
Solution
Initial velocity = 72 kmh−1
= 20 ms −1
Find velocity = 144 kmh−1
= 40 ms −1
final velocity −initial velocity
Therefore, acceleration =
time taken
40 −20
=
10
= 2 ms−1

5
Example 2
A car is brought to rest from 180 kmh−1 in 20 s. what is
its retardation?

Solution
Initial velocity = 180 kmh−1
= 50 ms −1
Final velocity = 0 ms−1
final velocity − initial velocity
Acceleration =
time taken
0−50
=
20
−50
=
20
= -2.5 ms−2
Hence, its retardation is 2.5 ms−2
6
 Motion Graphs
• Graphs can be used to represent variation of distance, speed, velocity or
acceleration of a moving body with time. When used this way they are
called motion graphs

7
8
 Area under velocity – time graph
• Consider a body starting from rest moving with constant
acceleration for time, t. The velocity-time graph for the body is
as shown alongside.

𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒅 = 𝒂𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 × 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆

𝑶+𝑽 𝟏
= × 𝒕 = 𝒗𝒕
𝟐 𝟐
• Therefore, area A under the velocity – time graph represents the distance
covered by the body after time t seconds.
9
Example 3
A car decelerates uniformly from a velocity of 10 ms−1 to rest in 2 s. if it takes 2 s to
reverse with uniform acceleration to its original starting point, determine the:
(a) displacement of the car. (a) From the velocity-time graph in figure 1.19;
(b) average velocity of the car. 1 1
area = x 2 x +10 + x 2 x −10
(c) distance travelled by the car. 2 2
(d) average speed of the cat. = (+10 – 10)
=0
Therefore, displacement is 0 m.
displacement
(b) Average velocity = time
0
=4
= 0 ms −1
Fig. 1.19 (c) From the speed-time graph in figure 1.20;
1 1
Area = 2 x 2 x 10 + 2 x 2 x 10
= 10 + 10
= 20
Therefore, displacement is 0 m.
distance travelled
(d) Average speed = time taken
20
= 4
Fig. 1.20 = 5 ms−1
10
Example 4
A car starts from rest and attains a velocity of 72 kmh−1 in 10 seconds. It travels at this
velocity for 5 s and then accelerates to a stop after another 6 s. draw a velocity time
graph for this motion. From the graph:
(a) Calculate the total distance moved by the car
(b) Find the acceleration of the car at each stage (b) Acceleration = gradient
20 −0
of graph
Stage A; gradient = 10 −1
20
= 10
Acceleration = 2 ms−2
20 −20
Stage B; gradient = 15 −10
0
=5
Acceleration = 0 ms−1
0 −20
Stage C; gradient = 21 −15
−20
= 6
Solution = -3.33
(a) From the graph: Acceleration = -3.33 ms−2
Total distance travelled = area under the graph
= area A + area B + area C
1 1
=( 2 x 10 x 20) + 5 x 20 + 2 x 6 x 20
= 100 + 100 + 60
= 260 m
11
 Equations linear Motion
• Consider a body moving in a straight line with
uniform acceleration 𝒂, so that its velocity increases
from an initial value 𝒖 to a final value 𝒗 in time 𝒕
and it is displaced by 𝒔;
Derivation of the 1st equation
𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 ∆𝒗
𝒂𝒄𝒄𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏, 𝒂 = =
𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝒕𝒂𝒌𝒆𝒏 ∆𝒕
𝒗−𝒖
𝒂=
𝒕
𝒂𝒕 = 𝒗 − 𝒖
𝒗 = 𝒖 + 𝒂𝒕
12
Derivation of 2nd equation
𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕, 𝒔 = 𝒂𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 × 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆
𝒖+𝒗
𝒔=( )×𝒕
𝟐

𝒃𝒖𝒕 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝟏, 𝒗 = 𝒖 + 𝒂𝒕

𝒖 + 𝒖 + 𝒂𝒕
𝒔= 𝒕
𝟐
𝟏
= (𝟐𝒖𝒕 + 𝒂𝒕𝟐 )
𝟐

𝟏 𝟐
𝒔 = 𝒖𝒕 + 𝒂𝒕
𝟐
13
Derivation of 3rd equation

𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕 = 𝒂𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 × 𝒕

𝒖+𝒗
𝒔=( )×𝒕
𝟐
𝒃𝒖𝒕 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝟏, 𝒗 = 𝒖 + 𝒂𝒕
𝒗−𝒖
𝒕=
𝒂
𝒗+𝒖 𝒗−𝒖
𝒔=( )×( )
𝟐 𝒂
𝒗𝟐 − 𝒖𝒗 + 𝒖𝒗 − 𝒖𝟐
𝒔=
𝟐𝒂
𝟐𝒂𝒔 = 𝒗𝟐 − 𝒖𝟐
𝒗𝟐 = 𝒖𝟐 + 𝟐𝒂𝒔
14
Example 5

A body is uniformly accelerated from rest to a final

velocity of 100 ms −1 in 10 s. calculate distance covered.
Solution
Given, u = 0 ms −1 , v=100 ms−1 and t=10 s
1
s = ut + at 2
2
1 (100−0)
= 0 x 10 + x x 10 x 10
2 10
1
= 0 + x 10 x 10 x 10
2
= 500 m

The distance covered is 500 m.

15
Example 6
A body whose initial velocity is 30 ms −1 moves with a constant retardation of
3 ms −2 . Calculate the time taken for the body to come to rest.
Solution
v = u + at
0 = 30 – 3 x t
3t = 30
t = 10 s
The time taken to come to rest is 10 s
Example 7
A body moving with uniform acceleration of 10 ms −2 covers a distance of
320m. If its initial velocity was 60 ms −2 . Calculate its final velocity.
Solution
v 2 = u2 + 2as
v 2 = (160)2 + 2 x 10 x 320
= 3600 + 6400
= 10 000
v = 10000
= 100 ms −1
The final velocity is 100 ms −1
16
 Motion under Gravity
When a body is on a free fall , it accelerates uniformly
due gravitational pull.

Displacement –time graph for freely falling body Velocity –time graph for freely falling body

17
 Motion under Gravity
Free fall
All bodies on or near the surface of the earth experience a force of
attraction towards the centre of the earth known as gravitational force.
This force causes bodies to accelerate towards the centre of the earth.
This is the acceleration of free fall due to gravity, denoted by ‘g’. The
numerical value of ‘g’ is approximately 9.8 ms −2 .
Free fall can only occur in vacuum, but if air resistance is
ignored, all bodies fall with this constant acceleration of 9.8 ms −2 . In a
vacuum, a feather and a stone released from the same height will land
on the ground at the same time.
It should be noted that the three equations of motions of a body
under constant acceleration can be applied in free fall because the
acceleration is also constant. Thus, the three equations become:
v = u + gt ………………………… (1)
1 2
h = ut + gt …………………….. (2)
2
v 2 = u2 + 2gh ……………………… (3)
18
Example 8

A stone is released from the top of a cliff 180 m high. Calculate:

(a)The time it takes to hit the water
(b)The velocity with which it hits the water. (Take g = 10 ms −2 )
Solution
1
(a) S = ut + gt 2
2
1
180 = 0 x t + x 10 x t 2
2
5t 2 = 180
t 2 = 36
t=6s
The stone hits the water after 6 s
(b) v = u + gt
v = 0 + 10 x 6
= 60 ms −1
The stone hits the water at a velocity of 60 ms −1
19
Vertical projection
Vertical Projection

When a body is projected vertically upwards, it undergoes a

uniform retardation due to the gravitational pull. The body
thus slows down, comes to rest and then starts falling with
an increasing velocity.
The sign ‘g’ is therefore negative when the body is rising and
positive when it is falling. Hence, for a body projected
vertically upwards, the following equations hold:

v = u - gt ………………………… (1)
1 2
h = ut - gt …………………….. (2)
2
v 2 = u2 - 2gh ……………………… (3)
20
At maximum height, the final velocity v = 0.
From equation (1) above, 0 = u – gt.
u
t=
g
This is the time taken to reach the maximum height.
Time of flight
This is the time taken by the body (projectile) to fall back to its point of
projection. At the end of the flight, the displacement of the projectile is zero.
Using equation (2) above:
1
0 = ut - gt 2
2
 0 = 2ut - gt 2
Hence, gt 2 − 2ut = 0
t(gt – 2u) = 0
2u
t = 0 or t =
g
2u
t = o corresponds to the start of projection, while t = is the time of flight.
g
Note:
The time of flight is twice the time taken to attain the maximum height.
21
The maximum height (Hmax ) is attained when the final velocity, v=0.
Thus,
v 2 = u2 − 2gs reduces to
0 = u2 − 3gHmax = u2
u2
Hence, Hmax = , where Hmax is the maximum height attained.
2g

At the instant the projectile returns to its point of projection, its total
displacement is zero. Thus,
v 2 = u2 − 2gs reduces to
v 2 − u2
v = ±u
+u is the velocity of projection while –u is the velocity of the body falling
back.
The projectile hits the point of projection with a velocity equal in
magnitude but opposite in direction to the one with which it was
projected.
22
Example 8
A stone is projected vertically upwards with a velocity of 30 ms −1 from the ground.
Calculate:
(a) The time it takes to reach the maximum height
(b) The time of flight
(c) The maximum height reached
(d) The velocity with which it lands on the ground (Take g = 10 ms−1 )

Solution
(a) Time taken to reach maximum height is given by
u
t= g (c) Maximum height reached is given by;
30 u2
= 10 Hmax = 2g
=3s 30 x 30
=
(b) Time of flight is given by: 2 x 10
T = 2t = 45 m
=2x3 (d) Velocity of return is given by;
=6s v 2 = u2 − 2gs
Alternatively; But s = 0
2u v 2 = u2
Time of flight = g
= 30 x 30
2 x 30
= 10 Hence, v = 30 x 30
=6s = 30 ms −1
23
Horizontal projection
Some examples of horizontal projection include:
• A jet from a water pipe held horizontally
• A bullet from a gun held horizontally
• A tennis ball when it rolls from the tennis table.
• A stone thrown horizontally.
• An arrow released horizontally from bow.

24
Horizontal projection
• Consider a body projected horizontally with an initial
horizontal velocity 𝒖 . The body maintains that initial
horizontal velocity but since it also experiences free fall due to
gravity, it describes a curved path as shown below.
• The path followed is called trajectory and the distance moved
horizontally is called the range, (R )

The vertical acceleration is due to gravity while the horizontal

acceleration is zero since the body maintains its initial horizontal
velocity throughout the motion
25
Horizontal projection
Horizontal displacement, R
• Since horizontal velocity is constant

𝑹 = 𝒖𝒕
The vertical displacement, h
Initial velocity for vertical displacement is zero. This means that
vertical displacement is;
𝟏 𝟐
𝒔 = 𝟎 × + 𝒈𝒕
𝟐
𝟏 𝟐
𝒔 = 𝒈𝒕
𝟐
𝟏 𝟐
𝒉 = 𝒈𝒕
𝟐
• Note: The time for horizontal displacement is equal to time for vertical
displacement at any given point.
26
Example 10

A ball is thrown from the top of a cliff 20 m high with a horizontal velocity of 10 ms−1 .
Calculate:
(a) The time taken by the ball to strike the ground
(b) The distance from the foot of the cliff to where the ball strikes the ground
(c) The vertical velocity at the time it strikes the ground (Take g = 10 ms−1 )
Solution
(a) u = 10 ms−1 , g = 10 ms−2 , y = 20 m
1
But h = 2 gt 2
1
therefore, 20 = x 10 x t 2
2
2
5t = 20
t2 = 4
Hence, t = 2 s
(b) R = ur
= 10 x 2
= 20 m
(c) v = u + at
= gt
= 10 x 2
= 20 ms −1
27
Example 11

A stone is thrown horizontally from a building that is 45 m high above a horizontal

ground. The stone hits the ground at point which is 60 m from the foot of the building.
Calculate the initial velocity of the stone. (Take g = 10 ms −1 )
Solution
Let the initial velocity for the vertical motion be u.
1
Using s = ut + 2 at 2 for the vertical motion gives;
1
s = 2 gt 2 (since u = o)
But s = 45
1
Therefore, 45 = x 10 x t 2
2
2
5t = 45
t2 = 9
t=3s
1
Using s = ut + 2 at 2 for horizontally motion gives;
s = ut (since a = 0)
Therefore, 60 = ut
But t = 3 s
Therefore, 3u = 60
U = 20
Hence, initial velocity is 20 ms −1
28
Example 12

An arrow is shot horizontally from the top of the building and it lands 200
m from the foot of the building after 10 s. assuming that the air resistance
is negligible, calculate:
(a) The initial velocity of the arrow
(b) The height of the building
Solution
(a) Initial horizontal velocity, u =?
R = 200 m
t = 10 s
From the expression R = ut;
200 m = u x 10
200
u= = 20ms −1
10
1
(b) From the expression; h = gt 2
2
1
h = x 10 x 102
2
= 5 x 100 = 500m

29
 Measuring Velocity and Acceleration Using Ticker Timer
• A ticker timer has an arm which vibrates regularly due to changing current
in the mains supply (alternating current). As the arm vibrates, it makes dots
on the paper tape which is moving under the arm. Successive dots are marked
at the same interval of time
• Most ticker timer operates at a frequency of 50 hertz (50Hz) i.e. 50 cycles
per second i.e. they make 50 dots per second. The time interval between two
1
consecutive dots is: = 0.02𝑠for a 50Hz ticker timer. This time interval is
50
called a tick.

30
Measuring Velocity and Acceleration Using Ticker Timer
• Sample sections of tapes are as shown below. The arrow
shows the direction in which the tape is pulled.

31
Example 12
A tape is pulled trough a ticker-timer which makes one dot every second. If it makes three dots
and the distance between the first and the third dot is 16 cm, find the velocity of the tape.
Solution
Frequency of the ticker-timer is 1 Hz.
Therefore, time between consecutive dots = 1s
Distance between 1st and 3rd dots = 16 cm
16
Hence, average velocity =
1x2
= 8 cms−1
Example 13
A tape is pulled steadily though a ticker-timer of frequency 50 Hz. Given the outcome shown in
figure 1.32, calculate the velocity with which the tape is pulled.

Solution
Distance between consecutive dots = 5 cm.
Frequency of the ticker-timer = 50 Hz.
1
Time between consecutive dots =
50
= 0.02 s
5
Therefore, velocity of tape =
0.02
= 250 cms−1
32
Example 14
To calculate the acceleration of the trolley, determine:
(i) The initial velocity of the trolley
(ii) The final velocity of the trolley.
Figure 1.34 is a typical tape from the trolley.

Fig 1.34 1
Velocity at A is the initial velocity, u = 0.02 = 50 cms −1
2
Velocity at B is the final velocity, v = = 100 cms −1
0.02
Time for 10 ticks = 0.02 x 10 = 0.2 s
v−u
Therefore, acceleration = t
100−50
= 0.18
= 277.8 8 cms −1
Note:
The velocities u and v are average velocities and correspond to midpoints at A and B.
i.e.,0.01 s and 0.19 s. hence change in time = 0.19 – 0.01 = 0.18 s. alternatively;
time at end of part B – time at end of part A = 0.20 – 0.02
= 0.18 s
33
Example 15
The tape I figure 1.35 was produced by a ticker-timer with a frequency
of 100 Hz. Find the acceleration of the object which was pulling the
tape.

Fig 1.35
1
Time between consecutive dots = = 0.01 s
100
0.5
Initial velocity, u = = 50 cms −1
0.01
2.5
Final velocity, u = cms −1
= 250
0.01
Time taken= 4 x 00.1 = 0.04 s
v−u
Acceleration =
t
250−50
=
0.04
= 5000 cms −1
34
Example 16

2
Average velocity u of the first tape = = 10 cms −1 Freq = 50Hz
0.2
12
Average velocity v of the last tape = = 60 cms −1 Determine the acceleration
0.2
Change in velocity = 60 cms − 10 cms −1
−1 DV 50 𝑐𝑚𝑠−1
a= =
= 50 cms −1 t 1.05

Time taken for velocity to change = (6 – 1) x 0.2 a= 50 cms.2

= 1.0 s

35
1. Distinguish between distance and displacement.
2. Differentiate speed from velocity.
3. Distinguish between the terms ‘uniform velocity’ and ‘uniform acceleration.’
4. A body accelerates uniformly from initial velocity, U to the final velocity V,
in time t, the distance traveled during this time interval is S. If the acceleration
is shown by the letter a, show that;
i) V= U + at
ii) S= Ut + ½ at2
(iii) V2 =U2 + 2aS
5. A body initially moving at 72km/h accelerates uniformly to a velocity of
180km/h in 3seconds. Calculate its acceleration.
6. A boulder is sliding down a slope, with a uniform acceleration of 3 ms -2;
calculate its velocity after it has slid 10m down the slope.
7. A body initially moving at 50m/s decelerates uniformly at 2m/s2 until it
comes to rest. What distance does it cover during this time.
8. A car is brought to rest from a speed of 30m/s in 2s.If the driver’s reaction
time is 0.3s, determine the shortest stopping distance.

36
9. The figure below shows a section of a tape (drawn to scale) after passing
through a ticker time of frequency 50Hz. The tape is attached to a trolley
moving in the direction shown.

Determine the velocity between

(i) P and Q
(ii) X and Y
(iii) Determine the acceleration of the trolley
10. The figure below shows a section of a tape from a ten-tick timer of
frequency 50Hz. Determine the acceleration of the trolley pulling the tape.

37
11. In the study of free fall, it is assumed that the force F acting on a given
body of mass, m, is gravitational, given by F = mg. State two other forces that
act on the same body
12. A stone is released from a height h, if the acceleration due to gravity is g,
show that the velocity is V= 𝟐𝐠𝐡 just before hitting the ground
13. A body of mass 20kg is raised to a height of 3.0m. Determine the velocity
of the body when just about to hit the ground when released from this height.
(g=10ms-2)
14. An object is projected vertically upwards at a speed of 15m/s. How long
will it take to return to the same level of projection?
15. A girl dropped a stone from the top of a tower 45m tall and a boy projected
another stone vertically upwards at 25m/s at the same time. Determine the
time taken for the two stones to meet.
16. A bullet is fired horizontally at a target, neglecting air resistance; give a
reason why the horizontal acceleration of the bullet is zero.
17. A bullet is fired horizontally from a flat form 15m high. If initial speed is
300ms-1, determine maximum horizontal distance covered.(g =10ms-2)

38
18. A missile is fired horizontally from the top of a cliff 320m high to a target
56m away. If the missile hits the target, determine the horizontal velocity of the
missile.
19. A mass is projected horizontally from a height of 80m above the ground
with a horizontal velocity of 30m/s. Calculate:
(i) The time taken to reach the ground
(ii) The horizontal distance traveled before hitting the ground
20. Describe the motion represented by the following graphs.

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21. Figure below shows two graphs representing the motion of two bodies for
the same time recorded. Describe the motion of A and that of B.

22. The following figure shows the velocity-time graph for the journey of a car
in 80 minutes.

i) Determine the acceleration of the car between A and B and between C and
D.
ii) Determine the distance covered by the car during the whole journey
iii) Determine the average velocity of the car.

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