Vector Spaces

VECTOR SPACES
A vector space consists of a nonempty set V of objects

(called vectors) that can be added, that can be multiplied
by a real number (called a scalar in this context), and for
which certain axioms hold.
If v and w are two vectors in V, their sum is expressed as
v+w, and the scalar product of v by a real number a is
denoted as av. These operations are called vector
addition and scalar multiplication, respectively, and the
following axioms are assumed to hold.
Axioms for vector addition
A1. If u and v are in V, then u +v is in V .
A2. u +v = v +u for all u and v in V.
A3. u+ (v +w) = (u +v) +w for all u, v, and w in V .
A4. An element 0 in V exists such that v+0 = v = 0+v for
every v in V.
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5. For each v in V , an element −v in V exists such that
–v +v = 0 and v+ (−v) = 0.
Axioms for scalar multiplication
S1. If v is in V, then av is in V for all a in
S2. a (v +w) = av +aw for all v and w in V and all a in .
S3. (a+b) v = av +bv for all v in V and all a and b in .
S4. a (bv) = (ab)v for all v in V and all a and b in .
S5. 1v = v for all v in V.
The content of axioms A1 and S1 is described by saying
that V is closed under vector addition and scalar
multiplication. The element 0 in axiom A4 is called the zero
vector, and the vector −v in axiom A5 is called the negative
of v.
The rules of matrix arithmetic, when applied to n, give
nis a vector space using matrix addition and scalar
multiplication.( We will usually write the vectors in n as
n-tuples. However, if it is convenient, we will sometimes
denote them as rows or columns.)
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It is important to realize that, in a general vector space, the
vectors need not be n-tuples as in n . They can be any
kind of objects at all as long as the addition and scalar
multiplication are defined and the axioms are satisfied. The
following examples illustrate the diversity of the concept.
The space n consists of special types of matrices. More
generally, let Mmn denote the set of all m×n matrices with
real entries. Then Theorem 2.1.1 gives:
The set Mmn of all m×n matrices is a vector space using

matrix addition and scalar multiplication. The zero element
in this vector space is the zero matrix of size m×n, and the
vector space negative of a matrix (required by axiom A5) is
the usual matrix negative discussed in Section 2.1. Note
that Mmn is just Rmn in different notation.
Example 1
Show that every subspace of n is a vector space in its own
right using the addition and scalar multiplication of n
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Solution.
Axioms A1 and S1 are two of the defining conditions for a
subspace U of n (see Section 5.1). The other eight axioms
for a vector space are inherited from n. For example, if x
and y are in U and a is a scalar, then a (x + y) = a x +a y
because x and y are in n. This shows that axiom S2 holds
for U; similarly, the other axioms also hold for U.
Example 2
Let V denote the set of all ordered pairs (x, y) and define
addition in V as in 2. However, define anew scalar
multiplication in V by
a(x, y) = (ay, ax)
Determine if V is a vector space with these operations.
Solution.
Axioms A1 to A5 are valid for V because they hold for
matrices. Also a(x, y) = (ay, ax) is again in V, so axiom S1
holds. To verify axiom S2, let v = (x, y) and w = (x1, y1) be
typical elements in V and compute
a( v + w ) = a(x+x1, y+y1) = (a(y+y1), a(x+x1))
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av + aw = (ay, ax) + (ay1, ax1) = (ay+ay1, ax+ax1)
Because these are equal, axiom S2 holds. Similarly, the
reader can verify that axiom S3 holds.
However, axiom S4 fails because
a(b(x, y)) = a(by, bx) = (abx, aby)
need not equal ab(x, y) = (aby, abx). Hence, V is not a
vector space. (axiom S5 also fails.)
Theorem
If u and v are vectors in a vector space V, the equation
X+v=u
has one and only one solution x in V given by
x = u−v
Proof. The difference x = u−v is indeed a solution to the
equation because (using several axioms)
x + v = (u−v) +v = [u+ (−v)] +v = u+ (−v + v) = u+0 = u
To see that this is the only solution, suppose x1 is another
solution so that x1 +v = u. Then x+v = x1 +v (they both
equal u), so x = x1 by cancellation.
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Similarly, cancellation shows that there is only one zero
vector in any vector space and only one negative of each
vector . Hence we speak of the zero vector and the
negative of a vector.
The next theorem derives some basic properties of scalar
multiplication that hold in every vector space, and will be
used extensively
Theorem
Let v denote a vector in a vector space V and let a denote a
real number.
1. 0v = 0.
2. a0 = 0.
3. If av = 0, then either a = 0 or v = 0
4. (−1)v = −v.
5. (−a)v = −(av) = a(−v).
Proof.
1. Observe that 0v+0v = (0+0)v = 0v = 0v+0 where the first equality is by
axiom S3. It follows that 0v = 0 by cancellation.
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2. Assume that av = 0. If a = 0, there is nothing to prove; if a ≠ 0, we
must show that v = 0. But
a ≠ 0 means we can scalar-multiply the equation av = 0 by the
1
scalar 𝑎. The result (using (2) and Axioms S5 and S4) is
1 1 1
v=1v= (𝑎 𝑎)𝒗 = 𝑎
(𝑎𝒗)= 𝑎 𝟎 = 𝟎
3. We have –v + v = 0 by axiom A5. On the other hand,

(−1) v + v = (−1)v+1v = (−1+1)v = 0v = 0
using (1) and axioms S5 and S3. Hence (−1) v + v = −v + v
(because both are equal to 0), so
(−1)v = −v by cancellation.
The properties in Theorem are familiar for matrices; the point
here is that they hold in every vector space. It is hard to exaggerate the
importance of this observation.
Axiom A3 ensures that the sum u + (v+w) = (u+v) +w is the same
however it is formed, and we write it simply as u + v+ w. Similarly,
there are different ways to form any sum v1 + v2 + ···+ vn, and
Axiom A3 guarantees that they are all equal. Moreover, Axiom
A2 shows that the order in which the vectors are written does not
matter (for example: u + v + w + z = z + u + w + v).
Similarly, Axioms S2 and S3 extend. For example
a(u + v + w) = a[ u+ ( v + w)] = a u +a (v + w) = a u+ a v+ a w
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for all a, u, v, and w. Similarly (a + b + c) v = a v+ b v +c v hold for
all values of a, b, c, and v (verify).
More generally,
a(v1 +v2 +···+vn) = av1 +av2 +···+avn
(a1 +a2 +···+an)v = a1v+a2v+···+anv
hold for all n ≥ 1, all numbers a, a1, ..., an, and all vectors, v, v1, ..., vn.
Example
If u, v, and w are vectors in a vector space V, simplify the expression
2(u+3w)−3(2w−v)−3[2(2u+v−4w)−4(u−2w)]
Solution.
The reduction proceeds as though u, v, and w were matrices or
variables.
2(u+3w)−3(2w−v)−3[2(2u+v−4w)−4(u−2w)]
= 2u+6w−6w+3v−3[4u+2v−8w−4u+8w]
= 2u+3v−3[2v]
= 2u+3v−6v
= 2u−3
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Exercise
Find x and y (in terms of u and v) such that:
2𝑥 + 𝑦 = 𝑢
(a)
5𝑥 + 3𝑦 = 𝑣
3𝑥 − 2𝑦 = 𝑢
(b)
4𝑥 − 5𝑦 = 𝑣
Exercise
In each case show that the condition
au+bv+cw = 0 in V implies that a = b = c = 0.
(a) V = R4; u = (2, 1, 0, 2), v = (1, 1, −1, 0),
w = (0, 1, 2, 1)
(b)V = M22; u = [10 0

1
] , v =[
0 1
1 0
], w =[
1 1
1 −1
]
(c) V = P; u = x3 +x, v = x2 +1, w = x3 −x2 +x+1
Exercise
Simplify each of the following.
a. 3[ 2 (u −2v−w) + 3(w−v)]−7(u−3v−w)
b. 4 (3u −v+w)−2 [ (3u−2v)−3 (v−w)] +6(w−u−v)
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Vector Spaces

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VECTOR SPACES

A vector space consists of a nonempty set V of objects

The set Mmn of all m×n matrices is a vector space using

3. We have –v + v = 0 by axiom A5. On the other hand,

(b)V = M22; u = [10 0

(c) V = P; u = x3 +x, v = x2 +1, w = x3 −x2 +x+1

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