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Learning Disability and prevalence of language and learning disabilities

Ashmiya Faisal

Department of psychology Nilgiri college of arts and science

Course name :MSc psychology

24PSE01- Professional Skill Enhancement course-1

Instructor: Dr. Muhsina Lubaiba

Oct 26 /2024

Learning Disability(LD)

Specific Learning disability: According to DSM-5 Specific learning disorder is a

neurodevelopmental disorder with a biological origin that is the basis for abnormalities at a

cognitive level that are associated with the behavioral signs of the disorder. The biological origin

includes an interaction of genetic, epigenetic, and environmental factors, which affect the brain’s

ability to perceive or process verbal or nonverbal information efficiently and accurately.

Specific Learning Disabilities (dyslexia, dysgraphia, dyscalculia)

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Dyslexia: Dyslexia is an alternative term used to refer to a pattern of learning difficulties

characterized by problems with accurate or fluent word recognition, poor decoding, and poor

spelling abilities. If dyslexia is used to specify this particular pattern of difficulties, it is

important also to specify any additional difficulties that are present, such as difficulties with

reading comprehension or math reasoning

Clinical features: Reading difficulty may be apparent among students in classrooms that expect

reading skills earlier. Children can sometimes compensate for reading disorders in the early

elementary grades by the use of memory and inference, particularly in children with high

intelligence. In such instances, the disorder may not be apparent until age 9 (fourth grade) or

later.

Diagnosis: Reading impairment is diagnosed when a child’s reading achievement is

significantly below that expected of a child of the same age. Characteristic diagnostic features

include difficulty recalling, evoking, and sequencing printed letters and words, processing

sophisticated grammatical constructions, and making inferences. School failure and ensuing poor

self-esteem can exacerbate the problems as a child becomes more consumed with a sense of

failure and spends less time focusing on academic work.

Treatment : Remediation strategies for children with reading impairments focus on direct

instruction that leads a child’s attention to the connections between speech sounds and spelling.

Effective remediation programs begin by teaching the child to make accurate associations

between letters and sounds. This approach relies on the theory that the core deficits in reading

impairments are related to difficulty recognizing and remembering the associations between

letters and sounds. Children and adolescents with reading difficulties are entitled to an individual

education program (IEP) provided by the public school system. However, for high school
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students with persistent reading disorders and ongoing difficulties with decoding and word

identification, IP services may not be sufficient to remediate their problems.

Etiology : Data from cognitive, neuroimaging and genetic studies suggest that reading

impairment is a neurobiological disorder with a significant genetic contribution. It reflects a

deficiency in processing sounds of speech sounds, and thus, spoken language. Children who

struggle with reading most likely also have a deficit in speech sound processing skills. Children

with this deficit cannot adequately identify the parts of words that denote specific sounds,

leading to difficulty in recognizing and “sounding out” words. Youths with reading impairment

are slower than peers in naming letters and numbers.

Dyscalculia : Dyscalculia is an alternative term used to refer to a pattern of difficulties

characterized by problems processing numerical information, learning arithmetic facts, and

performing accurate or fluent calculations. If dyscalculia is used to specify this particular pattern

of mathematic difficulties, it is important also to specify any additional difficulties that are

present, such as difficulties with math reasoning or word reasoning accuracy.

Clinical features :Common features of mathematics deficit include difficulty learning number

names, remembering the signs for addition and subtractions, learning multiplication tables,

translating word problems into computations, and performing calculations at the expected pace

Some investigators have classified mathematics deficiencies into the following categories:

difficulty learning to count meaning-fully, difficulty mastering cardinal and ordinal systems,

difficulty performing arithmetic operations, and difficulty envisioning clusters of objects as

groups.
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Diagnosis :Learning disorder in mathematics when a child’s skill in mathematical reasoning, or

calculation, Remains significantly below that expected for that child’s age, for at least 6 months,

even when administering remedial intervention. Many different skills contribute to mathematics

proficiency. These include linguistic skills, conceptual skills, and computational skills. Linguistic

skills involve being able to understand mathematical terms, understand word problems, and

translate them into the proper mathematical process.

Treatment: It is best to treat mathematics difficulties for children with early interventions that

lead to improved skills in basic computation. The presence of specific learning disorder in

reading, along with mathematics difficulties, can impede progress; however, children are quite

responsive to remediation in early grade school. Children with indications of mathematics

disorder as early as in kindergarten require help in understanding which digit in a pair is larger,

counting abilities, identification of numbers, and remembering sequences of numbers.

Etiology: Mathematics deficiency, as with other areas of specific learning disorder, has a

significant genetic contribution. Comorbidity with reading deficits is common and in the range of

17 percent up to 60 percent. One theory proposed a neurologic deficit in the right cerebral

hemisphere, particularly in the occipital lobe areas. These regions are responsible for processing

visual-spatial stimuli that, in tum, are responsible for mathematical skills. The causes of deficits

in mathematics are multifactorial, including genetic, maturational, cognitive, emotional,

educational, and socioeconomic factors.

Dysgraphia :Written expression is the most complex skill acquired to convey an understanding

of language and to express thoughts and ideas. Writing skills are highly correlated with reading

for most children; however, for some youth, reading comprehension may far surpass their ability

to express complex thoughts.

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Clinical Features:Youth with impairments in written expression struggle early in grade school

with spelling words and expressing their thoughts according to age-appropriate grammatical

norms. Their spoken and written sentences contain an unusually large number of grammatical

errors and poor paragraph organization. Affected children commonly make simple grammatical

errors, even when writing a short sentence. Many children with impaired written expression

understandably become frustrated and angry, and harbor feelings of shame and inadequacy

regarding poor academic achievement. In some cases, depressive disorders can result from a

growing sense of isolation, estrangement, and despair.

Diagnosis :DSM-5 diagnosis of specific learning disorder with impairment in written

expression depends on a child’s poor ability to use punctuation and grammar accurately in

sentences, inability to organize paragraphs or to articulate ideas in writing. Poor performance on

composing written text may also include poor handwriting and impaired ability to spell and to

place words significantly in coherent sentences, compared to others of the same age. In addition

to spelling mistakes, youth with impaired written expression make grammatical mistakes, such as

using incorrect tenses, forgetting words in sentences and placing words in wrong odder.

Treatmet:Remedial treatment for writing disability includes direct practice in spelling and

sentence writing as well as a review of grammatical rules. Intensive and continuous

administration of individually tailored, one-on-one expressive and creative writing therapy

appears to influence a favorable outcome. Teachers in some special schools devote as much as 2

hours a day to such writing instruction .

Etiology :Causes of writing disability are likely similar to those of reading disorder, that is,

underlying deficits in using the components of language related to letter sounds. Genetic factors
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are a significant factor in the development of writing disability. Writing difficulties often

accompany

language disorder, leading an affected child to have trouble with understanding grammatical

rules, finding words, and expressing ideas clearly.

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Differentiating LD from intellectual disabilities and ADHD.

Learning Disabilities (LD)

• Not explicitly defined in DSM-5, but included under “Specific Learning

Disorders” (SLD)

• Characterized by:

- Difficulties in learning and using academic skills, such as reading, writing, or mathematics

- Persistent difficulties, despite targeted interventions

- Significant impairment in academic or occupational functioning

• Diagnostic criteria:

- At least one of the following:

- Difficulty with reading (dyslexia)

- Difficulty with written expression (dysgraphia)

- Difficulty with mathematics (dyscalculia)

- Evidence of significant impairment in academic or occupational functioning.

Intellectual Disabilities (ID)

Defined as Intellectual Disability

(Intellectual Developmental Disorder

• Characterized by:

- Significant cognitive impairment (IQ <70)

- Significant impairment in adaptive behaviors (e.g., communication, daily living skills)

- Originating before age 18

• Diagnostic criteria:

- IQ score < 70
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- Concurrent impairments in adaptive behaviors

- Evidence of significant impairment in daily life.

Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder(ADHD)

• Characterized by:

- Persistent patterns of inattention and/ or hyperactivity-impulsivity

- Significant impairment in social, occupational, or other areas of functioning

- Symptoms present in two or more settings (e.g., home, school, work)

• Diagnostic criteria:

- At least five symptoms of inattention and/or hyperactivity-impulsivity

- Symptoms must be present for at least six months

- Significant impairment in social, occupational, or other areas of functioning.

Differentiating features:

1. Intelligence: ID (IQ < 70), LD (average-above average), ADHD (varies)

2. Specific skills: LD (specific skill deficits),

ID (global cognitive impairment), ADHD (attention and impulse control)

3. Adaptive behaviors: ID (significant impairment), LD and ADHD (milder or no impairment)

4. Age of onset: ID (before age 18), LD (typically during childhood), ADHD (typically during

childhood.
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Global and regional prevalence statistics

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learning disability:
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The prevalence of specific learning disorder across the academic domains of reading, writing,

and mathematics is 5%-15% among school-age children in Brazil, Northern Ireland, and the

United States. Prevalence in adults is unknown.

Language Disability:

In 2011, the WHO estimated that 93 million children (0-15 years) had a moderate-to-severe

disability, and 13 million had a severe disability. In 2019, the GBD estimated that 49.8 million

children under 5 years, 241.5 million children aged 5-19 years, and 291.3 million children

younger than 20 years had mild-to-severe disabilities.

Differences in prevalence based on demographic factors (e.g., age, gender, socio-economic

status)

Language Disability;

Age: The prevalence of speech and language disorders is generally higher in younger children,

with the highest prevalence in children aged 3-6 years. For example, the prevalence of these

disorders is around 15-16% at age 3, but decreases to about 4% at age 6.

Gender : Speech sound disorders are more common in boys than girls, particularly in early life.

Socioeconomic status: There is a strong socioeconomic gradient in disabilities, with speech and

mental disabilities being more common in younger individuals.

Learning disability;

Age : The National Health Interview Survey (NHIS) estimates the prevalence of any parent-

reported LD from 1997 to 2008 to be 5 percent among children 3 to 10 years old, and 9.3 percent

for children from 11 to 17 years old (Boyle et al., 2011). LD is a lifelong condition and is

unlikely to resolve after a child graduates, although many individuals learn to successfully

accommodate for their LDs.

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Gender : Specific learning disorder is more common in males than in females (ratios range from

about 2:1 to 3:1) and cannot be attributed to factors such as ascertainment bias, definitional or

measurement variation, language, race, or socioeconomic status.

Socioeconomic status : Socioeconomic status (SES) encompasses not just income but also

educational attainment, occupational prestige, and subjective perceptions of social status and

social class. Socioeconomic status can encompass quality of life attributes as well as the

opportunities and privileges afforded to people within society.

Trends in diagnosis and challenges in underreporting

In language disability trends in diagnosis;

Developmental language disorders (DLD) are prevalent and persistent among school-age

children but are often under recognized. This chapter discusses the ways in which the various

components of communication are impacted by these disorders and outlines the differences in

expression seen in different languages. Research on biological and psychological roots of the

syndrome is also reviewed. As yet, no single definitive cause has been identified; the disorders

are likely to result from a constellation of genetic, biological, and cognitive weak-nesses that are

influenced by environmental experiences. Basic methods of assessment and differential diagnosis

are presented and the principles guiding the development of intervention programs are discussed.

(Psych Info Database Record © 2022 APA, all rights reserved)

Challenges Underreporting:

A language learning disability (LLD) scenario: A parent of a child who has been receiving

services at a speech-language-hearing center for a number of years has been pleased with her

child’s language development. We organize our arguments by presenting three theses about the

relationships between language impairment and learning disabilities.

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First, the use of different labels by different professionals in different contexts should not

obscure the commonalities among children with language disorders, no matter what they are

called. Second, children with a diagnosis of SLI in the preschool years tend to have continued

problems with language learning throughout their school years and beyond, although their

language disorders, as well as those of children newly identified as having SLD, take on different

forms as a consequence of new contexts and learning tasks. Third, language is the embedded

curriculum of school, not only in the form of what is called “language arts” but also within all

other parts of the curriculum. The implication of this is that intervention choices should be based

on students’ ongoing language learning and literacy problems within curricular contexts,

regardless of their diagnostic labels. We end the article with summary points for consideration

and a look toward future research.

In Learning disability trends in diagnosis;

Learning disability (LD) is a group of heterogeneous disorders manifested by substantial

difficulties in listening, speaking, reading, writing, reasoning, or mathematical abilities. Research

indicates that LD has become a major health concern for children in the US. Literature reported

that the prevalence of LD among children varied from 8.7% to 9.7% based on data from the

National Health Interview Survey (NHIS) from 2004 to 2006 and the 2003 National Survey of

Children’s Health, respectively. However, research on long-term trend over the past decades is

lacking. The aim of this cross-sectional study was to estimate the prevalence of LD and its long-

term trend among US children and adolescents aged 6 to 17 years from 1997 to 2021.

Challenge in LD:

 Teachers attitude.

 Teaching method and practice.

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 Shortage of special education.

 Problem with language.

 Lack of Standardized Assessment tool.

Reference:

Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders: DSM-5. 5th ed.,

American Psychiatric Association,

2013. DSM-V

(Doi-org.db29.linceweb.org/10.1176 appi.books.9780890425596.dsm02.)

APA Dictionary of psychology :The largest scientific and professional organization representing

psychology in the United States and the largest association of psychologists in the world,

learning disability

NIH  National institutes of health )about research data’s

Research-gate: the trends and challenges statistical analysis of learning disability and language

disability , A platform were researcher’s share there work