Industrial controllers , basic theory

CASCADE CONTROL

 FEEDFORWARD CONTROL  INDUSTRY CONTROL

 OPERATING PROCEDURE FUNDAMENTALS .
WITH FEEDFORWARD
 CONVERSION TABLES (Units
 GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF and conversion tables for
ADAPTIVE GAIN OR RESET process control )
FUNCTIONS

2.1 GENERAL

A cascade control system is a multiple-loop system where the primary variable is controlled by
adjusting the setpoint of a related secondary variable controller. The secondary variable then
affects the primary variable through the process.

The primary objective in cascade control is to divide an otherwise difficult to control process into
two portions, whereby a secondary control loop is formed around a major disturbances thus
leaving only minor disturbances to be controlled by the primary controller.

The use of cascade control is described in many texts on process control applications.

The advantages of cascade control are all somewhat interrelated . They include:

1. Better control of the primary variable

2. Primary variable less affected by disturbances
3. Faster recovery from disturbances
4. Increase the natural frequency of the system
5. Reduce the effective magnitude of a time-lag
6. Improve dynamic performance
7. Provide limits on the secondary variable

Cascade control is most advantageous on applications where the secondary closed loop can
include the major disturbance and second order lag and the major lag is included in only the
primary loop. The secondary loop should be established in an area where the major disturbance
occurs. It is also important that the secondary variable respond to the disturbance. If the slave
loop is controlling flow and the disturbance is in the heat content of the fluid, obviously the flow
controller will not correct for this disturbance.

There is only one master controller and usually only one slave controller and only one manipulated
variable. See Figure 1 (a), (b), and (c). However, some applications can benefit from the use of more
than one slave controller. There will be a separate secondary variable and manipulated variable
associated with each slave controller in the system if the slave loops are in parallel as shown in Figure
1 (d). Another configuration, shown in Figure 1(e), is the operating of a cascade system with two slave
loops in series.

Figure 1. Cascade control systems .

The distinguishing feature of a cascade control system is that the output of the master controller
adjusts the setpoint of a slave controller as shown in Figure 2. Figure 3 shows the two slave
controllers in parallel and Figure 4 shows the two slave controllers in series.

FEEDFORWARD CONTROL

2.1 GENERAL
Feedforward control is a strategy used to compensate a for disturbances in a system before they
affect the controlled variable . A feedforward control system measures a disturbance variable,
predicts its effect on the process, and applies corrective action, as shown in Figure 1.

Without the feedforward controller the manipulated variable has a value which is related to the
uncontrolled variable to produce the desired value of the controlled variable. In addition-to this
there is a disturbance variable which is either a part of the uncontrolled variable or from some
other source that enters the system.

The effect of this disturbance on the controlled variable is measured or

calculated. The effect the manipulated variable has on the controlled
variable must also be measured or calculated. These measurements
and/or calculations must include steady state effects as well as dynamic
effects (time related) and non-linearities. Feedforward controller FFC
(Figure 1) will receive the disturbance variable as an input and must
provide an output that results in an equal and opposite effect so as to
maintain the controlled variable at a constant value.

The output of feedforward controller FFC includes a bias component

required to match the uncontrolled variable as well as a "fudge factor"
component that changes in response to the disturbance variable. The
"fudge factor" must be the right amount and at the right time.

Given an exact model of the process, the feedforward controller will adjust
the manipulated variable so that the controlled variable is unaffected by
the disturbance. In fact, the controlled variable has no influence over the
control; corrective action is totally in response to the disturbance.

Each disturbance must be treated in the same way if the controlled

variable is to be held constant. Feedforward controller FFC may
accommodate more than one input.

Feedforward con roller FFC may be a simple relay device having a 4-20-
mA input from the disturbance variable transmitter and providing a 4-
20mA output for operating a valve in the manipulated variable line. It
would be unusual to find that the input and output relationship for
feedforward controller FFC had to be one to one and linear to compensate
for the disturbance. A gain and bias adjustment is always required to
match the manipulated variable to the uncontrolled and disturbance
variables. Additionally, it may require lead-lag elements, linearizers, non-
linearizers, and a summer.

However, this system has three major drawbacks:

 The model must be exact (including dynamics and nonlinearities).

 All instruments in the loop must be perfectly calibrated.
 Disturbances other than the feedforward variable are not
controlled.

Thus, feedforward by itself is insufficient control. However, combined with

conventional feedback, it can be a powerful control tool. If a load change
in a process occurs so frequently that the controller cannot keep up, or if
disturbance is so large that the controlled variable cannot be held within
tolerable limits, and if the disturbance variable itself cannot be controlled,
consider adding feedforward control to the system.

The system of Figure 2 can be viewed as separate feedforward and feedback control
independently adjusting the valve.

* The feedback controller does the same job and has the same responses and settings as if it were
acting alone. It just doesn't have as much work to do.

* The feedforward control cancels the effect of the measured disturbance. Since feedback acts as
the system's watchdog, the process model need not be exact. In fact, simple gain and lead-lag
elements will usually suffice.

• The effect of load changes other than the measured disturbance will be corrected by the
feedback system.

Feedforward and cascade control systems are often confused because of their similarities: two
measured variables, one manipulated variable, one independent set-point . But cascade systems
control both measured. variables, with the master determining the set-point of the slave. In
contrast, feedforward and feedback corrections independently adjust the control valve, and there
is no control applied to the feedforward variable.

Since feedforward control when used is almost always used with feedback control the Taylor
170OR Controller has a feedforward input port which allows the feedforward signal to be combined
with the controller output. Figure 3 shows this portion of the controller block diagram.
If the feedforward control requires only gain, bias or linearization (characterization) it can all be-
accomplished in the 1700R Controller used for feedback control. The feedforward controller
function FFC shown in Figure 2 , is all inside the feedback controller FBC, which makes for a simple
installation.. The disturbance signal is connected to an analog input which becomes the source for
the linearizer which is configured for the required gain, bias and/or characterization. This linearizer
channel is the feedforward variable source.

When the feedforward calculation is more complicated, also requiring lead-lag and additional
disturbance inputs, the whole calculation can be accomplished in a Taylor 1700N Math Unit which
may be connected. to the feedforward input of the 170OR Controller.

There are two choices on how the feedforward compensation signal combines with the feedback
controller output: Add and Multiply.

Add means the feedforward signal is added to the controller algorithm output on a one for one
basis. See Figure 4. If it is necessary to subtract, the feedforward input action should be reversed.
The feedforward input port will not accept a signal with reverse polarity.

Multiply means that the final output follows the equation:

where FF% is the feedforward input in percent and FB% is the output of the controller algorithm in
percent. The multiplying factor changes over a range of 0 to 2, with 1 at midrange. It does not
actually go to 0 since it has low cutoff at 0.01 See Figure 5.

This equation can be interpreted as the feedforward input being able to control the gain between
the controller algorithm output and the final output over a range of 0 to 2 or as the controller
algorithm output being able to control the gain between the feedforward input and the final output
over a range of 0 to 2.

The choice between Add or Multiply depends on what is required in the. control process This is
determined by making an analysis of how the manipulated variable must be adjusted in response
to the disturbance variable and what effect this adjustment has on the feedback control loop gain

In general, if a change in the disturbance variable has no effect on the loop gain, the feedforward
calculation should be Add. If a change in the disturbance variable does effect the loop gain the
feedforward calculation should be Multiply. However, the adaptive gain capability with the 1700R
controller provides another means for loop gain correction.

When the feedforward input signal joins the feedback controller output at the location shown in
Figure 3, output limiting, output tracking capability and bumpless transfer from any allowable
mode to feedforward or feedforward-feedback applies to the combined output.

To summarize, feedback control is the first choice and most commonly used type of control, but
when the controller must operate with low values of gain and reset for optimum settings,
disturbances can cause large upsets and the system may take a long time to recover.

Use feedforward control to accommodate the major disturbance; but it will be successful only if
the major disturbance can be sensed and a correction made quickly in the manipulated variable.

Feedforward control is most successful in applications where the feedback control loop is slow
responding and the feedforward path is fast responding.

Many industries utilize the cascade control system, like manufacturing industry and auto
industry. If you want to find out more, all it takes is a little online industry research to see if
 industries like the pharmaceutical industry use the same types of controls and mechanisms
as manufacturing plants.

Industrial controllers , basic theory

2.2 OPERATING PROCEDURE WITH FEEDFORWARD

Still considering the Taylor 1700R as a process controller

example here . The addition of feedforward may change the
operating procedure depending on what control modes are
made available to the operator. The modes required for the
application and made available are specified in the 'Allowed
Control Modes' configuration for the controller.

Usually feedforward control is used with feedback control. If

this is the only option required in addition to Manual, then the
Allowed Control Modes entry in the data base memory is
specified as M.B where B Feedforward-Feedback.

Whenever the operator pushes the AUTO/MODES pushbutton,

the controller will transfer from Manual to Feedforward-
Feedback control. When in this mode, two status indicators will
be on: FF and AUT. AUT is the same as feedback control.
Therefore, this combination, FF and AUT, indicates to the
operator that the loop is being controlled by feedforward-
feedback control .

Some applications require operating in other modes also.

Feedforward or feedforward-feedback cannot be used in
combination with cascade control., for example. The Allowed
Control Modes specified during controller configuration
determines what combinations of feedforward and feedback
can be used by the operator. If the feedforward control
application requires that the operator
 pH Control System

More complicated feedforward calculations can be made in a

1700N Math Unit if required.

Reagent flow F2 cracking of the variations in influent flow Fl

can be enhanced by adding flow control to F2 as shown in
Figure 6(c). Valve characteristics no longer enter into the
proper F2/Fl ratio consideration. The nominal design ratio F2/Fl
should be for a value of one since the midrange on the
multiplier in the feedforward calculation is 1. Full range is 0 to
2. Reagent flow F2 is now linear with the remote setpoint oil
controller FC2. A cascade system is formed whereby controller
pHC is the master and controller F2C is the slave. Feedforward
input Fl is combined with the output of pHC as shown in Figure
5. Usually the control modes required on controller pHC are
Manual, Auto, and Feedforward-Feedback. Controller FC2 may
require. Manual, Auto and Cascade .

Even though controller FCC is one instrument in a system that

uses feedforward control it is not the one on which feedforward
is applied. Therefore, the restriction that Cascade cannot be
used in combination with either feedforward or feedforward-
feedback mode does not apply.

Much simplified auto/cascade switching at the location of flow

controller FC2 can be provided with the addition of a signal to
be tracked and a track command as shown in Figure 7.
Figure FO-1 shows the complete system as it would be
installed with hard wiring between instruments. Hardwiring
might be used, for example, if the instruments were physically
separated by a distance greater than that allowed for
communications over the Instrument Communications Network
(ICN).

Process Example Template 6-1 applies to Figure FO-1 with its notations. Note that three pair of
wires are required between controller pHC and flow controller FC2.

Figure FO-2 shows the same system described above except that the wiring between the two
instruments is done with the ICN and requires only one pair of wire .

Process Example Template 6-2 applies to Figure 9 with its notations.

Figure 4. Break Points Determine Where Gain Will Start to Change, Process, Deviation or Remote
Input Adaptive Function .
Figure 5. Both Break Points Can Have Same Value, Process, Deviation or Remote Input Adaptive
Function

2.3.1.2 Gain Factors

The value of the gain factor determines if the active gain or reset will increase or decrease,
starting from the break points as shown in Figure 7.

If the gain factor is less than I (e.g., 0.875), the gain or reset will decrease. When the gain factor value
is 1, the gain or reset will not change. If the gain factor value is greater than 1 (e.g., 2.625), the gain or
reset will increase.

2.3 GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF ADAPTIVE GAIN OR RESET FUNCTIONS

2.3.1 Process, Deviation and Remote Input adaptive Gain or Reset functions

The parameters that define the adaptive algorithms for process, deviation and remote input
functions are set up in the same manner. A large combination of break points, gain factors and
active gain or reset limits can be used to provide many different adaptive algorithms. Because
each adaptive algorithm is set up individually, the number of overall controller algorithms is very
large. The adaptive functions can be on gain or reset, but not on both simultaneously.

2.3.1.1 Break Points

The location of the break points determines where the gain or reset will start to change as a
function of-the adaptive variable as shown in Figure 4. The gain or reset value between the break
points is the base gain or base reset and never changes. Both break points can be located at the
same range value as shown in Figure 5, or they may be set at different values as shown in Figure
6. When the two break points are set at different values, Figure 6, BP1 must be at a lower range
value than BP2. The active gain or reset between the two break points is equal to the base gain or
reset (because the gain factor is always 1 between the two break points), while the active gain or
reset beyond the break points changes as determined by the gain factors.
Figure 6. Break Points Can Have Different Values, Process, Deviation or Remote Input Adaptive
Function

Figure 7. Gain Factor Values Determine if Gain or Reset Rat Will Increase or Decrease From Break
Points, Process, Deviation or Remote Input Adaptive Function.

Both gain factors can increase, both can decrease, or either gain factor can increase while the
other decreases active gain or reset. The combinations of gain factors and break points can be
used to produce a large variety of algorithms.. Some of the possibilities are shown in Figure 8.

The gain factor values are multipliers. The base gain or reset is multiplied by the gain factor for
the adaptive gain or reset function. The result is the value of active gain or reset at one, and only
one, point on the range. This point, Figure 9, will be 10% downscale from BPI or 10% upscale from
BOB, and it establishes the slope of the line in the algorithm.
 .

Figure 8 . Various combinations of Breakpoints and Gain Factors that can be used to produce a
Large Variety of Algorithms , Process , Deviations or Remote Input Adaptive Functions .
Figure 9 . Gain Factors Establish Slope of Algorithm beyond Break Points , Process , Deviations or
Remote Input Adaptive Function .
Function of automatic control .

The basic idea of a feedback control loop is most easily understood by imagining
what an operator would have to do if automatic control did not exist.

Figure I shows a common application of automatic control found in many

industrial plants, a heat exchanger which uses steam to heat cold water. In
manual operation, the amount of steam entering the heat exchanger depends on
the air pressure to the valve which is set on the manual regulator. To control the
temperature manually, the operator would watch the indicated temperature, and
by comparing it with the desired temperature, be would open or close the valve to
admit more or less steam . When the temperature had reached the desired
value, the operator would simply hold that output to the valve to keep the
temperature constant. Under automatic control, the temperature controller
performs the same function. The measurement signal to the controller from the
temperature transmitter is continuously compared to the set point signal entered
into the controller. Based on a comparison of the signals, the automatic controller
can tell whether the measurement signal is above or below the setpoint and
move the valve accordingly until the measurement (temperature) comes to its
final value.

The feedback loop .

This simple feedback control loop serves to illustrate the four major elements of
any feedback control loop
(figure 2).
 The measurement

Measurement must be made to indicate the current value of the variable

controlled by the loop. Common measurements used in industry include flow
rate, pressure, level, temperature, analytical measurements such as pH, ORP
and conductivity and many others particular to specific industries.

The final actuator

For every process there must be some final actuator, which regulates the supply
of energy or material to the process and changes the measurement signal. Most
often this is some kind of valve, but it might also be a belt or motor speed, louver
position, etc.

The process

The kinds of processes found in industrial plants are as varied as the materials they produce.
They range from the simple and commonplace, such as loops to control flow rate, to the large
and complex such as distillation columns in the petro-chemical industry.

The automatic controller

The last element of the loop is the automatic controller. Its job is to control the measurement.
To "control" means to keep the measurement within acceptable limits. In this article, the
mechanisms inside the automatic controller will not be considered. Therefore, the principles to
be discussed can be applied equally well to both pneumatic and electronic controllers and to
the controllers from any manufacturer. All automatic controllers use the same general
responses, although the internal mechanisms and the definitions given for these responses
may be slightly different from one manufacturer to another.

One basic concept is that for the automatic feedback control to exist, the automatic control
loop must be closed. This means that information must be continuously passed around the
loop. The controller must be able to move the valve, the valve must be able to affect the
measurement, and the measurement signal must be reported to the controller. If this path is
broken at any point, the loop is said to be open. As soon as the loop is opened, as for
example, when the automatic controller is placed on manual, the automatic unit in the
controller is no longer able to move the valve. Thus signals from the controller in response to
changing-measurement conditions do not affect the valve and automatic control does not
exist.

CONTROLLING THE PROCESS

In performing the control function, the automatic controller uses the difference between the
set point and measurement signals to develop the output signal to the valve. The accuracy
and responsiveness of these signals is a basic limitation on the ability of the controller to
correctly control the measurement. If the transmitter does not send an accurate signal, or if
there is a lag in the measurement signal, the ability of the controller to manipulate the process
will be degraded. At the same time, the controller must receive an accurate set point signal. In
controllers using pneumatic or electronic set point signals generated within the controller,
miscalibration of the set point transmitter will necessarily result in the automatic control unit in
the controller bringing the measurement to the wrong value. The ability of the controller to
accurately position the valve is yet another limitation. If there is friction in the valve, the
controller may not be able to move the valve to a specific stem position to produce a specific
flow and this will show up as a difference between measurement and set point. Repeated
attempts to exactly position the valve may lead to hunting in the valve and in the
measurement. or, if the controller is only able to move the valve very slowly, the ability of the
controller to control the process will he degraded. One way to improve the response of control
valves is to use a valve positioner, which acts as a feedback controller to position the valve at
the exact position corresponding the controller output signal. Positioners, however, should be
avoided in favor of volume boosters on fast responding loops such as flow arid liquid
pressure.

To control the process, the change in output from the controller must be in such a direction as
to oppose any change in the measurement value.
Figure 3 shows a direct connected valve to control level in a tank at midscale. As the level in
the tank rises, the float acts to reduce the flow rate coming in thus, the higher the liquid level
the more the flow will be shut off. In the same way, as the level falls, the float will open up the
valve to add more liquid to the tank. The response of this system is shown graphically.

As the level goes from 0% to 100%, the valve goes from fully open to fully closed. The function of an
automatic controller is to produce this kind of opposing response over varying ranges; in addition, other
responses are available to more efficiently control the process.