PHARMACEUTICS-I

UNIT - 2ND

CHAPTER -1PHARMACEUTICAL CALCULATION

CHAPTER -2 POWDERS

CHAPTER-3 LIQUID DOSAGE FORM

 CHAPTER-1

• Pharmaceutical Calculations:-
Weight and
Measures — Imperial and Metric system,
Calculation involving percentage solutions,
(Allegation, Proof spirit and Isotonic
solutions based on freezing points and
Molecular weights.

• Pharmaceutical calculation is one of the

most important area of study in pharmacy,
because
➢it helps in preparing and dispensing
medications.
➢it helps during analysis, to prepare
chemicals or to finding results.
➢An error made in dosage (calculation)
can harm a patient.

• Weights and Measures

During analysis, ingredients or substances are

calculated and measured accurately for
preparing compounds. so, the substances are
calculated in the form of weight.
• There are two system for weight and
measure:-
1 The imperial system –(old);
2 The Metric System – (modern)

1). Imperial system →

It is a very old system of weight and measures.

o It is firstly defined in British weights and measure

act, 1824)
o It is not used to much. even in United states,

o In 1970s, this system was replaced by metric

system.
It is of two types
1 Avoirdupoic System →
It is used for commercial supply
of bulk chemicals or other substances.
• Ounces/pounds are used as a standard units.
10z = 437.5 gr (grain)
1lb = 160z (7000 gr)
pound avoid ounce

2 Apothecaries System:-
It was the used by physicians
first system to be and pharmacists
for measurement.
• this system originated ind Greece

• pints, quarts and gallons are used as units of

volumes
• Grains (gr) is taken us standard of weight.

For Weight;
1pound apoth (lb) = 12 ounce
(z) 1 ounce = 8 drachmas / dram(z) 480 gr
1 dram = 3 scruples or 60 grains
1scruples= 20 mans
(Lb) 1 pound = 5760: grains

For volumes;
gallon = 4 quarts (8 pint)
(qt) 1 quart = 2_ pint (pt) or 32 fluidounce
1 fluid ounce = 8 fluid drachms
1 fluid 1 fluid drachm= 3 fluid scruples / 60 minims
1 fluid scruples = 20 minims

2) Metric System →

It is created in France in 1799,

It is widely used system, used for measurement of
weight and volumes. It includes units Meter ,litre
grams.
o It is basically a decimal system in which the

division and multiplication is done by 10.

o Kg (kilogram) is taken as standard units.

1 Kilogram (Kg) = 1000 grams (gm)

1 hectogram (ng) = 100 grams
1 dekagram (ag) = 10 grams
1 decigram (dcg) = 10 or 0.1 gram
1 centigram (Cg) = 100 or 001 gram
1 milligram (mg) = 11000 or 0.001 gram
1 microgram (ug) = 0.000001 gram
nanogram (ng) = 0-00.0000000001

1 gram=
0.00(1kg)
0.010 (hectrogram)
0.100 (dekagram)
10 (decigram)
100 (centigram)
1000 (miligram)
1000000 (mircogram)

• Metric Volume
1 kilolitre (KL) =1000 L (litre)
1 Litre (L) =1000 millititte (ml)
1 Litre (L) =1, 000,000 ML (microlibe

• Metric length
1 Km = 1000 mi(mire)
1m =1000 mm (millimetre)
1m =100 cm (centimete)
1 cm. = 10(mm)
• Conversion table:-
For weight.
1 kg = 22 lb.
1 oz = 30 g
1 lb = 450 mg
1 grain = 65 mg
For volume
1 drop = 0.06 ml
1 teaspoon = 5 (ml)
1 tablet-spoonful = 15 ml
1 teacupful = 120 ml

Calculation Involving Percentage Solutions;-

• Percentage → It means "parts per hundred"

It can be expressed as %
• 10 percent → 10% 10/100 (10 parts Per 100 parts.)
• to make percentage, we hove to multiply it with 100.

• During analysis, we have to compound sol" of

desired
percentage strength.
It is of three types:-
i) Weight in Volume percent (w/V)
ii) Weight percent (W/W)
iii) Volume percent (V/V)

i) weight in Volume percent% w/v=

weight of solute (in gram)/1Volume of solution (in m1)
)×100%
In this, the solute lighed and the solvent is measured.

ii) weight in weight solutions (w/w%)

In this, the solute and the solvent are measured by weight
weight of solute
Weight percent (w/w) =Weight of solute/weight of solution x
100%

ili) Volume by Volume Solution (% V/V)

In this, the solute and solvent are measured by volume
Volume of solute
Volume percent (V/v) =Volume of solute /Volume of solution
× 100%

ALLEGATION
It is a method,
when the calculation involves mixing of two similar preparation of
different strength to produce a preparation"
if intermediate strength.
Example 70% alcohol + 50% alcohol → 60% alcohol. so,find the
amount of use Alcohol used.

stronger percentage. Required low

Required percentage

Lower percentage Hight required

Volume of alcohol = Volume required x % required / total

percentage used

Examples:
Calculate the amount of 95% alcohol required to prepare
600ml of 25% in water

95%. 25-0= 25 parts of 95%

25%

0%. 95-25 = 70 parts of water

Volume of alcohol = 600 x 25. =. 3000. = 157.89 158ml
95 19

Example 2
Calculate the amount of 70% 60% 40% and 30% alcohol that
should be mixed to get 50% alcohol?
70. 50-30= 20 parts of 70%
60. 50% 50-40= 10 parts of 60%
40. 60-50= 10 parts of 40%
30. 70-50= 20 parts of 70%

By mixing these parts, we will produce 50% alcohol

PROOF SPIRIT
It is the mixture of alcohol and water, in which the alcohol
strength is generally Calculated in terms of proof spirit.

• It is used for the purpose of excise duty ie. Tax on alcohol

•In the U.S.A. 50%. by volume ) (C2H5 (alcohol)is considered to be 100 proof.
• But in India, 57.1 volumes of c2H5OH ( alcohol)
are considered equal to 100 volume of proof spirit
This means that "any alcoholic solution that contain 57.17. V/v alcohol is a
proof of spirit
57.1 ml alcohol in 100 ml of water

100° proof spirit = 57.1% v/v alcohol

• It is of two types:-

1)If the strength of alcohol is more than 57.1% then it is called over proof.
2)if the strength of alcohol is less than 57.1% then it is called under proof.

Conversion;-
conversion of proof spirit into percentage or conversion of percentage in to
proof

Isotonic solutions;-
These are those solution in which the solute concentration of one solution is same as
a the solute concentration of another solution

ISOTONIC
ISO + TONIC
(Same) (Concentration of solute in solution)
Eg - 0.9% v/v solution of Nacl
o The concept of isotonicity is used during preparation of medicaments i.
Fluid for body.
• Because, it the tonicity of these medicament: is different than blood or
body fluids, then they cause imitation. Or maybe serious damage

• It is of three types: -
1) Hypertonic Solution → If the solute concentration of
solution is greater than 0.9% Nacl solution.
2) Isotonic Solution → When the solute concentration of
any solution is equal to 0.9% Nacl solution.
3)Hypotonic Solution → When the solute concentration of
solution is less than 0.9% Nacl solution.

Method of adjusting tonicity:-

If the tonicity of solution is not isotonic, then we have to make it isotonic.

By using two methods:-

1) Freezing point method
2) Molecular weight method

1)Freezing point method:-

This method is basically used
for hypotonic solution.
In this, sodium chloride (adjusting solution) is added in sol
to make it isotonic.

W% = 0.52 – a/b
Where,
w= amount of adjusting substance make isotonic
a= freezing of 1% solution of unadjusted sol"
b= freezing point of 1% sol of adjusting sol.
freezing point of blood = freezing point of drug + freezing point of
adjusting substances.

Eg:- find the concentration of Nacl required to make 15% sol of boric acid
isotonic with blood.
Fp of bric acid →- 0.29°C. Fp of nacl = (-0.58°c)

Answer- W= 0.52 - (0.29x1.5) = 0.52-0.43= 0.09

0.58 0.58 0.58

=0.15% or 015g in 100ml require

( 2) Molecular weight Method

This method is basically used for hypertonic solution.

% of adjusting substance (W) = 0•03M
→ N
where, M= Gram molecular weight of substance
N= No. of ions into which the substance is: ionised
.

Example
find the concentration of Nacl required too produce a sol isotonic with blood
Plasma?

Molecular weight of Nacl = 58.5

ions = Nacl →Na+ cl
%W = 003×58.5 = 0.88% or 0.9%

9gram nacl dissolved in 1000ml

CHAPTER-2.
 POWDERS

• SYLLABUS: -
• Definition, classification,Advantage and
Disadvantages Simple and Compound powder,
official preparation,Dusting, effErvescent
,Efflorecent , tulectis
Hygroscopic, Geometric dilution.

Powder
Definition : pharmaceutical powder is a solid dosage form of
medicament which are meant for internal and external use. It is a
mixture of finely divided drug particles and Chemicals in drug form

ADVANTAGES:

o It is used both internally and externally.

 o They are more stable.
o Easy to handle and store.
o less change of incompatibility.
o Physician prescribed according to the patient need
o They do not need any special machinery and techniques.
o Easy to transportation.
o More economic.

DISADVANTAGES:

o Time consuming process.

o It has bitter, unpleasent) taste.
o It gives slow response than liquid dosage form.
o Easily affected by atmospheric conditions.
o Difficult to weigh less amount.

CLASSIFICATION:-
Powder are of two types which are as follows :-

Divided Powder
i) Simple powder ii). Compound powder

Bulk powder

i). Dusting powder ii). Effervescent powder. iïi). Dentifrices

iv)Insufflations V). Douche powder vi). Snuffs.

DIVIDED POWDER!
These are unit dose powders normally packed Properly.

1)Simple Powder
These are those type of powder which contain only one ingredient.
which are packed in a folded paper and dispensed in small plastic bags.
The powder should not be less than 100 mg
Example: Aspirin

Aspirin Make powder 300mg

Procedure:
 • Powder the aspirin
• weigh accurately required quantity of aspirin.
• weigh 300mg of aspirin for each wrap.

Direction:

One powder to be taken after every 8 hours.

2)Compound Powder;
These are those type of powder which contain more than one ingredient
and are mixed together then divided into desired no. of individual dose.
eq: - A.P.C
Aspirin 300mg
Paracetamol 150mg
Caffeine 50mg
Make a powder

Procedure:

• Powder each ingredient

• weigh accurately each ingredient
• Mix them in ascending order of their weight.
• Weigh 500mg of mixed powder for each wrap.
• Wrap in paper then packed

BULK POWDER:

These are those type of powder which are Store or dispensed in bulk form
powder are delivered in large quantity.

•They are mainly dispense in wide- mouth container. It contain non- potent
substance Like. Antacids, Laxatives, Purgatives.

i)Dusting Powder:
These are those powders which are meant for external application the skin for
local action.
• They are applied in very fine state to avoid local irritation. eg:- Salicylic acid

Properties;
o Not produce any local irritation.
o It should be freely flowing.
 o It should have good absorption and absorption capacity.
o It should be homogenous.
o It provide protection to the skin.
o Good spread-ability and covering capacity..

Purified talc. Sterilised. 500mg

Starch powder. 25mg
Zinc oxide powder. 20mg
Salicylic acid powder. 5gm

Labelling:
For external use only.

Direction:
Applied on the affected part two or three times a day.

Procedure:

• weigh accurately all the powders.

• Mix them in ascending order of their weight.
• Passed them mixed powder through sieve no. 05/or 120
• Mix them lightly transfer of the container.
• Protect it form atmospheric contamination.

ii› Effervescent Powder:

These are those powder which produce effervescence i.e. release Coz. It
contain medicament API mixed with acid and base which react together and it
produce CO2. eg:- ENO, Aspirin etc...
Advantages:
o It enhance the absorption of drug.
o It improved much stability.
o It is used to conceal the abnoxious taste of certain drugs.
o The effervescent salts exert a positive psychological effect on Patients

Procedure:
1).Heat Method
Mixed all the constituents with 15-20% of acid ingredient. (citric acid).

o Heat the mixture at 100°C on water bat

o Water released from citric acid moistens the Powder.
o Resulting in production of powder granules,

2). Wet Method

After moistened the citric acid mixed with Sodium bicarbonate.

o Granulator is employed to obtain granules.

iii) Dentifrices:
These are those substance which are meant for external use and applied with
the help of tooth brush for cleaning the surface of teeth. They are available as
tooth powder, tooth pastes, liquid and gels.
eg: Saccharine sodium, fluoride toothpaste etc...

Iv) Insufflation:
These are those powder which are meant for introduce into the body cavity
and inhalation by nose with the help of insufflators
o sprays the powder into a stream of finely divided particles all over the
site of application.
eg:- Nitrous oxide anaesthesia etc...

V) Snuffs Powder:
These are those powder substance which are inhaled into the nostrils for its
antiSeptic action. They mainly for the patients suffering from bronchial asthma
due to bronchodilators action they dispensed in flat metal boxes with hinged
lid
eg: Vicks inhaler, Asthma pump inhaler etc...

Vi) Douche Powder

These are those powder substance which are applied in body cavity) for
antiseptic and cleaning action. Its main aim is to cleaning vaginal problems.
Eg :- Boric acid.

STABILITY PROBLEM

These are some stability problems which are face in preparation of powders.
1. Efflorecent Powder
2. Hydroscopic Powder
3. Eutectic Mixture

1)Efflorecent Powder:
These are those substance which loses wake to form a lower hydrate or
become anhydrous is termed as efflorescent.

Present in form of crystals granules

Example: Sodium Carbonate Na,CO3.

2)Hydroscopic Powders :
These are those powders which absorb moisture from the atmosphere are
called Hygroscopic powders.

Example: Ammonium chloride, Pepsin, Nacl etc...

3) Eutectic Mixture:
It is the Mixture of two solid Particles in which their melting point is reduced
due to mixing, and the mixture is converted into liquid form at room
temperature (normal temperature).

Example: methyl – Thymol powders (Mixture)

GEOMETRIC DILUTION

It the method of preparation of drugs. which is basically used for potent drug
substances.
In this method, the patent drug substances is mixed with large quantity of
diluents (excipients).

Now, in this. Powders are prepared in a following way:-

1. firstly take less and small quantity of drug
2.Now, 200mg mixture mix with equal amount of diluents.
200mg mixture + 200mg diluents → 400mg mixtures.

3. Follow further step in same way:

400mg mixtures + 400 mg diluents →800mg mixtures

4. 800mg mixtures + Remaining portion of diluents

1000 mg of drugs
CHAPTER -3
LIQUID DOSAGE FORM

SYLLABUS:
Advantages and disadvantages
of liquid dosage form, Excipients
used in formulation of liquid
dosage form, Solubility
Enhancement techniques.

Liquid dosage form

Definition:
"These are those dosage form in which solution are in liquid form which are
meant for internal, external or parenteral use. It contain one or more soluble
chemical substance in which solvent is used as a liquid. It has maximum
therapeutic response.

Liquid dosage form= Solute + Solvent

➢ Solute = it can be solid
➢ Solvent=which is in liquid form

- It is divided into two parts which are :-

i). Monophasic ii). Biphasic

i). Monophasic:-

It is represented by a true solution. It is a clear homogenous mixture which is

prepared by dissolving solute in a suitable solvent. It is consist of single
phase either aqueous or non- aqueous solvents as the base.

Example. Solutions, water etc...

ii)Biphasic:-
These are those dosage form which contain two phase which are immiscible
each other.
Example - Emulsion, Suspension.
Advantage

➢ It is easier to swallow., cheap.

➢ More satisfactory and Convenient.
➢ Suitable for child and old people.
➢ Reduce gastric irritation.
➢ The drug in solution is uniformly distributed

Disadvantage

➢ Sorter life before expiration than other dosage forms.

➢ More difficult to administer. (i.v.i.m)
➢ Harder to measure accurately.
➢ May be special storage requirements.
➢ Less stable.
➢ Chance of microbial contamination is high.

Excipient used in formation of liquid dosage form.

Excipient are used in a preparation of drug dosage form to make bulk.
Excipient have little or no therapeutic value but they are used in the
preparation and compounding of several pharmaceutical formulations. They
are as following:
1. Sweetening agent
2. Vehicles
3. Antioxidants
4. Buffer
5. Flavours
6. Preservative

1. Sweetening Agent
These are those substance which are added to a drug formulation to mask its
bitter test and make dosage form sweet.

Sugar is the most widely used natural sweetener.

eq:- Sucrose, sorbitol, mannitol, Honey etc...

2. Vehicles
These are the solvents which are required in the preparation of liquid dosage
form.
➢ They work as a solvents.
➢ They are of two types.

i)Aqueous liquid
ii)Non- Aqueous liquid
Aqueous Liquid :-These are water soluble which are used for those drugs
which are soluble in aqueous solvents.
Example:- Water, Aromatic Water, Syrups etc...

Non- Aqueous Liquid:- These are water in-soluble which are used for those
drugs which are insoluble or unstable in aqueous solvents.

Example :- Oils, Alcohol, Liquid paraffin, Glycerol etc...

3. Antioxidants:-
These are those substances which prevent he oxidation of liquid dosage form
which can bi oxidised through environment air/02.
- It required to maintain the product stability.
Example :- Ascorbic acid, Propionic acid.

(Antioxidants) - react with there 02 is prevent Liquid dosage form.

4. flavours:-
flavouring agents is used to mask the taste. It cannot be used in paediatric
products.
Example- Menthol, Chloroform etc...

5.Preservative:-
These are those chemicals which is used to Prevent the growth of micro-
organism in solution.
They prolong the shelf-life of the product.

eg:- Phenol, Chlorocrasol, Sorbic acid.

6. Buffers:
A buffers solutions is one which maintain its ph fairly constant even upon the
addition of small amount of acid or base.

They are of two types:-

i)Acidic buffer .

ii)Basic buffer .

eg:- phosphates, citrates, acetates etc...

➢ Solubility Enhancement Techniques.

These are those techniques which are used to increase the solubility of any
drug/solute, if their solubility is less in aqueous medium.
- for increase solubility, there are various techniques:-
1. pH Change
2. Co- solvent
3. Particle size reduction.
4. Solid dispersion.
5. Hydro trophy method.
6. complexation.
7. pH

1)pH Change:

A solubility of poorly soluble drug that is

Either weak base of weak acid may altered by
adjusting the Ph of the solution.

pH adjustment for improving the solubility in two ways :-

i)Salt formation
ii)Addition of buffer to the formulation.

2)Co- Solvent:

It is a technique to increase the solubility of poorly soluble drug in a liquid,

• By using co-solvent we can increase the solubility of poorly soluble

drugs

Example: - 2- Pyrrolidine
- Propylene glycol

3). Particle size reduction:

The solubility of a product is also depend on a particle size. So by decreasing

the article size we can increase the solubility of Product.

• Particle size less → Surface area more→ Solubility more

- Particle size can be reduced by using micro-ionisation, nano-suspension

etc.../ reduction. -(grinding).
4). Solid disperssion

In solid dispersion, A poorly soluble drug drug dispersed in a highly (soluble)

solid hydrophilic matrix which enhance the solubility.
eq:- Hydrophilic carrier.

5). Hydrotropy

In this method, By adding large amount of secondary (solute increase the

aqueous solubility of water insoluble drug.

Example Solubilisation of theophylline with sodium benzoate or sodium

acetate.

6). Complexation

It is a process of association of two or more molecules to form a non-bonded

entity.
- It is used to improve bioavailability of poorly Soluble drug.
Example :- Chelates - EDTA.

SUBMITTED BY
AJIT SINGH
NIU-24-20371