1) Periodic Properties:

These are properties of elements that vary in a predictable manner across the periodic table.
Examples include atomic radius, ionization energy, electron affinity, and electronegativity. These
properties repeat periodically as a result of the arrangement of elements by increasing atomic
number.

2) Covalent Radius:

The covalent radius is half the distance between the nuclei of two identical atoms joined by a
covalent bond. It indicates the size of an atom involved in a covalent bond.

3) Metallic Radius:

The metallic radius is half the distance between the nuclei of two adjacent atoms in a metallic
lattice. It reflects the size of an atom when it is part of a metallic structure.

4) Van der Waals Radius:

The Van der Waals radius is half the distance between two non-bonded atoms when they are
closest to each other. It represents the size of an atom when it is not involved in any chemical
bonding.

5) Effective Nuclear Charge:

The effective nuclear charge is the net positive charge experienced by an electron in an atom. It
is calculated by subtracting the shielding effect of inner electrons from the total nuclear charge. It
affects the attraction between the nucleus and the outermost electrons.

6) Ionization Energy:

Ionization energy is the amount of energy required to remove an electron from a gaseous atom or
ion. It is a measure of how strongly an atom holds onto its electrons.

7) Second Ionization Energy:

The second ionization energy is the energy required to remove a second electron from an already
ionized atom (after the first electron has been removed). It is typically higher than the first
ionization energy due to increased effective nuclear charge on the remaining electrons.

8) Electron Affinity:

Electron affinity is the amount of energy released when an electron is added to a neutral atom in
the gaseous state to form a negative ion. It reflects the atom’s ability to gain an electron.
9) Electronegativity:

Electronegativity is the tendency of an atom to attract a bonding pair of electrons when it is part
of a compound. Higher electronegativity means a stronger attraction for electrons.

10) Atomic Radius:

The atomic radius is the distance from the center of the nucleus to the outermost electron shell. It
gives an indication of the size of the atom.

11) Valency:

Valency is the number of chemical bonds an atom can form based on the number of electrons in
its outermost shell. It determines how an element will bond with others.

12) Oxygen Valency:

Oxygen typically has a valency of 2 because it can form two bonds by gaining two electrons to
complete its outer shell.

13) Hydrogen Valency:

Hydrogen has a valency of 1, as it can form one bond by sharing or losing its one electron to
achieve a stable configuration.

Comprehensive-Based Question 1:

Q: Ionization energy of N is more than O. Explain.

A: The ionization energy of nitrogen (N) is higher than that of oxygen (O) due to electron
configuration and electron-electron repulsion effects. Nitrogen has a half-filled 2p orbital
configuration ([He] 2s² 2p³), which is particularly stable because of symmetric electron
distribution. In contrast, oxygen has one more electron than nitrogen ([He] 2s² 2p⁴), causing
electron-electron repulsion in the doubly occupied 2p orbital. This increased repulsion in oxygen
makes it easier to remove an electron, resulting in a lower ionization energy for oxygen
compared to nitrogen.

Comprehensive-Based Question 2:

Q: Ionization energy of P is more than S. Explain.

A: Phosphorus (P) has a higher ionization energy than sulfur (S) due to the stability of its half-
filled 3p orbital. Phosphorus has the electron configuration [Ne] 3s² 3p³, where the 3p orbital is
half-filled, making it relatively stable. On the other hand, sulfur has one more electron ([Ne] 3s²
3p⁴), which results in additional electron-electron repulsion in the doubly occupied p orbital. This
repulsion makes it easier to remove an electron from sulfur, giving it a lower ionization energy
than phosphorus.
Comprehensive-Based Question 3:

Q: Ionization energy of Mg is more than Al. Explain.

A: The ionization energy of magnesium (Mg) is higher than that of aluminum (Al) due to the
electronic configuration and shielding effect. Magnesium has the electron configuration [Ne] 3s²,
while aluminum has [Ne] 3s² 3p¹. The electron in the 3p orbital of aluminum is at a higher
energy level and experiences more shielding from the nucleus by the 3s electrons. This makes it
easier to remove the 3p electron from aluminum, leading to a lower ionization energy compared
to magnesium.

Comprehensive-Based Question 4:

Q: Electron affinity of Cl is more than F. Explain.

A: Chlorine (Cl) has a higher electron affinity than fluorine (F) due to its larger atomic size and
less electron-electron repulsion in its outer shell. Although fluorine is more electronegative, its
small size causes high electron-electron repulsion in the compact 2p orbitals. This repulsion
reduces the energy released when fluorine gains an electron. In contrast, chlorine’s larger 3p
orbital can accommodate the extra electron with less repulsion, resulting in a higher electron
affinity.

Comprehensive-Based Question 5:

Q: Explain the order of electron affinity of F, Cl, Br, and I.

A: The electron affinity decreases down the group: Cl > F > Br > I. Chlorine has the highest
electron affinity due to its optimal balance of size and nuclear charge. Fluorine, despite being
more electronegative, has lower electron affinity than chlorine because of the high repulsion in
its small 2p orbital. Bromine and iodine have even lower electron affinities due to their larger
sizes and the greater distance between the added electron and the nucleus, which reduces the
attraction.

Comprehensive-Based Question 6:

Q: Radius of which ion is more between Na⁺ and F⁻? Explain.

A: The radius of F⁻ is larger than that of Na⁺. Both ions have the same electron configuration
(isoelectronic: 1s² 2s² 2p⁶), but fluorine has fewer protons (9) than sodium (11). This means that
the effective nuclear charge experienced by the electrons in F⁻ is lower than in Na ⁺, resulting in
less attraction between the nucleus and the outer electrons, causing F⁻ to have a larger radius
than Na⁺.

Comprehensive-Based Question 7:

Q: Analyze the nature of the oxide of 2nd and 3rd period elements.

A: The nature of oxides of 2nd and 3rd period elements varies depending on their position in the
periodic table:

 2nd Period Elements:

o Oxides of elements from lithium (Li) to beryllium (Be) are basic.
o Oxides of elements like boron (B) are amphoteric.
o Oxides of carbon (C), nitrogen (N), and oxygen (O) are acidic.
 3rd Period Elements:
o Oxides of sodium (Na) and magnesium (Mg) are basic.
o Oxides of aluminum (Al) are amphoteric.
o Oxides of silicon (Si), phosphorus (P), sulfur (S), and chlorine (Cl) are acidic.
This trend is due to the increasing electronegativity and nonmetallic character of elements as we
move across a period from left to right.

Applied Higher Order Based Question 1:

Q: Between N and O, which is smaller in size? Explain.

A: Nitrogen (N) is larger in size compared to oxygen (O). This is because, within the same
period, as you move from left to right across the periodic table, the atomic number increases,
leading to a higher nuclear charge. The higher nuclear charge in oxygen pulls its electrons closer
to the nucleus, reducing its atomic size. Hence, oxygen is smaller than nitrogen.

Applied Higher Order Based Question 2:

Q: Na⁺ is formed, but Na²⁺ is not formed. Why?

A: Sodium (Na) forms a Na⁺ ion by losing one electron from its 3s orbital, which results in a
stable, noble gas configuration (1s² 2s² 2p⁶). If sodium were to lose another electron to form
Na²⁺, the electron would have to be removed from the fully stable and closed 2p orbital, which
requires a significantly higher amount of energy. This makes the formation of Na²⁺ highly
unfavorable, both energetically and chemically.

Applied Higher Order Based Question 3:

Q: First ionization energy of Mg is +738 kJ/mol, but its second ionization energy is +1450
kJ/mol. Explain.

A: The second ionization energy of magnesium (Mg) is significantly higher than the first
because the first ionization removes an electron from the 3s orbital, leading to the stable [Ne]
configuration. Once Mg⁺ is formed, removing another electron requires disrupting this stable
noble gas configuration, which involves much more energy. Therefore, the second ionization
energy is much higher than the first.

Applied Higher Order Based Question 4:

Q: Ionization energy of Be is more than B. Explain.

A: Beryllium (Be) has a higher ionization energy than boron (B) due to the electron
configuration. Beryllium has a full 2s² orbital, which is relatively stable, whereas boron has a 2p¹
electron. The 2p¹ electron in boron is easier to remove because it is less tightly bound compared
to the fully filled 2s orbital in beryllium. As a result, the ionization energy of beryllium is higher.

Applied Higher Order Based Question 5:

Q: Fluorine is the most electronegative element—Explain why.

A: Fluorine is the most electronegative element due to its small atomic size and high effective
nuclear charge. Its electrons are very close to the nucleus, and the high nuclear charge exerts a
strong attraction on the bonding pair of electrons. This makes fluorine highly effective at
attracting electrons in a chemical bond, leading to its position as the most electronegative
element.

Applied Higher Order Based Question 6:

Q: Al₂O₃ is an amphoteric oxide. Explain.

A: Al₂O₃ (aluminum oxide) is amphoteric, meaning it can react both as an acid and a base. This
is due to the intermediate nature of aluminum, which is a metal but has some non-metallic
properties. As a result, Al₂O₃ can react with acids (acting as a base) to form aluminum salts and
with bases (acting as an acid) to form aluminates. This dual behavior defines its amphoteric
nature.

Applied Higher Order Based Question 7:

Q: Explain the order of electron affinity of C, N, and O.

A: The order of electron affinity is O > C > N. Oxygen has the highest electron affinity because
it needs just one more electron to complete its octet, and it is highly electronegative. Carbon
comes next, as it has a moderate tendency to gain an electron. Nitrogen has a lower electron
affinity because it has a half-filled p orbital, which is relatively stable, making it less likely to
accept an additional electron.

Applied Higher Order Based Question 8:

Q: How does ionization energy change across a period in the periodic table? Explain.

A: Ionization energy generally increases across a period from left to right. This is because, as
you move across a period, the atomic number increases, leading to a higher nuclear charge,
which pulls the electrons closer to the nucleus. The increased nuclear attraction makes it more
difficult to remove an electron, thus increasing the ionization energy. Additionally, the atomic
radius decreases, which also contributes to the increase in ionization energy.

Applied Higher Order Based Question 9:

Q: Compare electron affinity and electronegativity.

A:

 Electron Affinity is the amount of energy released when an atom in the gas phase
accepts an electron to form a negative ion. It measures how much an atom "wants" to
gain an electron.
 Electronegativity is the tendency of an atom to attract a bonding pair of electrons in a
molecule. It reflects how strongly an atom pulls on electrons in a covalent bond. While
both properties relate to an atom's tendency to attract electrons, electron affinity is a
measurable energy change for an isolated atom, whereas electronegativity is a qualitative
measure of attraction in a bond.