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jG Tnp El,rBncENCE oF THE \ftt-soNraNl MoN,{nbIr

of Germany were little more than "pawns and tools" in Berlin's hands. Tlre
American peopleharbored no ill will toward them, only feelingsof "sympathy
and friendship," and had Germany been a self-governingnation there would
have beenno war. Now, the United Stateshad to enter the fray to fight for its
long-tirne fundamental values: "for democracy, for the right of those who
submit to authority to have a voice in their own governments,for the rights
and liberties of small nations."a Again, Wilson explicitly cast himself and
America as defendersof the weak against the powerful, of cornmon folk
against autocratic regimes,of srnall nations againstgreat powers.
The presidentdevoted specialpraise in his messageto the recent demo-
cratic revolution in Russia,speakingin glowing terms of the Russianpeople's
toppling of the Romanov autocracy and the establishmentof a democratic
government.It seemeda perfectilh-rstrationof the worldwide trend away frotn
rule by fiat and toward governmentby consentthat would, he said, definethe
postwar world and would henceforth undergird the preservationof interna-
ticlnal peace.The Russianpeople, "in all their naive rnajestyand might," had
joined the forcesthat were "fighting for freedom in the world, for justice,and
for peace" and could now assumetheir rightful place in the international
partnership of self-governingpeoples.tIn a note he sent in late May to the
provisional governmentof Russia,Tililsonreiteratedthat message,assuringthe
new government that the United Stateswas "fighting for the liberty, the self-
government, and the undictated development of all peoples." Moreover, he
was not merely interestedin rnaking "pleasing and sonorous" statementsbut
was rather committed to taking effectivemeasuresthat would guaranteethe
incorporation of theseprinciples into the postwar settlement.One such mea-
sure would be a yet-unnamedmechanismfor international cooperation based
on a "common covenant,"which wou.lddefendthe principle of governmentby
consentand provide an institutional framework that would reflectthe "broth-
e rh o o do f m a n l < i n d." 6
The text of Wilson's declarationof war addressof April r9rywas widely
reported, printed, and translated around the world. Now that the United
Stateshad enteredthe war, lfilson could be expectedto have more influence
at the peacetable, and his pronouncementswere thereforegiven much greater
prominencein the world press.British and F'renchopinion, especiallyliberals
'S7ilson's
and socialists,generally greeted war messageand his subsequent
proclamations with enthusiastic acclaim. In Britain, groups such as the
Union of Democratic Control, whose membership included such luminaries
as philosopher Bertrand Russell, author Norman Angell, and Labour party
leader Ramsay MacDonald, had long called for a peacesettlementin which
any territorial adjustmentwould require the consentof the peoplesinvolved.
Their ideas,marginal and isolated in British public discourseat the outset of
the war, increasedin popularity as the war progressed,and S7ilson'sringing
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lel{r 'Pa^lo^ursrl
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.rog,flluryreds arour 'pue lapro plro^A lsrler.radurr-1sr1elrde3 ar{t Sututru.repun sslJeurulnlrl
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Jo uorssoJddns
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sri{ rarye slesodord s.tuaprsardeqr ;oy r.roddns stl
,.Lrolrr1 tnorllrlA of,Ea(T,, or{IN ssor{t lc
pacunouuv tlpveqv peq dr;rud rnoqe-J tlslllrfl aqr Pue 'saldDul.rd u€Iuoslrlfr sll ro} rq35 0:
uo paseq ecead ro1 palle) 's1enna11alul qsnlrfl Ieraqq yo dno;8 e .{q 9t6r PIno./Y\ erarlt I
-ppu ul popuno; filanog suoItBN;o en8eal aq] sE qf,nssuollezruuS;g /'utaql dqtedru.,{s,,;
pa8e;nocueLlleer8 a8etsieuorlpu.retulaqt uo aJueuluord Sutst.rpue JIJotaI{r aLII 'sPueq s.
CINlXNVW dO (INIW AHJ )IOd 5NIJH5IC
Wlfllfllffilflrfrffitl lllti,,
r

Tnn EmuncENcEoF THE.SfrusosreNMouBNr

'When would mak

the Boisheviks seizedcontrol of the revolution in November, they
draw its su1
published from the captured czarist archives copies of the secret treaties that
clearly in tl
ih. Err.opeanAllies had concluded among themselvesto divide the spoils of
conclude a t
war, exposingand denouncingthe imperialist designsof the "old diplomacy."
take Russia
In the Bolshevik peace plan, announced on December 29, Leon Trotsky, the
transfer to t
newly appointed commissar of foreign affairs, denounced as hypocritical
home and a
Allied claims that they were fighting to guaranteethe freedom of small nations,
that would
such as Belgium and Serbia.Th.eimperial powers, he said, could not claim to
necessary,h
be fighting for the rights of small nations in Europe while at the same time
home and a
oppressingother national groups within their own empires:
war argum€
Are they willing on their part to give the right of self-determination to of the stater
the peoples of Ireland, Egypt, India, Madagascar, Indochina, et officialdom
cetera. . . ? For it is ciear that to demand self-determinationfor the nationalist,
peoples that arecomprised within the borders of enemy statesand to 'War
Cabinr
refuse self-determination to the peoples of their own state or of their Nations an
own colonies would mean the defenceof the most naked, the most possession
cynical imPerialism. On Ja
Caxton Ha
Such behavior on the part of the capitalist governments of the Allies, Trotsky
Britain's up
declared,was hardly surprising. They had shown no inclination to work for a
Left, to shc
truly democraticpeacenor, given their "classcharacterr"could they ever do so:
,,Their attitude towards the principle of 'national self-determination"' was challengeol
as moderat
inevitably "not less suspiciousand hostile than that of the Governments of
Germany and Austria-Hunga rY."'u declared on
The dual challenge of Lenin and Sfilson to the old ways of European consentof t
politics and the growing appeal of their proclamations for large segmentsof minister bu
son's favori
the British and French publics increasedthe pressureon leadersin London and
gap betweer
Paris to announce their support for more progressive,enlightened war aims.
While the Allied leaderscould dismiss Lenin's critique as that of a dangerous liberal refor
moment in
radical, they could not so easily ignore the presidentof the United States,an
indispensableally on whose supplies,credit, and arms the European Allies and contes
completeth
depended. Though rhe British and the French leaders, the president told his
long-time closeaide and confidant, "Colonel" Edward Mandell House, did not as his ollr
his memoir
share his views on the peace, their dependenceon American capital and
determinari
supplieswould compel them in the end to accept"our way of thinking'"'a
By late ryry, the pressure on the British government, a coalition of the Ottoma
Liberals ancl Conservativesheaded after December r9i6 by the leader of the the time. ln
Liberal party, David Lloyd George, was mounting to accommodate "the of self-dete
man coloni
development of American thinking and the public pronouncements of Presi-
Llovc
dent \Vilson" and to adopt more \Tilsonian war aims." On December 28, the
matic initir
British Labour party issued a public statement that echoed Wilson's pro-
Three dar-t
nouncements, declaring that the war could no longer be justified unless it
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'uerusatetsplJol!\ Surpeelaql se Sulpuersul\o srq tJassealpu€ a^rlerlnurJr]€ur -o.ld s,uosi:
-oldlp aqr ure8ar ot uoslrX6pa;undsuolleuepo.rd ploq s,a8"roagpdo11 aqt'gz .raq
-rsard
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Jo 3q1,, alEpo;
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te uorle)Srpnb qrns due peuorluaru woql Jo rar{troulnq 'andurg ue{uono oqt JO uorlrlPol
Jo suortrod qsq.lry-uou aqr pue ado.rng or dpo paureuad perl uoneulrrrrotap or,,'3uIli.
-JIas ol lq8l:r aql Surilocldns stuatuol€ts (quos1t2gpue) sq tEI{l s;lotuetu slq pue leride:
w urrelf, JOIEIppo.^a ralsrwur aut;d aql 'orsn8 Suvrro.r8qtr.l,r u^ o sn{ s€ IOUplp '3Snt
c6uorteururJolap-tias,,SurldopB'sgluotu Surrrlollogeqt ur uollelluoJ srqt elalduroc srq PIor tur;
plno/!\ flestun{ uoslrlN 'tuatual$os re,tnJsodeql }o saldnur.rd potsoluoJ pue sailY ueact:
patuJqolo)lsour oqt Jo auo se uorleurturatop-flasyo arua8.rauooqt ur luauroru ue 'sa1e15p;
lelo,rrd e sB^aqraads IFH uolxBl ar{J railel aqt w paridurr wsrruroter IEraqII sno;a8uep r
'surle Je.t\
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epyu aql Surtersnlqo l.lpnser ,,'paureAo8aqr Jo tuasuol,, 'aselqd atrJo^EJscuos puE uoPuol
-[A, rp]^a ;aqteSol ((uorleurluralapJlas,,urra]
ryAeqqog aq] polpunq ratsllilur go stuaurSrs
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or{t Jo uortreuiurJarap-Jlas
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surreperTIVeqt Surluasa.rd pus uonereql1Jo rt.rotogrrslr^eqslog aqt yo a8ualeqr SEIA (( (UOIIE !
egt Surteeurdq uorurdo Iertnau derws01 pue 'e1e;ow polllv dn a.roqs01 'rya-I :OS OP Je;lJ -ii
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teaJ5 Sururllno ssaJppe.roleur E paJaAIIapJalsrurru aun.rd aqt '1p11 uolxe) d4slo.i1 'sar
1e an8eol uorun sape{ qsrtrrfl ar{r aro}aq 8ur>1eads 'gt6r'5 l..renuef ug
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yo an8eal aqt qsrlqetsool uosllrfi qtl/v\ >iro^arotel plno.A^. riiog 'taurqeS rEA
's}nurS uef uerr"ryyqtnos aq} pue 'tsrleuorteu
ol Pu€ sslr
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leroqrl SurpealE pue ratsrurullaulq€) e
la 'eurqto
r{sr}rJflur sarlleleclSoloaprtuaururo.rdlsoru s(uoslr/NJo o1\\1ol lueruolels aq} Jo
ol uorleut'.
8urrye.rpaqt parsnJluoJotsrururaurr.rdaql'op ra8uol ou plno,{\ .,stuarun8reJe.^.
plo eqt,, lnq 'l.ressatouIIIts se^\,,{.ro}rln'asnerpellry aqt ol 'peo;ge pue arrlotl
(urtq plor;ray drpqd rosr^p€srq',t.ressarau
ls qloq 'sle.raqripue roqpl ,tge:ror erurl aruEs erl
sE,4tuatuatetse r{rns 'salilv aqi ro} altl€I}Iur rrleuroldrp eql uru8arplno^\ leql ol rurBlf, lou :
surru rE.{^Jo uortBrBltap E a>letuot paplf,op aS.roagp{oit 'puo.rqe puE aruoq 'suor]eu
I]eLU
t€ qtoq 8urfe.ryyo.ra8uepur snqt uortrsodpellry aql qirr)N'tsan\agl ol reJsuerl lecrlr.rcodiq :
roJ trroryuratseaeql uo saJJoJu?wJag aql Surseela.r 're,vror{t tno Erssngo>l€l
Jo aqr '.,t4sro.r1:
pu€ suorterloSou{s^otrf-lserg ar{rJe duetu.re9qll&\ areedate;edase opnlf,uor ,.'dreruoldrpr
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sr.urestr paugopal tuoururolo8 aqt ssalun rroJ}CIJe^aar{l .royr.roddns slr /!\Erp leql sarlPsJtl,
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qNi>rNvw co oNrw'!rHJ lro$ DNrrHSic
'Mpppqiffir!ffir1ii1r

40 oF THE\f,/nsoNraNMomExr
TrIE ErvrnnccNcE

for the t hought '

detaileclexposition to clateof the United States'war aims and his vision
President
postwar world. The address,which quickly becamefamous worldwide as the
based' adopt ed,
FourteenPoints, enumeratedfourteen planks on which peacemust be
principles of open diplomacy father than secret I(ilson dr
These included the general
of armaments, and the and Hou
treaties, freedom of the seasand of trade, the reduction
the "politi- in the Fo
establishmentof an "associationof nations" that would guarantee
alike." colonial 1
cal independenceand territorial integrity" of "great and small states
Most of the points, however, were geographically specific:They called for the \rh
Belgian, and French territories and of the F
evacuation and restoration of all Russian,
and "counter
supportedthe "autonomous development" of the peoplesof the Austrian
iater, with the r
ottoman empires. contrary to popqlar perceptions both at the time and
,,self-determination" itself was nowhere to be found in the text of five migh
the term
of the Bolshevil
the address,though severalof the points-the call for a "readjustment
and for determin
frontiers of Italy; along "clearly recognizable lines of nationality"
in point 1
reconstituting a Polish state along similar iines-seemed to impiy Sfilson's
as well '
support for that principle, at least in some instances'
coloniali
The general outline of the peace plan proposed in the Fourteen Points
the recer
addresswas similar to that of \flilson's previous addresses.For the first time,
beenpar
however,the president made an explicit referenceto colonial questions,calling
to the ap
for any settlement of colonial issues to take into account the interests of
internati
colonial populations. Colonial claims, said point five of the fourteen, would
o'free,open minded, and absolutelyimpartial" manner, expresse
have to be resolvedin a
and the r
and their resolutionwould be "based upon a strict observanceof the principle
governec
that in determining all such questions of sovereignty the interests of the
populations concernedmust have equal weight with the equitable claims of
vi
hedged a
the government whose title is to be determined."" Point five was hardly an
address.
unambiguous endorsement of colonial self-determination. First, it called
deliverec
for the "interests" of colonial peoplesto be taken into account rather than
just more his
their expresswishes or preferences,and so ieft open the question of
people themselves or the the phra
who would decide what those interests were: the
however tional as
colonial powers? In addition, \flilson also balanced those interests,
governe(
determined,againstthe "equitableclaims" of the colonial governments,which
phrase-
would receiveequal consideration.
hencefor
Nevertheless, the inclusion of an explicit reference to the rights of
this r*'ar
colonial peoples, however tentative and equivocal, signaled the president's
concern(
dissatisfaction with the reigning imperial order in international society.Most
the popr
of the fourteen points were based on the recommendations included in the
qualifica
memorandum that was submitted a few days earlier by members of the
Onll' "rt
Inquiry, a group of experts gathered by Colonel House to advise the govern-
onlv to
ment on issuesreiated to the peace settlement. But the Inquiry memorandum
discord.'
made no referenceto colonial issues,and it was Wilson himself who added
point five to the text of the address."House himself testifiedthat "at first it was
 sBfi\tr rs{t
ez(('PJO)$TP pePPEoqr
Jo sluoruole,, et€Rlad.radro alser) rou plnoarr feqr leqr luelxt tql o1 dpo runPuEJo
pue uorteJeplsuof, ellacor plnol,\ .,suotle;tdse Isuoltuu peusep-llea,, ,{1uO -uraao8a
'uort€unumrapJlos or lq8p aql
Io eslJrexo pereilelun aqt uo suonecgtlunb oqr JO sr
JarFo aJaA{alaqt pue 'soqsrd\ sll dp.russacaulou {d(tgeueq,,souotlepdod or{r eql uI Pe
;o a>1ods aq 'sluro4 ueelrnoC aqt 'o a:rg lutod q plp eq sB 'ute8y 66'peureruoJ rsoprq'lra
suortepdod aql Jo r5auaq orll roJ pue lsoralw or{l uT operu oq tsnw JB^aslr{l s,luaprsar
uI pa^Io^ul tualuel$os lBlJoilJral zfuerra,,.PuB ,,'11rad.r1eqrrB a.rou8tquola)ueq ;o srq8g r
'uollls
II/!r uorussrulsg)F{rtt 1o oldnulld olt}ersdrul u€r, JerllBJlnq ,,ase.rqd
alaru E'' lou sE/v\uoIl?urrrJOlaP-JIeS(('luesuor u.rr,roJIeIp ziq l.1uo pauralo8 qrrqrn'sru
pue poteuluop, aq ,(utu eldoad puu o.'palradsa;aq tsnru suotlendse luuolt ralarvr.oqol
-8u,, 'peuolw aq '1uaura1ilasSutuor aqr q 6c'uoItBuIuIJOlop-JIos,, ase.rqdaql or{1ro sa^l
pareiln dlerlqnd lsrg oq reqr qceadssrrlt ur sB1\.l1 'acead ar{t roJ ueld srq erolu lsnf 1o uot
ecuo Sururpno 'ssa.rppesrulod Jno{ aqr sE u1\4,ou{'qcaads raqtoue POJa^IIaP uBrlr ra{re
pue ure8e sse.r8uo3erolaq aIuB) luaprsa.ldaql '916r'rr drvnrqa{ uo 'ssarppe pa11er rr i
'luroambe pue pa8peq ue dlpreq r
lEtll to s{aai\, ulqtrIdt,reploq ,rnar8uoos rlroleqJ slq lnq
Ilrts sEAtslurod ueeilno{ aqt ul uor}sanbleluolor arp uo uolttsod scuoslll6 Jo srurelf, 3
s.,,'PauleaoB eqr Jo srs
aql Jo luosrrof,,,oql a^rof,eJsluoruuJerro8ewrutlr8ol tsql lueuolnbal oqr Pue aldnur.rd ar
'rauueut
(6lueruuJarro3g1as" or rqSp el{l J0 suoluessB patruadals(uoslllN ur passordxa op
ueaq peq 'areqm,eslepue tuleer IBIuolo) aqt q qroq 'rapro Ieuolteurelul ppom 'uaa
roJ errraqtsu€ruoslrlfi eqr ]o stueffialaiel]uessaoql 'uluoT to eJuer€addeaqr or JO SlS3J3iln
.ror.rdsaqraadselrssaJJnsw petelnf,I$B peq uoslll1 /!\al^plro,^aal{t }o urd uaaq 8uq1er'suo
(erult
3uo1 peq reqr soldDut.rduo /v\arPlueluo) s1r'e8uallBql T^eqslofl luaf,er eql tsJS a
pertelJal sseJppeslutorl uaailnod al{r Jo Suplp rgrcad$ eqt eilqlg,'tuslluluoloJ sturod uael
yo osodrnd pue arnleu aqt uo uorltsod Surpuurs-8uo1sil{ t{tl/r/r sE IIa/!\ se
'sluatualunouo.rd aIuIlJE.lv\ snotrrords6uosllrNr{llrrnluorslsuoJ sud\ aASlutod ut s,uosp46 {
opetu IIEJ aqr (ranam.oq'aurrt aures aqt rv 'saldoad leluolor Jo uolteulrurelep ro; pue *&
-JIas eqr puu rusrlurradturJo uollrnrrsap erp roJ pur Surdaolvis{s>ilAagslog arir Jo lualn
uerssng aqt or 'auo anrteruar'pa8pel{E llaqlt 'roputofa.rE se ueeseg rq8rru eng to ffiel ar{r
turod 'lxatruol sql uI o"'uu1daoeadIBsrPBru/\{o xreq}Jo tuaruerunouuEer{l qrl^/\ tarel pue el
paruasa.rdpeq .{>1slor1pue uruaT trql a8uailer{Jaql ol-.<olse;IuetuJolunoc,, puB uBrrlm,
e-asuodseJ s dllelluassa sB sseJpPBeqt uees seq stulod uaeilno{ aql }o PUBSerJolr
ur8r.rooqt uollela.rdrolul
Jo IuEuanlIII euo {arlor{) teqr a>ieuraq PIPdqAO, er{l'roJ PalF
:euole s.uosll/K seu. saldoed 1eruo10r n'O{rlBsels
-B1pd,, aql r
Jo slseJatureqt ot pue uonsenb leruoloJ CItllof sseJPPBstulod ueailno{ eql uI
re1eJotruorsrf,epaqJ sz'uortlear Jraql lnoqe pouraJuoc d1;eap se/vrosnoH puu aql pue 'sru
'slsa.lalurJrer{lol euerure8os'uottsanb srqf uo seIIIV oql lFsuof, lou leJJos uBql
PIp uoslllN
('ur€trJfl tBarg ol CIqpFo1r,\padoq o^. PuE paldope
'qloq sn ol alqelda))8 s€.{v\ 'posBqaq
$
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crNrxNVI^J {O CNIIN AHI UOd sNIrHsI{
_,
frlffiitffiiliirr

4L oF THE\fnsoNrRw MoMsNr
TuB ErvrunGENCE

the In addi
In invoking the principle of self-determination,\(ilson incorporated
phrase as his own ple and soug
novel term into his wartime ideological lexicon, adopting this
order' Calls empiresof E
and assimilating it into his progtam for the postwar internationai
henceforth largely replace in in the oppo:
tor a peace based on self-determination would
t0 the consent of to existing or
\(ilson's rhetoric the previously ubiquitous references
critiques of the If revolutior
the governed. This substitution aimed ro neutralize Bolshevik
it did not change the essenceof oppressionh
Altied war aims by co-opting their language, but
of "self-determination" determinatic
\flilson,s vision in his own mind. To him, the advocacy
lecturing on the revolutionar
was simply synonymouswith caltringfor "self-government"and
In the casec
importance of "government by consent"'
of state' tion would ,
Some of \Tilson's contemporary critics, including his secretary
term self- cooperation
Robert Lansing, observed early on that \filson used the novel
international lawyer with a of colonial r
determination to convey old ideas. Lalsing' an
was essen- Horn'e
conservative bent of mind, noted that the term self-determination
principle of of self-deter
tially equivalent, in wilson',s usage, to the time-honored liberal
appealing idea hardiy so cl
consent of the governed. It was, Lansing said, a theoretically
applicationr" since any such the colonia
that was nevertheless"unsusceptibleof universal
uncertainty" in world affaits' different. Br
attempt would lead to excessive"change and 'sflilson's
performance in Paris, of imperiali
Lansing, in common with other critics of
principle of self- tions, and b
observed in the aftermath of the peace conference that the
pronouncements' had been vio- There was (
determination, loudly proclaimed in wartime
same time, it servedas the more pr
lated repeatedlyin the terms of the peaceffeaties.At the
established the one far I
an ,.excusefor turbulent political elementsin various lands to resist
negotiationr
governmental autho rltY.u'7
was r.ision [argr
Partly, the disappointment in the principle and its leading champion
attached to the term at his rhetoric
a result of the ambiguous and multiple meanings that
already an:i
the time and since. Although Wilson did borrow the term self-determination
had Thus, jusr i
itself from the languageof the Boisheviks-socialist and Marxist theorists
gave it a different meaning and used it Bolsheviks
been using the term for some time*he
always talked specifically mation. so 1
for a different purpose. For the Bolsheviks, who
.,national,' self-determination, it was a call for the revolutionary over- language tr
about
identity
throw of colonial and imperial rule through an appeal to the national
and aspirations of subject peoples. \X/ilson, on the other hand, rarely if ever P 1't hesu
he used it in a mofe lJ of the I
qualified self-determination as specificallynational. Rather,
sovereigtty' LrriefIndep
general, vaguer senseand usually equated the term with popular
government' He estate at \
conluring an international order basedon democratic forms of
borders n-orld orde
did at times, as in the casesof Poland or Italy, advocate redrawing
principle involved as one of of Americi
according to ethnic lines, but he still saw the
acutely aware as ;uppon of
consent rather than of ethnic homogeneity as such. Indeed,
of a self- pnose"'anci
he was of the multiethnic character of American society, his model
that ethnic homogeneity was \l ere -con!
determiningpeople,he could hardly have thought
i:rlving to
a prerequi*it. for the exerciseof the right to self-determination.'8
((.uaureaJJJo sa8olra,rrdpue srq8r; Jr{],, JoJ ualeq € ef,IJCItuva>leulol Sutru.rls
aral,\puu (6a0ry aq ppotls ssep d.iaaaJo uetu feqf Suruueld,{lsnolo$uol,,aJa/v\ se.ry\
dtrauaS
-JIOSe
]nq 's;o,reopuoJrJolsrqJraql ur ,,e8aitrtt.ld.reprtilud ou pa.rlsop,rpue ,,asod Jo I3p
-.rnd otenl.rdou pauIBlJOluO,, 'ptes aq 'dt,{I 'uolsslru u1$o SIt{ f.lodclns
1o se a.rearre
d1
PEi1
'dqderSouof,Iuetlraruv jo euo sE P:
ur srar{teJSurpunoy otlt Jo trru8a1aql palo^u} oq Jo
sa8eurrpeJJBstsolu aql ul seaprsrq Sur.roqJuv'stuJatSurdaa.vrs rrl JapJoPIJo.AA s.rap.roq8un
.relrtsod aql JoJ uoISIAstq paqlJlsap luaplsald aqf
'uou.ral lunory 1€ alelsa eH'luauJuJ
,dlu8ta;srros.
raurrot s,uot8utqseXgaS.ioa5 1B Pare^llep or{ ssarppe f,vq eruapuadapul Jalrq
e ur t1n[to r{ilnoC aqt uO 'lllts raPloq zwo.r$ slroler{r s(uoslllN aql Jo q OJorue ur tr P
"tlllv aql d (-l
(3161 raurulns JO^o]r d1a-l
ro^e1 ur Llearsttapurnl ol ue8aq re^aotll 'o opn aql sE 1o
&lluapl leuo
'sesod;ndpue saJuetsrrJnoJrJ .rraqtot rr rdepe pue uoslllg LuoryeSen8uel -JaAod.reuor
'uotleru ,{llergnads p
leql elrr.ldo.rddepue rdope ol oAourstslleuollguleluolof, pFo/v\ ool os
-Jotsuert lerrorteuroturroJ ure.r8o.rdu^\o sry otul tI polEIIurISsB Pu€ s{meqslofl tI pasn pue 3r
eql uroq uorteururrotop-Jlos pBrl slsrJosr
Jo uollotl aqt palelrdo;dde uoslq6 se lsnf
.patr;radoLlanos "n,{I
d€l$ aqt ul a8ueqr lef,iper e roJ snolxue .{pea.r1e uorleururJel
leuorleuratur
aJe^Aleill 'e.roq.4A.eslo
pue ado;ng ut 'sdno.r8asoql 1o sadaaqt uI llJolaqr slq lu urJal aqt o
ol anq I€tIptsJ oroul B tual 'putut uzlto sFI ul pa8ueqrun l.1a8re1uoIsIA se,tnuordueq
'suollerlo8au
srq Surrruelq8nogr 'a8en8ue1{r^aqslog ;o uorldope s.uoslllg
eceadSuruotdn aql uo of,uanlturolrsrf,apPUEtf,erlp Plal^aol reile{Il rEJouo aql Psqsrlqerse 1s
pue 'euo;s l€uortuurolui aql ut o1!\t aqr to py.ranod pue luauluro:rd aJotu aql sB PaAJaS tr '3
.reydq pa.leaddeuoslrlfi'916ru1 ToAO^\or{ 'arua"ragrplueuocltul auo selv\aJaql -or^ ueeq
Pe
'uorleurruratep-Jlas aqr uo 'suotl -JIOs a1dr,-
yo aldnur.rd Peseqarrad E PateJol'peqioq pue Jo
-EIer 'ustler;adurt go 'sued ur efu
leuorterrralurJo uorleurroJsuerlIErIper € roJ paller qloq 'ErrEfie
'uvreue paleso^p€ qlofl 'ruoretJrP
Ierrtrrf, d1d;eqsaro/v\qroq tceruoldrp uado Plro-\l
(p1;oru, qrns due atui
uer{t rEIItuIs eroul aq 01 pa.readdeuluaT Pu€ uosllX6 Ieluolor 0q1
ur dllertadsapu€ 'pi.lorrtaql punore Luew oI 'eurrl ar{r tB tnr-reoJ3os.'(1p.leg eapr Surlead'
aJa.^,'tradso;te.r ut ;eadde ,{eur daqt se SuqladuroJ 'uolleururJarop-Jlas to yo eldnur;d i'
suorsJaA oH -uossese^\ U
lsruruo-IpuB uBrrJoslrlftaq] uea/\uogsuoll)uIlsrPasar{rTOAJ,^
6z'alnJ IBIIIOIOf, Jo
e qll/14, Jerl\\r
-JIas ur_Tet
^\orqpe^o tdn:qe eqf q8no.n{f ueqr raq}er 's;a.arodleruolor aql Jo uot}e.radoor I3.
'aleJs yo d-rei:
ar{t qlr./v\tno paurer ruroJar srssa)o.rdpnpe.r8 q8no.rtli a8raua plnod\ uotr
}o
*eLriurJolap-1as teqt pauolslllra aq
'palou ,{peaqe se 'urstletuolol
Jo ase) aql uT
.surJoJalpnpe;ff 'leuorlet g8no.rqre8ueqr alowo.rd pue osindurt,ireuottnlolar aqt uo 8urrr
'uotleutulJCIlap
oql aloura.i dlaq ppol!\ 'tuasuoc dq luaruurano8 sB pausep 6(uoIleuItuJSlS
-ilas 'seuriSa;ralqelunoJ)eun ')tte;)otnu dq uorssarddo 3Ul
JO aJUASSA
'o uorterrTcldeoLItuaql
ol uorlJeeJ e Se.&\'peaerlaq sentssa.rSo.rd .raqlo Puu aq sE 'uot1n1o,ta.r11 aql to senbrr,:
'suorlnlolal uu)lxotrt pue usISsnUOqluI./(es 3I{ asoqf se qlns 's.rap;oSurlsxe ol Jo luasuof, :l
sa8ueletp d,reuortnlona.r'1eupB; lsuie8e >lre/Klnq u se 'a1o.ratrsoddo agl ul ur erelde-l i1::
dleslJa.rda^rasppo./rA. uolleululJalaP-'losreqf pedoti uoslllft'adorn? 1o sa.rrdnra sllB) raPro rE
f,ruqlartlnu .d;Buoqrsorotlt tsute8e leq Suqrarm e se JI asn ol tq8nos pue e1d urao srq s€ esr,
-rour"rd&euotlnlolal e se uolleullllJolap-JlasA\esuiual ai]qll'uolllppe uI arlt pete.rod:o:
w CINTxNVWlIO aNIInJ sHr uod sNIJHDIC
 THs EA,mncENcEoF THE'W'rrsoNIRNMotvtBwr

The United Stateswent to war for that samegoal, to $ecurenot only the liberty explaining
of the United States"but the liberties of every other people as well." The war the princip
was an epic struggle berween autocratic regimes whose time had passedand Once he ar
the progressiveideals of the present. The aftermath of this conflict would see podium thr
American ideals extended over the entire glohe, embraced by many races and the Sorbon
in many regions: Rome and,
Keynes,wh
On the one hand stand the peoples of the world,-flot only the
the Versaill
peoples actually engaged,but many others who suffer under mastery'
of the waq
but cannot act; peoples of many races and in every part of the the world t
world.. .. Opposed to them, masters of many armies, stand an ;::g;:j::1::;

isolated, friendless group of governments who speak no common

f hrougho
purpose but only selfish ambitions of their own which can profit but I
I trons car
themselves.. . governmentsclothed with the strangetrappings and the world. Intt
primitive aurhority of an age that is altogether alien and hostile to our reported zu
own.3o
cable and
N<l compromise, therefore, was conceivable, not only with the Central telegraphic
Powers but also with the prewar principles of international relations. The r84osand d
posrwar order, nflilson said, would have to be based on popular legitimacy sion and ar
rather than on great power interests.It would be predicated on "the settlement domains in
of every question, wheth.r of territory, of sovereignty, of economic arrange- among the I
ment, or of political relationship, upon the basis of the free acceptanceof that r86os, follo
settlement by the people immediately concerned." The peacesettlementwor"rld crumbling
have to replace an international system based on power with an international communica
society in which interaction among nations would comport with the "princi- common, a
ples of honour and of respect for the common law of civilized society that East. The r
that it took
tourrn the individual citizens of all modern states in their relations with one
another." An international organiz.ationto deter aggression and arbitrate previously r
'\fhat we seek is the Europe to t
conflicts would embody and manage this arrangement:
reign of law, based upon the consent of the governed and sustained by the hours.3t
organizedopinion of mankind."s'The addressat Mount Vernon was \X/ilson's The q
boldest formulation yet of his postwar plans, and as we will see,it resonated informatior
widely around the world. agencies th
In the following months, Wilson continued .in his public rhetoric world. Cha
to present rhe war, and the United States' role within it, in idealistic terms. in Paris in r
The purpose of the war, he declared repeatedlg was to secure the right of across the l
peoples to determine their own futures, to establish the principle of equality spreadin W
among narions, and to defend the rights of weak nations against the might of immigrated
'ofull and London. Rr
strong ones. The peace settlement, he said, would have to reflect
unequivocal acceptanceof the principle that the interest of the weakest is as telegraphy,
'
sacred as the interest of the strongest.'7" It was during these months that he Company.
made the statementsdenouncing lynching and in support of female suffrage, the reports
srll pue, 659r u1 uort€)Ulun uEIIBII JoJ relv\ ar{r Jo ilets at{l uo silodar aql 'a8ergns aler
eJe*r uonelndal slr op€ru leql sdoo)s Jlls{eurnol roleur rsJS aqI 'Luedruo3 aq leq] sqtu(
urer8alal srotnog aql 'fuedtuo) rllqnd e eurecaq tl 59gr .{q pue 'dqder8olar sE sI lso>le31
'uoPuoT
ol pa^oru d1>1emb rnq lsrg te suoa8rduo PaIIeJosle ,(rua8e s.latrna1 PUE ilnt,, lJs
ur err^res s/heu u^A.osrr{ peqsllqErsa ldueur.raD urory puel8ug ot pete.r8lurlul ;o rq8rur atp.
puq oq/\^.talnag snrpf'o5gr u1 'sofgr puu so]gr eql uI adorng urelssrNut pea.rds zhgenba;o a
'1auueq3 qsrl8ug aql ssorre
rr se dqc{er8aler{oldtuo ot ue8eq uoos aq lnq Jo tr{8u er{r ;
s/v\euyo Suruodar dpaadsar{} rot suoa8tdpesn sEA€p1'dgerrrul '(€3r uI slrBd uI isulJel qlsrlBi
dcuo8BsnourLuodesn{ papuno;'raauotd ectrr.ras s.&\auu'seae11 solrer{J 'plJo/vr f,IrolorF rllqr
0rl1 puno.re sradeds.daarr Jo spussnoqr ot ddoc erl/v\ palTddnsleql satrua$u
s^\au leuorteuJatur Jo uorsuedxa pue qrrvror8 st{} or pol leleJr uoueruJotul paleuosar 1r '
yo poadsoqt uo'lc€dufi zfueuoltnloAersll Pue gderSalerarp pea.rdsaql
Jo s(uoslrlfi sEAt
t€'sJnoq aql ,(q paqet
'etpu1 'lseE elpPIW eql or adorng aql sI {ees ot
Jo reileru E ur olrrre A{ou plnoJ Eulr{) .ro
Jo sJueruv urory le^ert ol sqluoru ue^o ro s{eo^A,ua{sle^Bg PIno/lAdlsnorna.rd elEJlrqJe PU
ter{t sl\eu pue 'sueef,o pur sluourluoJ ssoJf,€oAOIuol uolletuJoJul {ool rI reql auo qlIA^.suol
ewn eq] Pe)nPOrfgurrlerueJp suolleJlunurtuo) crqder8ele].Jo aslr erlJ, :lsBE luqf ,hal}os 1
alppl14i aqr pue ersv olur dldaap paqreor sselerlr&aql fr6r Lq pue 'uotuuror -nur.rd,, eql q
eJoru mar8 selqeJ eqr or ruawolddns Jo e^IteuJalle u€ sB uoltef,JunulruoJ IEUOrlErrJal
sselarr^/r. esn arp 'Lrnluaf, egl Io urnl aql rerJv ,tlseufp 8qb BurlqurnJf,
Io plnofi luaural
or{r Jo suretuop aql olul uoltrE.rrouad ueadorn1 Jo qred agr 8ur*ro11oy'soggr leqr to arueld
aql ur puardsol ue8aqsaurlqde.r8elar'eu1r{JuI 'plro/\{ eql ul lsolsnq eql Suowe -a8uer.relrmt
atuBraq uoos ,taql pue 'sol,3r aql uI pIBI eJa/$,EIPq,pue lddga il suIBIuoP lu0walnes erF
qsnlrg arp or salqm qde.r8alaralqepuadaPlsrg eL{J 'uolt€rtslunuPe pue uors ,berunr8al rq
-uedxo uaryo-'areq^4.eslopeards uaqr pue sofgr ogl :suorl"le
lerradrur1o rpol a{r 3u1m,o11oy
aqt m eJrra{uv rlt.lo51 pue adornfl ul ue8aq suorterlunruruot rrqder8alar IErtua) er{r {
'aqop aql pauueds uaql .{q tsgr $lro^/\tau ssalarl^\ pue olqer
Jo osn aql
eqr q8no.rqt ureqr peleurwesslp puv 'sa8essauleqt parnporda.r pue peuoder
Jno ol allls
e{lp suBS.roepue8edord eurt}rel. pue setrua8e s/v\ou [EuoItBuJOtq 'plJo^/v\
eqr pue s8u
aqt prmoJe soJuarpneol Jrrolaq.rdpuaq flSurseanur s(uoslrr( poIrJEr suolt
I rnq rgord r
-Errunruruoo 'tezn aql yo s.read
IeuS aqt rnoq8norqJ
leqop 1o drourqf,Eu or{r uotuurof, o
-'t:::=
uE PUE1S'
on,.fuots1q ur pelpnboun plro./r^.eqt
'rearraqt egl Jo ue(
lnoq8notql af,uenl;ur lerour ? pue a8rlserd e pado{ua,,tueplseJd aql lo 'd.rolserurq
e{e/v\ etErpewl'ul aqf uTler{l aloJ/!\ 'lesrurq uoslldr Jo pu€ dlea.rl sailIpsroA oql
'sauda;'1 aql dpo 1
to s)rlrJ) Ierluonuur pue Surqlesslsotu el{t Jo euo atuof,aqplno/v\ oqm
preu,{e141ur{o[tsnuouore qsI]IJfl Jr[I €€'ulrnl puB UEIII{ ut 'eoua.g Pu€ atuou
ur 'ra$aqlue6 pue uopuoT ut 'are1e4rueq8urqcnfl rB 'srre4 uI euuoqros eql pue sece.rfua
te :saldrcurrd asoql /v\olloJ ol e^Eq plno^{ tuatueluas acead aqr ter{l ulnrpod easPIno^4.lf,ril
dra.reruorJ lsrsur 01 ponupuoJ uoslll['laroelou; 'edo;ng ur peArJJEorl oJuO puu passedpr
'peorqc Supq8g se^, tI rlrlr.ll\{ roJ ef,Itsnf JElf\ar{J ..'l[an
Pus ssausnootqSrr;o saldnur.ld aql
Jo Ieporu E sp plro/vreqr or Jlasll luasa.rdtsnru dlenos u€JrJatuv teqt Surureldxa dr.raqrlaqr dpr
oNrxNvw lro oNIIAJsHI uod cNIrHsIc
 THe EN,IBncENCEoF THE'WilsoureN MonasNr
46

assassinationof President Abraham Lincoln in 1865.News from Reuters' hostile to t

servicebecameso ubiquitous in British papers that one commentator noted cens0rs.
in 186r:"A11 or-rrearliest information from America, India, and China, the Allier
Cape, and even Australia, is derived from this gentleman'stelegrams'"36 BY around the
the rg6os,news agencieslike Reuters had become indispensablein the rapid than the Ur
disseminationof information around the world and beganto expand beyond World War
Europe. The first Reutersbranch outside Europe openedin Alexandria in late leading r-rp
1865,and its first Asian branch was set up in Bombay the following year' news, and 1
As they spread around the globe, the three largest international news public opin
agencies*Havas, Reuters,and the German news serviceWolff-initially fought of allies,en
over territory but eventuallythey concludedagreementsthat divided the world's warfare thi
news rnarketsamong them. Havas naturally got the F'renchempire and Southern scriptedarr
Europe; \folff provided international reporting in the Habsburg empire, Scan- dramaticai
dinavia, and Russia;and Reuterslargely monopolized news servicesthror-rghout the war ent
the territories controlled by the British empire, in East Asia, and in the United done befor
Srates,thoggh in the latter regions it saw growing competition from Japanese manstreal(
and American news agencies.A few areas,such as Turkey, Egypt, and Greece, of militarr-
were shared between Reuters and Havas. But British control over the global a diplom at
network of underseatelegraphcabiesmeant that Reuters,which had developed conducted
intimate ties with Brirish officialdom, controlled practically all news coming som eof r hr
into Europe from other continents, supplying the other news serviceswith States,horl
"a huge ac
information that they in turn passedon to their subscribers.By r9r4, Reuters
had becomea "semi-official institution of the British Empire," so ubiquitous that ^et edand l
it becamein many placesa "householdword."3t \Tilst
During the world war, Reutersprovided most of the international news ;onflict ot
across the British empire, and its bureaus in Bombay, Cairo, and Shanghai ::rerefore ''
were the main suppliersof war news to newspapersin India, Egypt, and China' ertort. The
respectively.The Associated Press,founded in 1848,was the leading news ie:ring:l:
'
ug.rr.y supplying international news to U.S. papers, while the countries of :e\\'Onis:

Latin America received their foreign news primarily through Havas.38The ; er : ain be: ,
spreadof telegraphyand the global penetration of international news services ; : : r gos: =-
-,r--;:
meant that the war was reported acrossthe world simultaneouslyand almost arii. i.

instantaneously.Readersacrossmuch of the globe could learn of eventson the : ""-i s:i;;r

-.-"
battlefronts and read the proclamations of leading statesmenwithin a day or ::- , i^-u *i

.- " -t- - ^*,

two of their occurrence.Many news outlets, especiallyin the regions outside
Europe, did not have the resourcesto hire numerous foreign correspondents l.l: :rr,::r

who could provide them with independent perspectiveson events abroad, : *i:l:" J

and they therefore depended heavily on international servicesfor foreign

- _ J - ;

^: : : . : - : : :
news. And since the agenciesthat supplied international news to much of
the globe-Reuters, Havas, the AssociatedPress-were associatedwith the lrl:i',.;1-
' _ ; , : : :

Allied powers, the tenor of the reporting was often favorableto the Allies and
i
;
 'PCIloruoJd pue
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sli Jo uorldaf,radaql 'peo.rqusatsts pellun aqt to a8eurtaq1 'inoqe lr 8ur.rq Jo qrnu o:
ppo) 'drqs"rapealsn{ rapun 'sot€}Sparlun aqr dpo teqt plro^. oq} a)ulluor u8ra.ro; .ro
pue aqo13or{tpunoJu uorleruroJsueJt Jo uorsrl s.uoslrl)Noteururassrp or rg8nos 'peo-rqesrr
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-salau sE./$uorleurJoJsueJl e teqt paf,utluol aJaA{sJaqto;r ,{1uopaaf,)nsplnol aql uo stue-
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re,^aueJrreiuv aqt ,o tuauodruoc IEJtuas e se epue8edo.rdpa,^aarloroJeraql req8ueq5pr
pue 'stsa.raturJo sUJJEJo r{selr E se,^a}I s€ sl\allplJo.,lt prre sl€opl Jo tJrltuoo s.^aeu Ieuorli
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or'ueursa{odsSutpealrroq} uoslrdfituaprsardpue pela{ leqt snotrnb
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patrun aql uI 'asn€r rttot.rted eq] uI porrad alp Jo srolpn? Surpealar{}Jo ouros Sultuol sma
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ur s;anod tue.ra8rlleq ;ofetu oi{l Jo IIV 'peorqe prre otuog ]e qroq dllerrreure"lp -uB)S'a;rdru
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-uor a8nq yo Sursre.roql pCIpueruoppu€ souarJosorrlua pa8e8ualeqt arsJJ€,^a s,Plro^\aqt P;
sseurpa3npoJtul r{JIr{dN'"rul5 leor5 ot{I 'sJa,/s.od 'saruraue'sar11e go
lu.rlnaupue tq8no; dilenri
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Jo aruslJodurr aqt Jo eJBAAe .(13uisea.rruSut,tiro.r8a.remsluauruJCIAo8 pue 'sll\ou :eed 3u
Ieuoueuratur SurrrouJ-rs€J puu dqde.r8ala] aslJar{t ,ltps ru^\ aqt ot dn Surpeal
Jo atel ur erJPur
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lsrrd aqt Sur.rnpu8iedwer epue8edo.rduert.ratuvaql6€'setels porrun aqt ueqr plde.l aqt ur ;
ssaJ)esn{rJo esna{Btu o} pauor}rsodranag sp^ ouo ou pue 'aqop eql punoJs dg nn,.'stue.
s.radeds,u,auot ssaJJ€ dsea l.1e-r.rlglalperi 'uaqt 'epuu8edord polilV eqr 'eurq3 pr
'sJosuaf,
Petou Jotetus
peliy Jo qreor alqeraprsuof,or{l puo.{ag uala sre.aod lertua) aqt ot alrlsorl (sJalnou tuoJ
Lt cNr)rNvI/{ co oNrW aHJ uo{ sNrJHerC
 lr
"i'

Tnn, EuBncENCEoF THE'Wrrsourax MotuBNr

On April ry rgr7, a mere week after the United Statesdeclaredwar on

Germany, Wilson issued an executive order establishing the Committee on
Public Information (CPI) as the"organresponsiblefor the U.S. war propaganda
effort at home and abroad. The members of the committee included the
secretariesof war, state, and the navy, but the real force behind it was its
chair, GeorgeCreel.Creel,a forty-one-year-oldveteranmuckraking journalist,
programs.
was a long-time progressiveand a keen partisan of Wilson's reform'Wilson
He had supported Wilson's reelection campaign, and his 1916 book and
the Isswes,which defended the president's record, was said to have "mightily
pleased"the president.43 Fiercely loyal to the president and his ideals, Creel
saw the CPI as an opportunity to spreadthe Vilsonian gospel of progressivism
and democracy both domestically and abroad, "to drive home the absolute
justice of America's cause,the absolute selflessness of America's aims."44It
was his inventivenessand his zeal for the liberal internationalist ideals he
worked to propagate that transformed the committee from an ad hoc impro-
visation into a highly effective propaganda machine of global reach'at
In their campaign to advertise America's war aims and peace plans at
home and abroad, Creel and his deputiesat the CPI made widespreaduse of
recent advancesin communications, such aswirelesstechnology, and in media,
such as motion pictures, in addition to deploying more traditional propaganda
methods. There was "no medium of appeal that we did not employ," Creel
boasted."The printed word, the spoken word, the motion picture, the poster,
the signboard.-all thesewere used in our camp aign."a6The CPI produced and
distributed movies about the successesof the American war effort, which
aimed to impress audiences,both domestic and foreign, with the inevitability
of U.S. victory. It also worked to depict American society as prosperousand its
citizens as upright and diligent, and tried to carry these images "to every
community in the United Statesand to every corner of the world." In addition,
the committee controlled the export of commercially produced films to over-
seasmarkets and sought to block films that it judged to be "giving false or
Viison dehir
misleading impressions of American life" by dealing with such unsavory
\::_urr-ra. s].1
themes as crime, corruption, or dissolute behavior.aT *b':'dder :; (
The CPI issued daily news bulletins to the U.S. and foreign press in r'rl1r,agz.n'Ja
ngmerous languagesand supplied magazineswith ready-made feature articles sl-..:-*C'n'ipli
extolling the United States, its sclciety,economy, and contributions to the f,:rrt'i"ne-c-s" i(
Allied war effort. On the domestic front, the CPI establishedspecial divisions
that concentrated on getting out the messageto specific sectors of the media,
;tre- tr:. d,ozc
such as the rural press,the religious press,and the labor press.The committee
T;e CPI a.i
also recruited speakersto praisethe U.S. war effort and administration policy
rr:i r:- n: :
to domestic audiences,most famously the "Four Minute Men," so called .*'.'-'
-;
d0 _,t- .-" \& u;
becausethey would give four-minute patriotic speechesabout the war effort
;ni,'
a: a:t,::-
at theater intermissions.Millions of pamphletsextolling American ideals and
'' 'iililllrillilllr|"'ltn|ll'l
il rl: :
'11 (iloJJo rellr
IBmedS rnoqE sr{der8otoqd lTrls palnqutsrp pus paredard pue Pu? slBsPrur
aql rnoqe srrqrqxa qlr/!\ srrpJ alels parlddns te1dsry tqqnd roJ spre) 1v\opur/!\ uoJJa re^\ ar
pug (suootJeJ (sJatsod'o dlar.ren € of,npoJd ol stsrug patrrnrlal tI 'rJoJJe palle) {)s ,,.r
epue8edo.idaqr olur drtsnpur Sursrlre^pe lerrretutuor aql paryerposle Jd) or{I z(rqoduortE
'Peorqe pu? auroq palelnrrrf, pu€ parurJd3re^\ 'saSenSuel
le .aJll aellitlIruof, aL
Jo suszopul
'erpauraqr
Ja
'g/g99-29 suorsr^rpIerf,
7 gn-37's sa"t8uo3 eqt o1 suorlr
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'uorteruroJuJ
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s0l3rlJB OJntei
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ryalssuosll/N pulqaqolqlsl^osly 'rq8rrlr sr 'qlrpg (ayrnpuorass(rroslrl6'erurS.rrn
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(INTXNVW dO CrNrW AHJ. UOC SNrrHgrC
 THs EMencENCEoF THE'$TIrsoNreN Mo*rBNt

CPI lacked
emphasiswas put on reachingthe foreign-born populationswithin the-united
tfe foreign- nessmen,o
States, who were seen as requiring specill rlsy:iut,- 11d
Polish, Ukrainian, t.'ifu1ian, C1ech, effort ofter
languagepressin the U.S.-in Swedish,
provided with translated aeroplanes
C*r*"rr, Horrg"ri"n,'Itatian, Russian, Serbian-was
to lines into d
articles designed to combat the "ignorance and disaffection" assumed
Presir
^prevail among its readers.as
t9r7, Points, the
Althorrjn the CpI did not launch its foreign operations until lare
pamphlets at Mount'
foreign news servicesfiled quotes from its news sumrnariet 1nl
By CPI propal
from the outset and supplied them to the press in Europe and elsewhere'
active disseminan
early r9r8, the CPI had opened its first offices abroad; 1o,*. ofhe most
Madrid, and Lisbon' The goal of the Wilson wa
offices were located in Bern, Rome;
the mind of mankind" doing to w
foreign operations, Creel declared, was to "fight for
rhe emphasize
;;;;" ".;nvince the world that hope for the future lay inwilson.alone."ae
was the preside
United States,CPI propaganda aimed to convince the people of the world'
joined the war in order to estlblish peace and who sound
a disinterested po**rf which
gain. k would play a crucial role Acco
to spread justici and liberty, not for selfish
powerful voice in the peacesettlement, Fngland, I
in winning the war and would have a
allies, Australasir
and the ,"1."k., nations could be sure that it, unlike its imperialist
there. The U.S. influence at the peace Indi4 Soll
would safeguard their rights
in a new era in which all CFI often r
table would guarantee that the victory would usher
be equal, peoples would determine their own futures, and fiere, thro
nations *oid
Senoe m l
governmentby consentwould replaceautocratic rule.to
u
journalist and rlere also I
The CpI,s Foreign PressBureau, which was headedby the
provided foreign news.oytletl sations [u
Pulitzer prize-winrrirrg oourlist Ernest Poole,
its 'osocial.and lfom in--
with short articles exiolling the virtues of American society:
'otreatment sf workers, Liberia- h
industrial progressr" its schools, its laws, and its
in Tilson's u
women and children."i'The vast majority o{ the CPI's efforts abroad were
Amylca, but Creel's aggressive promo- by the lrc
Europe, and to a lesserextent in Latin
hcal CPI
tion of the progressive\flilsonian messagedid not ignore other regions. Special
bmdm
materials were prepared for use in East Asia, including window displays with
ffiudrc'
texts in Asian larrgo"g., for China, Korea, Japan, and parts of India't' Though '-tyout
State Department diplomats often resented the activities of Creel's agents
I-[pu
abroad sincethey could not control them, for the duration of the war Tflilson's t-t?d
confidence in Creel and his determination to keep control of wartime propa-
En mcfi
gandain his own hands protected the committee from its domestic critics.ts
fffircfih
largely fcpred, r
since it reduced American reliance on the undersea cable network
venues Ibk"v,o rw
controlled by the British. The CPI often sent copy intended for foreign
relayed The rcn r
by wireles, fro* the navy station in Tuckerton, New Jersey,which was
and Paris to various locales in Europe W$rdcnt'r
through receiving stations in London
and into Russia. \flire service in Spanishwent by cables and radio to Mexico S@d b'r d
the uw worfid
and South America for distribution by CPI agents there. In regions where
pornpord Id) aqi '916rd;enuef ur ssarppeaqr to sdepurqrr/N 'rapro plro.4a^\au ar{] eJer{A SU
or{}JoJuorsrnueruoslr/Nar{tJo luauratelsa^rtelrroglnp ue se Id) aql dq pare8 oJrxaw ot o
-edo.rdse^\ tr puu 'r.loga srqt ur tred
]eJluaf, e pedeld 'ue1daread s,luaprsa.rd ado.rngur sa
arit to uortelnf,rtre palretap lsotu aql se 'sluro.1 uoalrnod ar{t Jo }xot aql pa.,{e1a.r
sE^\r
ss*'plJpeygJo LIoPuoTJo aruog Jo slJedse d1a1a1dlrJof, se,,lt Sutntara:rod4o1 sonual u8re;
pue lr€reqeJ r{ll^A 'adorng uI se IIa.^ase ersv ur pateurtrtessrpse/!\ 'pal.roda.r d1e3"ie1
Tro.\\
'aSessaur aq,I (6'sJe>leadss,ealtnuruo)aql r(q pala.rd.ralul plrp sruls ornlrrd seasJa^oqle;
IaaJ)
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6J'SJIJIJJ f,rl
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Jo scuosiraJEn\
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"s.EI
Ieuortsu B Jo sari)aadsaql d"rotsiqur lsry rrl] ro;,, t€qt uoslr6 or patseoq qrrm sleldsip
'916ryo raruurns aqt ur pauado tr rarye req8ueq5 ur r{ruerq
IaarJ Idf letol l el r ad5' suoi
ar{l to oluelsrsse aq} qlr" t osef,retrlel or.[rur 's.ralnag to saqluerq IBJoI aqt dq -ouro"rdalrss:
palnqlrlsrp ere,4a sassorpp€aql'eutq3 pue 'rd.dgg'EIpq u1 'sa8ussorlr s(uoslrl1 ur aJo/!\PEO
Surleurruassrpur aloJ e pedeld osle soiJua8e srvrauleuotteuJatul 'erJaqrT 'sra4,roarr .
1o
puu eisrod ol Ireur Lq saqraadsaql palnqrrlsrp Id) agl 'uortrppe q (.'ur uetsrl puE lllrJos),s:
ot paJrsapsuorlgls JaAatEq.1K,, Lq pue Basle sdrqs,{g uorrdaJJelurJoJ suortels slallno s^.\eu
ssoleJr,^A s.L,r.eueqt lrrory-aiurt eqt re dSolouqtal /v\oup-tsef,puoJq oslB oJa^\ prrElsllsurnot
dtql 'Erraqrsur rrortngrrlsrproJ Tcllso^lpuln pue 'od>1o1'8urfreg ol of,uar{l
pue 'req8ueqsot 'saurddlllr{dorlt ur atr^B) }E uortels L.,reuagf qBno.rql'araqr pue 'sa"rn1n r
ruory pue 'o8erq uus ol IroA /so.NIurory ssalorr.^il dq stxar eqt luas ua4o IdJ IIB r{3Trl^\ur e
aqt 'ersy r{rear ot rapro uI 'epeuel pue 'rdd8E 'eraa;g 'ec1.r1yqrnoq 'e}prll a:Bad aqr tE
'olrxa141'elr;aruy (sa111e
lerluoJ'eu.raruy qtnos'el.raqrg'euFI)'uede['ersele.rlsny tsrlerr
'erssng 'eraeurpuerg 'pue11og 'puelJazlu!\S'ured5 ',{1e11 'alue.rg 'pue18uE 'luaruelllasarr
ot saqraadss.uos1i16peteln)rrr Id) or{t 'sp.rorat u/!\o slr ol Surp;orcy aloJ IETJnJ)€
or{l ur .,{rr1odslef,rrsurv alou.{aI oqt papunos orl^\
esu'tB{t4 1o pue e:readqsr
atl se,^alI,, PUB,,saIIV arp JoJueursa40dsaql se uodn pa>1001 se,{a,,
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 OF THE'wIrSONrRn
Tnp Err'TBRGENCE MO&tE'.I{r
,2

this period
hundreds of thousands of postef copies of the text, both in the original and
tion.6' The
translated into numerous languages,and these were distributed everywhere
powerful th
the committee could reach.te \ffilson's subsequent major addressesreceived
peacebased world affau
similar treatment. By the end of the war, the president'scalls for a
ing for the
on the principles of self-determination and the equality of -"T nations
remained, u
were wiiely familiar to reading publics around the world and helped to
postwar both the wi
shape their expecrationsregarding the nature and possibilities of the
self-determi
international order.
i;i:"::'::
For tl
"\:

-l-he '!(ilson president's r

CpI efforrs to project as the preeminent leader in the interna-
in technologie
I tiorr"l arena gained in force and credibility as the tide of war turned
principles echoed arno
favor of the nlli$ in the summer of r9r8, and $filson's .lvere
for the armistice:uoBy th:"' the phrase anticipation
acceptedby the belligerentsas.the _basis
meanings that far transcended the literal peoples, strr
Fourteen points hal
".romrrlated for many shortirand for the transformation self-determi
content of the text itself, becoming
new langual
of international society along the principles of equalitn self-determination,
this emergir
ancljustice,.Although th* Bolshevikt n"A b**o th. first to call for a peacebased
of that made i
on self-det*r*in"tiln, and though the term itself did not appear in the text
made the term his own by the time of invoke the
rhe Fourteen Points address,\flilson had
eyes of millions for the recq
the armistice, and he had become identified with it in the
alists, who
around world. He had declared repeatedly after February r9r8 that the princi-
internationa
ple of self-determination was central to his vision_of postwar international
the oppornr
so.i*ty, and though his specific referenceswere always located. in Europe,
Paris. Then
Egyptians, Indians, Chinese, Koreans, and others in the colonial world had
liitle doubt that the principle should, and would, apply to them.
W1lson'ssucces$in overshadowing Lenin as the chief icon of self-deter-
if
mination may appear puzzling in retrospect. It is less mysterious, however;
we consider the ielative srature and renown of the two men af the time and
their perceived influence in international affairs. In the colonial world, where
,r.*rpup*rs had few fnreign correspondents,the Bolshevikswere often viewed
through tfueReuters lens (or that of the French Havas Agency) and so usually
appearedin a singularly unattractive light, especially after they left the war in
March rgrgwith the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk. Reports of events in Russia thus
warned of the "Bolshevist peril" spreading "destruction" and facing imminent
defeat by the anti-Bolshevik \X/hite forces. In contrast to nflilson's ubiquitous
presenceand great acclaim in reports on world affairs, L9nin, if named at all,
*u, oft*r, describedas a mysterious, even sinister figure.6l
Moreover, for colonial nationalists,who sought to seizethe opportunity
they perceivedat the peaceconference,the crucial distinction betweenWilson
t.rrin lay in their perceived power to shape a posfi,var settlement
"oi
thar would be favorable to demands for self-determination. The Bolsheviks,
excluded from Paris and mired in civil war, were hardly in a position during
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