Performance of Steam Generators 14

14.1. Evaporative capacity. 14.2. Equivalent evaporation. 14.3. Factor of evaporation. 14.4. Boiler efficiency. 14.5. Heat
losses in a boiler plant—Work Examples. Highlights—Objective Type Questions—Theoretical Questions—Unsolved Examples.

14.1. EVAPORATIVE CAPACITY Let h = Enthalpy of steam per kg under the

generating conditions.
The evaporative capacity of a boiler may be expressed in
terms of :
LM
h = hf + hfg ...... Dry saturated steam at pressure p OP
(i) kg of steam/h MM
h = hf + xhfg ...... Wet steam with dryness fraction x
at pressure p
PP
(ii) kg of steam/h/m2 of heating surface MM
h = hf + hfg + cp (Tsup – Ts) ...... Superheated steam PP
(iii) kg of steam/kg of fuel fired. N
at pressure p and temperature Tsup Q
hf1 = Specific enthalpy of water at a given feed
14.2. EQUIVALENT EVAPORATION temperature.
Then heat gained by the steam from the boiler per
Generally the output or evaporative capacity of the boiler is
unit time
given as kg of water evaporated per hour but as different
boilers generate steam at different pressures and = ma (h – hf1 )
temperatures (from feed water at different temperatures) and The equivalent evaporation (me) from the definition
as such have different amounts of heat ; the number of kg of is obtained as
water evaporated per hour in no way provides the exact
ma (h − hf1 ) ma (h − hf1 )
means for comparison of the performance of the boilers. Hence me = =
to compare the evaporative capacity or performance of hfg 2257
different boilers working under different conditions it ...(14.1)
becomes imperative to provide a common base so that water The evaporation rate of the boiler is also sometimes
given in terms of kg of steam/kg of fuel.
be supposed to be evaporated under standard conditions. The
standard conditions adopted are : Temperature of feed water The presently accepted standard of expressing the
capacity of a boiler is in terms of the total heat added per
100°C and converted into dry and saturated steam at 100°C.
hour.
As per these standard conditions 1 kg of water at 100°C
necessitates 2257 kJ (539 kcal in MKS units) to get converted
to steam at 100°C. 14.3. FACTOR OF EVAPORATION
Thus the equivalent evaporation may be defined It is defined as the ratio of heat received by 1 kg of water
as the amount of water evaporated from water at 100°C to under working conditions to that received by 1 kg of water
dry and saturated steam at 100°C. evaporated from and at 100°C. It is denoted by Fe.
Consider a boiler generating ma kg of steam per hour h − hf1
at a pressure p and temperature T. ∴ Factor of evaporation, Fe = ...(14.2)
2257

341
 342 THERMAL ENGINEERING

14.4. BOILER EFFICIENCY Heat lost through dry flue gases,

Qg = mg cpg (Tg – Ta) ...(14.4)
‘Boiler efficiency’ is the ratio of heat actually utilised in where, mg = Mass of gases formed per kg of coal,
generation of steam to the heat supplied by the fuel in the
cpg = Specific heat of gases,
same period.
Tg = Temperature of the gases, and
ma (h − hf1 )
i.e., Boiler efficiency = ...(14.3) Ta = Temperature of air entering the combustion
C chamber of boiler.
where, ma = Mass of water actually evaporated into steam Heat carried away by the steam in flue gases,
per kg of fuel at the working pressure, and
C = Calorific value of the fuel in kJ/kg. Qs = ms1 ( hs1 – hf1 ) ...(14.5)
If the boiler, economiser, and superheater are
considered as a single unit, then the boiler efficiency is where, ms1 = Mass of steam formed per kg of fuel due to
termed as overall efficiency of the boiler plant. the combustion of H2 in the fuel,
The following are the factors on which the boiler hf1 = Enthalpy of water at boiler house
efficiency depends :
1. Fixed factors. temperature, and
2. Variable factors. hs1 = Enthalpy of steam at the gas temperature and
1. Fixed Factors. These are : partial pressure of steam vapour.
(i) Boiler design. It includes the arrangement and
The heat lost to flue gases can be reduced by passing
effectiveness of the heating surfaces, the shape and volume
the flue gases through the economiser and air preheater.
of the furnace, the arrangement of flues, the arrangement
of steam and water circulation. 2. Heat lost due to incomplete combustion. The
(ii) Heat recovery equipment. It includes the combustion is said to be incomplete if the carbon burns to
economiser, superheater, air preheater and feed water CO instead of CO2. One kg of carbon releases 10120 kJ of
heater. heat if it burns to CO whereas it can release 33800 kJ/kg if
it burns to CO2.
(iii) Built in losses. It includes the heat transfer
properties of the settings and construction materials, flue ∴ Heat loss due to incomplete combustion of 1 kg
gas and ash heat losses. of carbon
(iv) Rated rate of firing, the furnace volume and = 33800 – 10120 = 23680 kJ
heating surface. If CO is present in the flue gases it indicates that
(v) Properties and characteristics of fuel burnt. combustion of fuel is incomplete. If the percentages of CO
2. Variable Factors. These are : and CO2 in flue gases by volume are known, then carbon
(i) Actual firing rate. burnt to CO instead of CO2 per kg of fuel is given by
(ii) Fuel condition as it is fired. CO × C
Mass of carbon burnt to CO = ...(14.6)
(iii) The conditions of heat absorbing surfaces. CO2 + CO
(iv) Excess air fluctuations. where CO and CO2 are expressed as % by volume in flue
(v) Incomplete combustion and combustibles in the gases and C as the fraction of carbon in one kg of fuel.
refuse. ∴ Heat lost due to incomplete combustion of carbon
(vi) Change in draught from the rated, due to per kg of fuel
atmospheric conditions. CO × C
(vii) Humidity and temperature of the combustion air. = × 23680 kJ/kg of fuel.
CO2 + CO
This loss (due to incomplete combustion) can be
14.5. HEAT LOSSES IN A BOILER PLANT reduced by supplying excess quantity of air and giving a
turbulent motion to the air before it enters the furnace in
The following heat losses occur in a boiler plant : order to help the mixing process.
1. Heat lost to flue gases.
3. Heat lost due to unburnt fuel. If mf1 is the
2. Heat lost due to incomplete combustion.
3. Heat lost due to unburnt fuel. mass of unburnt fuel per kg of fuel used and C is the calorific
4. Convection and radiation losses. value of the fuel, then heat lost due to unburnt fuel,
1. Heat lost to flue gases. The flue gases contain Q = mf1 × C ...(14.7)
dry products of combustion as well as the steam generated In case of solid fuels this loss cannot be completely
due to combustion of hydrogen in the fuel. avoided.
 PERFORMANCE OF STEAM GENERATORS 343

4. Convection and radiation losses. As the hot (i) Coal required, kg/kWh :
surfaces of the boiler are exposed to the atmosphere, ms (h − hf1 )
therefore heat is lost to atmosphere by convection and Boiler efficiency is given by, ηboiler =
mf × C
radiation.
...(i)
The loss of heat due to convection and radiation losses
where, mf is the mass of fuel used, kg/kWh
= Heat released per kg of fuel – total of the heat At 45 bar and 350°C. From steam tables,
losses given by eqns. (14.4), (14.5), (14.6) and (14.7).
hsup = 3068.4 kJ/kg
These losses can be reduced by providing heat
insulation on the boiler surface. hf1 (at 150°C) = 1 × 4.18 × (150 – 0) = 627 kJ/kg
Putting these values in eqn. (i), we get
WORKED EXAMPLES
5.4 (3068.4 − 627)
0.82 =
Example 14.1. An oil fuel with a lower calorific value of mf × 28100
44700 kJ is burnt in a boiler with air-fuel ratio as 20 : 1.
5.4 (3068.4 − 627)
Neglecting ash, calculate the maximum temperature attained ∴ mf =
0.82 × 28100
in the furnace of the boiler. Assume that whole of the heat of
= 0.572 kg/kWh. (Ans.)
combustion is given to the products of combustion and their
(ii) Fuel cost/kWh :
average specific heat is 1.08. Take boiler room temperature
The cost of fuel (coal)/kWh = mf in tonnes/kWh ×
as 38°C.
cost/tonne
Solution. L.C.V. of fuel = 44700 kJ
0.572
Air-fuel ratio = 20 : 1 = × 500 × 100
1000
Average specific heat, cpg = 1.08 kJ/kg K
= 28.6 paise /kWh. (Ans.)
Boiler room temperature, T1 = 38 + 273 = 311 K Example 14.3. In a boiler test 1250 kg of coal are consumed
Maximum furnace temperature attained, T2 : in 24 hours. The mass of water evaporated is 13000 kg and
Since the whole of heat is taken by the gases, the mean effective pressure is 7 bar. The feed water
therefore, temperature was 40°C, heating value of coal is 30000 kJ/kg.
The enthalpy of 1 kg of steam at 7 bar is 2570.7 kJ.
Heat of combustion = Heat of gases
Determine :
i.e., 1 × 44700 = mg × cpg × (T2 – T1)
(i) Equivalent evaporation per kg of coal ;
(mg = mass of gases)
(ii) Efficiency of the boiler.
= (20 + 1) × 1.08 (T2 – 311) Solution.
1 × 44700 Quantity of coal consumed in 24 hours = 1250 kg
∴ T2 = + 311 = 2282 K Mass of water evaporated = 13000 kg
( 20 + 1) × 1.08
Mean effective pressure of steam = 7 bar
i.e., T2 = 2282 K or 2009°C. (Ans.)
Feed water temperature = 40°C
Example 14.2. The steam used by the turbine is 5.4 kg/kWh Enthalpy of steam at 7 bar = 2570.7 kJ/kg
at a pressure of 50 bar and a temperature of 350°C. The Heating value of coal, C = 30000 kJ/kg
efficiency of boiler is 82 per cent with feed water at 150°C. (i) Equivalent evaporation per kg of coal, me :
(i) How many kg of 28100 kJ coal are required/kWh ? Mass of water actually evaporated per kg of fuel,
(ii) If the cost of coal/tonne is ` 500, what is fuel cost/ 13000
kWh ? ma = = 10.4 kg
1250
Solution. Mass of steam used, ms = 5.4 kg/kWh Heat required to produce 1 kg of steam
Pressure of steam, p = 50 bar
= h – hf1 = 2570.7 – 1 × 4.18 × (40 – 0)
Temperature of steam, tsup = 350°C
= 2403.5 kJ
Boiler efficiency = 82%
Feed water temperature = 150°C ma (h − hf1 )
Now, me = [Refer eqn. (14.1)]
Calorific value of coal, C = 28100 kJ hfg
Cost of coal/tonne = ` 500 10.4 × 2403.5
= = 11.075 kg. (Ans.)
2257
 344 THERMAL ENGINEERING

(ii) Efficiency of boiler, ηboiler : (iii) Efficiency of boiler, ηboiler :

ma (h − hf1 ) 10.4 × 2403.5 ma (h − hf1 )

ηboiler = = ηboiler =
C 30000 C
= 0.833 or 83.3%. (Ans.) 10 × 2359.65
=
+Example 14.4. The following readings were obtained
33400
= 0.7065 or 70.65%. (Ans.)
during a boiler trial of 6 hours duration.
Mean steam pressure = 12 bar ; mass of steam Example 14.5. A steam generator evaporates 18000 kg/h of
steam at 12.5 bar and a quality of 0.97 from feed water at
generated = 40000 kg ; mean dryness fraction = 0.85 ; mean
105°C, when coal is fired at the rate of 2040 kg/h. If the
feed water temperature = 30°C, coal used = 4000 kg. Calorific
higher calorific value of the coal is 27400 kJ/kg, find :
value of coal = 33400 kJ/kg. Calculate :
(i) The heat rate of boiler in kJ/h ;
(i) Factor of equivalent evaporation ;
(ii) Equivalent evaporation from and at 100°C ; (ii) The equivalent evaporation ;
(iii) Efficiency of the boiler. (iii) The thermal efficiency.
Solution. Mean steam pressure, p = 12 bar Solution.
Mass of steam generated = 4000 kg Steam generated, m = 18000 kg/h
Mean dryness fraction, x = 0.85 Steam pressure, p = 12.5 bar
Quality of steam, x = 0.97
Mean feed water temperature = 30°C
Feed water temperature = 105°C
Coal used = 4000 kg
Rate of coal firing, mf = 2040 kg/h
Calorific value of coal, C = 33400 kJ/kg
Higher calorific value (H.C.V.) of coal,
From steam tables, corresponding to 12 bar :
C = 27400 kJ/kg
hf = 798.4 kJ/kg, hfg = 1984.3 kJ/kg
(i) Heat rate of boiler :
Now, h = hf + x hfg = 798.4 + 0.85 × 1984.3
At 12.5 bar : From steam tables,
= 2485.05 kJ/kg
hf = 806.7 kJ/kg, hfg = 1977.4 kJ/kg
Heat of feed water, hf1 = 1 × 4.18 × (30 – 0) ∴ h = hf + xhfg = 806.7 + 0.97 × 1977.4
= 125.4 kJ/kg = 2724.78 kJ/kg
Total net heat given to produce 1 kg of steam hf1 (heat of feed water) = 1 × 4.18 × (105 – 0)
= h – hf1 = 2485.05 – 125.4 = 438.9 kJ/kg
= 2359.65 kJ/kg. Heat rate of the boiler = Heat supplied per hour
(i) Factor of equivalent evaporation, Fe : = m(h – hf ) = 18000 (2724.78 – 438.9)
1

h − hf1
2359.65 = 4.1146 × 107 kJ/h. (Ans.)
Fe = =
2257 2257 (ii) Equivalent evaporation, me :
= 1.045. (Ans.)
ma (h − hf1 )
(ii) Equivalent evaporation from and at 100°C, me =
2257
me :
18000
ma (h − hf1 ) where, ma = = 8.823 kg/kg of fuel
2040
me =
2257 8.823 ( 2724.78 − 438.9)
∴ me =
2257
40000 = 8.936 kg of steam/kg of fuel. (Ans.)
But, ma =
4000 (iii) Thermal efficiency ηthermal :
= 10 kg/kg of fuel m (h − hf1 )
ηthermal =
10 × 2359.65 mf × C
∴ me =
2257
18000 ( 2724.78 − 438.9 )
= 10.45 kg of steam/kg of coal. =
2040 × 27400
(Ans.)
= 0.7361 or 73.61%. (Ans.)
 PERFORMANCE OF STEAM GENERATORS 345
Also, mass of water evaporated/hour/kg of coal burnt
+Example 14.6. The following data refer to a boiler plant
consisting of an economiser, a boiler and a superheater. 5940
= = 8.8 kg
Mass of water evaporated per hour = 5940 kg, mass 675
of coal burnt per hour = 675 kg, L.C.V. of coal = 31600 kJ/kg, (i) Percentage of heat utilised in economiser
pressure of steam at boiler stop valve = 14 bar, temperature 346.9
of feed water entering the economiser = 32°C, temperature = × 8.8 × 100 = 9.66%. (Ans.)
31600
of feed water leaving the economiser = 115°C, dryness fraction
Percentage of heat utilised in boiler
of steam leaving the boiler and entering superheater = 0.96,
temperature of steam leaving the superheater = 260°C, 2362.6
= × 8.8 × 100 = 65.7%. (Ans.)
specific heat of superheated steam = 2.33. Determine : 31600
(i) Percentage of heat in coal utilised in economiser, Percentage of heat utilised in superheater
boiler and superheater ; 227.8
= × 8.8 × 100 = 6.34%. (Ans.)
(ii) Overall efficiency of boiler plant. 31600
Solution. (ii) Overall efficiency of boiler plant, ηoverall :
Mass of water evaporated = 5940 kg/h Total heat absorbed in kg of water
Mass of coal burnt = 675 kg/h = hf1 + hboiler + hsuperheater
Lower calorific value of coal = 31600 kJ/kg
= 346.9 + 2362.6 + 227.8 = 2937.3 kJ/kg
Pressure of steam at boiler stop
valve, p1 = 14 bar 8.8 × 2937.3
ηoverall =
Temperature of feed water 31600
= 0.8179 or 81.79%. (Ans.)
entering the economiser, te1 = 32°C
Example 14.7. The following observations were made
Temperature of feed water leaving during the trial of a boiler plant consisting of a battery of
the economiser, te2 = 115°C 6 Lancashire boilers and an economiser :
Dryness fraction of steam entering Calorific value of coal/kg = 29915 kJ
superheater = 0.96 Mass of feed water per kg of
Temperature of steam leaving the dry coal = 9.1 kg
superheater, tsup = 260°C Equivalent evaporation from
Specific heat of superheated and at 100°C per kg of dry coal = 9.6 kg
steam, cp = 2.3 kJ/kg K Temperature of feed water to
Heat utilised by 1 kg of feed water in economiser economiser = 12°C
Temperature of feed water
hf1 = 1 × 4.18 × ( te2 – te1 ) to boiler = 105°C
= 1 × 4.18 × (115 – 32) Air temperature = 13°C
= 346.9 kJ/kg Temperature of the flue gases
entering economiser = 370°C
Heat utilised in boiler per kg of feed water
Mass of flue gases entering
hboiler = (hf + xhfg) – hf1 the economiser = 18.2 kg/kg of coal
Mean specific heat of flue
At 14 bar pressure. From steam tables,
gases = 1.046 kJ/kg°C
ts = 195°C, hf = 830.1 kJ/kg, hfg
Find :
= 1957.7 kJ/kg
(i) The efficiency of the boiler alone.
∴ hboiler = (830.1 + 0.96 × 1957.7) – 346.9 (ii) The efficiency of the economiser alone.
= 2362.6 kJ/kg (iii) The efficiency of the whole boiler plant.
Heat utilised in superheater by 1 kg of feed water, Solution. Boiler efficiency
hsuperheater = (1 – x) hfg + cp (Tsup – Ts) Heat supplied for steam generation
= (1 – 0.96) × 1957.7 = 9.6 × 2257 = 21667 kJ
+ 2.3 (260 – 195) 21667
(i) Boiler efficiency =
= 78.3 + 149.5 = 227.8 kJ/kg 29915
= 0.724 or 72.4%. (Ans.)
 346 THERMAL ENGINEERING

(ii) Efficiency of economiser: Thermal efficiency of boiler and grate combined

Heat in the flue gases, per kg of dry coal entering
economiser 2000
( 2776.2 − 459.8 )
= 18.2 × 1.046 × (370 – 13) = 225
30100
= 6796.3 kJ
Heat utilised in economiser = 0.684 or 68.4%. (Ans.)
= 9.1 × 4.184 × (105 – 12) +Example 14.9. A boiler generates 7.5 kg of steam per kg
= 3540.9 kJ
of coal burnt at a pressure of 11 bar, from feed water having
3540.9 a temperature of 70°C. The efficiency of boiler is 75% and
∴ Efficiency of economiser =
6796.3 factor of evaporation 1.15, specific heat of steam at constant
= 0.521 or 52.1%. (Ans.) pressure is 2.3.
(iii) Boiler plant efficiency: Calculate :
Total heat utilisation
(i) Degree of superheat and temperature of steam
= 21667 + 3540.9 generated ;
= 25207.9 kJ
(ii) Calorific value of coal in kJ/kg ;
25207.9 (iii) Equivalent evaporation in kg of steam per kg of
∴ Boiler plant efficiency =
299.15 coal.
= 0.842 or 84.2%. (Ans.) Solution.
Example 14.8. A boiler produces 200 kg of dry and saturated Steam generated per kg of coal, ma = 7.5 kg
steam per hour at 10 bar and feed water is heated by an Steam pressure, p = 11 bar
economiser to a temperature of 110°C. 225 kg of coal of a Temperature of feed water = 70°C
calorific value of 30100 kJ/kg are fired per hour. If 10% of Efficiency of boiler = 75%
coal remains unburnt, find the thermal efficiency of the boiler
Factor of evaporation, Fe = 1.15
and boiler and grate combined.
Specific heat of steam, cps = 2.3 kJ/kg K
Solution.
(i) Degree of superheat and temperature of
Rate of production of steam = 2000 kg/h
steam generated :
Quality of steam, x=1
At 11 bar. From steam tables :
Steam pressure, p = 10 bar
hf = 781.1 kJ/kg, hfg = 1998.5 kJ/kg,
Feed water temperature rise = 110°C
ts = 184.1°C (Ts = 273 + 184.1 = 457.1 K)
Rate of coal firing = 225 kg/h
Factor of evaporation,
Calorific value of coal = 30100 kJ/kg
Percentage of coal unburnt = 10% [{hf + hfg + c ps (Tsup − Ts )} − hf1 ]
Fe =
From steam tables, corresponding to 10 bar : h = hg 2257
= 2776.2 kJ/kg [781.1 + 1998.5 + 2.3 (Tsup − 4571
. )
Heat contained in 1 kg of feed water before entering − 1 × 4.18 × (70 − 0)]
the boiler, 1.15 =
2257
hf1 = 1 × 4.18 × (110 – 0) = 459.8 kJ 2779 . 6 + 2. 3 (Tsup − 457 . 1) − 292 . 6
=
Total heat given to produce 1 kg of steam in boiler 2257
= h – hf1 = 2776.2 – 459.8 = 2316.4 kJ/kg 2487 + 2 . 3 (Tsup − 457 . 1)
=
2257
90
Mass of coal actually burnt = 225 × = 202.5 kg ∴ (Tsup – 457.1) = (1.15 × 2257 – 2487)/2.3
100
Mass of steam produced per kg of coal (actually = 47.2
2000 i.e., Tsup = 504.3 K. (Ans.)
burnt), ma = = 9.87 kg
202.5 Degree of superheat
Thermal efficiency of the boiler
= (Tsup – Ts) = 504.3 – 457.1
ma (h − hf1 )9.87 ( 2776.2 − 459.8)
= = = 47.2°C. (Ans.)
C 30100
= 0.759 or 75.9%. (Ans.)
 PERFORMANCE OF STEAM GENERATORS 347

(ii) Calorific value of coal, C : (i) Efficiency of boiler plant including

Boiler efficiency superheater
ma (h − hf1 ) ma ( hsup − hf1 )
= =
C C

ma [{hf + hfg + c ps (Tsup − Ts )} − hf1 ] LMDry coal = 410 – 410 × 4.5 OP

0.75 =
C MM 100
PP
N = 391.55 kg Q
7.5 [{781.1 + 1998.5 + 2.3 (504.3 − 457.1) 3000
− 1 × 4.18 × (70 − 0)] ( 2947.1 − 355.3)
0.75 = = 391.55
C 30500
= 0.651 or 65.1%. (Ans.)
7.5 ( 2888.16 − 292.6) 19466.7
= = (ii) Efficiency of the boiler and furnace
C C combined
19466.7 9.6
∴ C= = 25955 kJ/kg Combustible in ash per hour = 40 × = 3.84 kg
0.75 100
i.e., Calorific value of coal = 25955 kJ/kg. (Ans.) The combustible present in ash is practically carbon
(iii) Equivalent evaporation me : and its value may be taken as 33860 kJ/kg.
Heat actually supplied per hour
ma (h − hf1 ) 7.5 ( 2888.16 − 292.6)
me = = = Heat of dry coal – heat of combustible in the ash
2257 2257
= 391.55 × 30500 – 3.84 × 33860 = 11812253 kJ
= 8.625 kg. (Ans.) Heat usefully utilised in the boiler per hour

+Example 14.10. During the trial of water tube boiler the = 3000(hsup – hf1 ) = 3000 (2947.1 – 355.3)
following data were obtained : = 7775400 kJ.
Steam pressure, p = 13 bar Efficiency of the boiler and furnace combined
Degree of superheat = 77°C Heat usefully utilised in boiler per hour
Temperature of feed water = 85°C =
Heat actually supplied per hour
Water evaporated = 3000 kg per hour
7775400
Coal fired = 410 kg per hour = = 0.658 or 65.8%. (Ans.)
11812253
Ash = 40 kg per hour
Percentage of combustible Example 14.11. The following data were taken during the
test on a boiler for a period of one hour :
in ash = 9.6%
Steam generated = 5000 kg ; coal burnt = 700 kg,
Moisture in coal = 4.5%
calorific value of coal = 31402 kJ/kg, quality of steam = 0.92.
Calorific value of dry coal/kg = 30500 kJ/kg.
If the boiler pressure is 1.2 MPa and the feed water
Determine : temperature is 45°C, find the boiler equivalent evaporation
(i) The efficiency of the boiler plant including and the efficiency. (N.U.)
superheater.
Solution.
(ii) The efficiency of the boiler and furnace combined.
Rate of steam production = 5000 kg/h
Take specific heat of superheated steam = 2.1 kJ/kg K.
Rate of coal firing = 700 kg/h
Solution. At 13 bar. From steam tables :
Calorific value of coal, C = 31402 kJ/kg
ts = 191.6°C, hf = 814.7 kJ/kg, hfg
= 1970.7 kJ/kg Quality of steam, x = 0.92
h = hsup = hf + hfg + cps (Tsup – Ts) Boiler pressure, p = 1.2 MPa or 12 bar
= 814.7 + 1970.7 + 2.1 × 77 = 2947.1 kJ/kg Feed water temperature = 45°C
Equivalent evaporation, me :
Also hf1 = 1 × 4.18 × (85 – 0) = 355.3 kJ/kg
From steam tables, corresponding to 12 bar :
∴ Total heat supplied to produce 1 kg of steam hf = 798.4 kJ/kg, hfg = 1984.3 kJ/kg
= hsup – hf1 = 2947.1 – 355.3 = 2591.8 kJ/kg. Now, h = hf + xhfg = 798.4 + 0.92 × 1984.3
= 2623.96 kJ/kg
 348 THERMAL ENGINEERING

Heat of feed water,

ms (hsup − hf1 )
=
hf1 = 1 × 4.18 × 45 = 188.1 kJ/kg m×C
∴ Equivalent evaporation,
100000 (3373.7 − 677) 12841.4
ma (h − hf1 ) or 0.88 = 3 =
me = m × 21 × 10 m
2257
12841.4
5000 or m= = 14592.5 kg/h. (Ans.)
0.88
where, ma = = 7.143 kg/kg of coal
700 (ii) The percentage of total heat absorbed in
economiser, evaporator and superheater :
7.143 ( 2623.96 − 188.1) Total heat supplied to steam formation = 3373.7
∴ me =
2257 – 677 = 2696.7 kJ/kg
= 7.709 kg of steam/kg of coal. (Ans.) Heat absorbed in economiser
Boiler efficiency, ηboiler : 1407.65 − 677
=
ma (h − hf1 ) 7.143 ( 2623.96 − 188.1) 2696.7
ηboiler = = = 0.2709 or 27.09%. (Ans.)
C 31402 Heat absorbed in evaporator
= 0.554 or 55.4%. (Ans). 2724.7 − 1407.65
=
Example 14.12. A steam generator delivers steam at 2696.7
100 bar, 500°C (enthalpy, h = 3373.7 kJ/kg). The feed water = 0.4884 or 48.84%. (Ans.)
inlet temperature is 160°C (h = 677 kJ/kg). The enthalpies Heat absorbed in superheater
of saturated liquid and saturated vapour at 100 bar are 3373.7 − 2724.7
=
1407.65 and 2724.7 kJ/kg respectively. The steam generation 2696.7
rate is 100000 kg/h and the steam generator efficiency is = 0.2407 or 24.07%. (Ans.)
88%. Estimate : Example 14.13. Calculate the efficiency of boiler and
(i) The fuel burning rate in kg/h, if calorific value of economiser having following data :
fuel is 21 MJ/kg ; (i) Boiler
(ii) The percentage of total heat absorbed in the Mass of feed water = 2060 kg/hour
economiser, evaporator and superheater. Mass of coal supplied = 227 kg/hour
Assume that only latent heat is absorbed in the Calorific value of coal = 30000 kJ/kg
evaporator and neglect any pressure drop. Enthalpy of steam produced = 2750 kJ/kg
(Roorkee University) Enthalpy of feed water = 398 kJ/kg
Solution. Enthalpy of steam (at 100 bar, 500°C), (ii) Economiser
hsup = 3373.7 kJ/kg Temperature of feed water at inlet = 15°C
Enthalpy of feed water (at inlet temperature 160°C), Temperature of feed water at exit = 95°C
hf1 = 677 kJ/kg Atmospheric temperature = 18°C
Temperature of entering flue gases = 370°C
Enthalpy of saturated liquid at 100 bar,
Mass of flue gases = 4075 kg/hour.
hf = 1407.65 kJ/kg
(AMIE)
Enthalpy of saturated vapour at 100 bar,
Solution. (i) Efficiency of boiler, ηboiler :
hg = 2724.7 kJ/kg
Rate of steam generation, ms = 100000 kg/h Mass rate of feed
Efficiency of steam generator, ηgen. = 88% RS
enthalpy − enthalpy of UV
Calorific value of fuel, ηboiler =
water ×
T
of steam feed water W
Mass rate of coal × C.V .
C = 21 MJ/kg (or 21 × 103 kJ/kg)
(i) Fuel burning rate, m : 2060 ( 2750 − 398)
=
227 × 30000
Heat absorbed by steam per hour
ηgen. = = 0.7115 or 71.15%. (Ans.)
Heat added by fuel per hour
 PERFORMANCE OF STEAM GENERATORS 349

(ii) Efficiency of economiser, ηeco. : Heat of feed water,

Mass rate of feed hf1 = 1 × 4.18 × (50 – 0)
water × c pw × (tw , out − tw , in )
ηeco. = = 209 kJ/kg
Mass rate of flue
gases × c pg × (tg , in − tg , out ) Equivalent evaporation from and at 100°C, me :
ma (h − hf1 )
2060 × 4.187 (95 − 15) me =
= 2257
4075 × 1.01 × (370 − 18)
(Assume cpg = 1.01 kJ/kg°C) 4800
But ma =
= 0.476 or 47.6%. (Ans.) 600
= 8 kg/kg of fuel
Example 14.14. In a boiler test the following data were
recorded : 8 ( 2642.13 − 209)
∴ me =
Mean temperature of feed water = 50°C 2257
Mean boiler pressure = 5 bar = 8.624 kg of steam/kg of coal. (Ans.)
Dryness fraction of steam = 0.95 Steam
Coal consumption = 600 kg/hour 5 bar,
Calorific value of coal = 30400 kJ/kg 0.95 dry

Feed water supplied to boiler = 4800 kg/hour

Determine equivalent evaporation of boiler from and
at 100°C. (P.U.)
Solution. Given : p = 5 bar, x = 0.95, C = 30400 kJ/kg Boiler
From steam tables, corresponding to 5 bar :
hf = 640.1 kJ/kg, hfg = 2107.4 kJ/kg
Now, h = hf + xhfg
= 640.1 + 0.95 × 2107.4 = 2642.13 kJ/kg
Feed water
at 50°C
Fig. 14.1

HIGHLIGHTS

1. The evaporative capacity of a boiler may be expressed in

ma (h − hf1 )
terms of : i.e., ηboiler = .
(i) kg of steam/h ; (ii) kg of steam/h-m2 of heating surface ; C
and (iii) kg of steam/kg of fuel fired. 5. Heat losses in a boiler plant are : (i) Heat lost to gases ;
2. Equivalent evaporation may be defined as the amount of (ii) Heat lost due to incomplete combustion ; (iii) Heat
water evaporated from water at 100°C to dry and lost due to unburnt fuel ; and (iv) Convection and radiant
saturated steam at 100°C. loss.
ma (h − hf1 )
i.e., me = . OBJECTIVE TYPE QUESTIONS
2257
3. Factor of evaporation is defined as the ratio of heat Say ‘Yes’ or ‘No’
received by 1 kg of water under working conditions to
1. Evaporative capacity of a boiler may be expressed in
that received by 1 kg of water evaporated from and at
terms of kg of steam per kg of fuel fired.
100°C.
2. Equivalent evaporation may be defined as the amount of
h − hf1 water evaporated from water at 90°C to dry and saturated
i.e., Fe = .
2257 steam at 100°C.
4. Boiler efficiency is the ratio of heat actually utilised in
h − hf1
generation of steam to the heat supplied by the fuel in 3. Factor of evaporation = .
the same period. 2557
350 THERMAL ENGINEERING

4. Boiler efficiency 5. A boiler with superheater generates 600 kg/hour of steam

Heat actually utilised in generation of steam at 15 bar and 0.98 dryness. The boiler exit temperature
= . is 300°C. The feed water temperature is 80°C. The overall
Heat supplied by the fuel
efficiency of the plant is 85%.
5. Boiler efficiency depends only on fixed factors.
(i) Determine the coal consumption rate if calorific value
of coal is 30000 kJ/kg.
ANSWERS (ii) Find the equivalent evaporation from and at 100°C.
(iii) What will be the area of superheater surface if the
1. Yes 2. No 3. No 4. Yes overall heat transfer co-efficient is 450000 kJ/m2 h ?
5. Yes. [Ans. 646 kg/h, 7200 kg/h, 3.86 m2]
6. During a boiler trial the following observations were
THEORETICAL QUESTIONS made :
Duration of trial = 1 hour ; steam generated = 35500 kg ;
1. What do you mean by ‘Evaporative capacity’ of a boiler ?
steam pressure = 12 bar ; steam temperature = 250°C ;
How is it expressed ?
temperature of water entering economiser = 17°C,
2. Define and explain the ‘Equivalent evaporation’.
temperature of water leaving economiser = 77°C ; oil
3. Define the term ‘Factor of evaporation’.
burnt = 3460 kg ; calorific value of oil = 39500 kJ/kg.
4. How is ‘Boiler efficiency’ defined ? Calculate :
5. Enumerate the heat losses which occur in a boiler plant.
(i) Equivalent evaporation per kg of fuel.
(ii) Thermal efficiency of plant.
UNSOLVED EXAMPLES
(iii) Percentage heat energy of the fuel energy utilised by
1. 8 kg of steam is produced at 14 bar and 0.95 dryness in a the economiser.
boiler fed with water at 39°C, per kg of coal consumed. [Ans. (i) 13.02 kg, (ii) 74.4%, (iii) 6.52%]
Determine the equivalent evaporation from and at 100°C. 7. In a boiler trial of one hour duration the following
[ Ans. 8.96 kg/kg of coal] observations were made :
2. A boiler with superheater generates 6000 kg/hour of Steam generated = 5250 kg ; coal burnt = 695 kg ; calorific
steam at 15 bar and 0.8 dryness. The boiler exit value of coal = 30200 kJ/kg ; dryness fraction of steam
temperature is 300°C. The feed water temperature is = 0.94 ; rated pressure of the boiler = 12 bar ; temperature
80°C. The overall efficiency of the plant is 85%. Determine of steam leaving the superheater = 240°C ; temperature of
the consumption rate, assuming a calorific value of hot well = 47°C.
30000 kJ/kg. Also find the equivalent evaporation from Calculate : (i) Equivalent evaporation per kg of fuel
and at 100°C. What will be the area of superheater surface without superheater.
if the overall heat transfer co-efficient is 450000 kJ/m2-h ?
(ii) Equivalent evaporation per kg of coal with superheater.
[Ans. 646 kg/h, 7200 kg/h, 3.86 m2] (iii) Thermal efficiency of the boiler without superheater.
3. A boiler generates 45000 kg/hour of steam at 18 bar the (iv) Thermal efficiency of boiler with superheater.
steam temperature being 325°C. The feed water (v) Heat supplied by the superheater per hour. Take cp
temperature is 49.2°C. The efficiency of the boiler is 80%. of steam as 2.184.
When using oil of calorific value 44500 kJ/kg, the steam
[Ans. (i) 8.26 kg/kg of fuel, (ii) 9.04 kg/kg of fuel,
generated is supplied to a turbine developing 500 kW,
(iii) 61.7%, (iv) 67.53%, (v) 1.22 × 105 kJ/h]
and exhausting at 1.8 bar, the dryness of exhaust steam
0.98. Calculate the oil burnt per hour and turbine 8. A boiler is provided with an economiser and a superheater.
efficiency. Also find the energy available in the exhaust The steam is generated at 21 bar and 0.97 dry. This steam
steam above 49.4°C. [Ans. 2448.8 kJ/kg] is passed on to a superheater and it leaves the superheater
4. 5400 kg of steam is produced per hour at a pressure of at 250°C. Feed water is supplied to the economiser at 38°C
7.5 bar in a boiler with feed water at 41.5°C. The dryness and leaves the economiser at 77°C. The quantity of feed
fraction of steam at exit is 0.98. The amount of coal burnt water supplied is 10 kg/kg of fuel which has a calorific
per hour is 670 kg of calorific value 31000 kJ/kg. value of 32600 kJ/kg. Determine :
Determine : (i) Efficiency of the entire boiler plant.
(i) The boiler efficiency. (ii) Percentage of heat received in the economiser
(ii) Equivalent evaporation. (iii) Percentage of heat received in the superheater.
[Ans. 66.2%, 9.12 kg/kg of coal] [Ans. (i) 88.9%, (ii) 5.6%, (iii) 3.4%]
PERFORMANCE OF STEAM GENERATORS 351

9. The following observations were made during a boiler 10. Compare the thermal efficiency of two boilers for which
trial : the data is given below :
Mass of feed water = 1520 kg/h ; temperature of feed water Boiler 1 Boiler 2
= 30°C ; steam pressure = 8.5 bar ; steam temperature Steam pressure 14 bar 14 bar
= 172.9°C ; dryness fraction of steam = 0.95 ; coal burnt
Steam produced per kg
= 200 kg/hour ; calorific value of coal = 27200 kJ/kg ;
of coal fired 10 kg 14 kg
ash and unburnt coal collected = 16 kg/hour, calorific
Quality of steam 0.9 dry superheated to 240°C
value of ash and unburnt coal = 2720 kJ/kg ; mass of
flue gases = 17.3 kg/kg of coal, temperature of flue gases Feed water temperature 27°C 27°C
= 330°C ; boiler room temperature = 18°C ; cp for gases Calorific value of fuel 34000 kJ/kg 46000 kJ/kg
= 1.006 kJ/kg °C. Specific heat of feed water is 4.18 kJ/kg K and specific heat of
steam is 2.1 kJ/kg K.
Calculate the boiler efficiency. [Ans. 70%]
Which boiler is more efficient ?
[Ans. ηboiler 1 = 73%, ηboiler 2 = 79.5%]